Work of the sea and development of the related landform

Parin Shah LA 8808

Ocean waters
The area of the earth is about 510 million sq. kms. Of this total, approximately 360 million sq.
kms or 71 percent, are represented by the ocean and marginal seas. The remaining 29 percent,
150 million sq. kms is represented by the continents, which protrude from the water like
enormous islands. That is the reason the earth is sometimes called ‘the water planet’.

The continents and oceans are not evenly divided between Northern and Southern
hemispheres. Nearly 61% of the surface is water in Northern hemisphere, while about 39% is
land. In the Southern hemisphere 81% of the surface is water and only 19% is land. That is the
reason Northern hemisphere is called the Continental(land) hemisphere and the Southern
hemisphere the Oceanic (water) hemisphere.

I. Continental Hemisphere II. Oceanic Hemisphere

Ocean currents
The drag exerted by winds blowing steadily across the ocean causes the surface layer of the
water to move. Although winds are important in generating surface currents, other factors also
influence the movement of ocean waters.
Marine climates are influenced by ocean currents, streams of water within the oceans that move
in regular patterns. In general, warm ocean currents carry warm water from the tropics toward
the poles. Cold currents bring cold water from the polar zones to near the equator. The surface
of the water warms or cools the air above it. The warmed or cooled air then moves to nearby
land. So a warm current brings warm air to the land it touches. A cold current brings cool air.

Ocean currents

Deep- ocean circulation

Deep-ocean circulation is governed by gravity and driven by density differences. Density is in
turn dependent on the temperature and salinity of the water. Sea water becomes denser with
decreased temperature and increased salinity. Because of this dependence, deep water
circulation is sometimes referred to as thermohaline circulation. Thermohaline circulation is very
slow. After leaving the surface of the ocean, waters will not reappear at the surface for an
average of 500-2000 years.

A schematic showing the ocean "conveyor belt", where surface waters sink, enter deep water circulation, then
resurface after slowly flowing through the deep ocean.
Tides
Tides are periodic changes in the elevation of the ocean surface at a specific location.

• Tides are essentially due to the passage around the Earth, as it rotates, of two antipodal
bulges of water produced bythe differential attraction of the moon and sun.

• Tides are affected by

1. The Earth’s rotation
2. The great continental obstructions met with during their circuit of the globe.
3. Friction against the sea floor, especiallyin the shallow seas.

Spring tides
The effect of the sun is similar to that of the moon but considerably less powerful. When the
Earth, moon and sun fall along the same straight line, the tide raising forces of sun and moon
help each other, and tides of maximum, known as spring tides, result.

Relationship of the moon and sun to the earth during Spring tides

Neap tides
When the sun and moon are at right angles relative to the Earth, the moon produces high tides
where the sun produces low. The tides are then less high and low than usual and are called
neap tides.

Relationship of the moon and sun to the earth during Neap tides
Waves
The water of the ocean is constantly in motion. The restless nature of the water is most
noticeable along the shore – the dynamic interface between land and sea. The waves seen on
the sea are almost entirelydue to the sweeping of winds over the surface of the water.

A wave is the transmission of energy through a medium: it is not the

transmission of material. Therefore, when a wave passes, materials are
temporarily displaced, but they soon return to their original position;
consider the transmission of a wave through a rope. Such waves are
known as waves of oscillation. Oceanic waves are confined to the
surface at the air-water interface, and particles of water undergo a
circular displacement.

Image showing example of Characteristics of a wave

waves of oscillation

Wave Measurements
Wave length - the horizontal distance from crest to crest – or from trough to trough.
Wave height - the vertical distance from the trough to the crest of a wave.
Wave base - the maximum depth to which wave motion extends, generally 1/2 of the wave
length distance.
Wave period - the time interval between the passage of successive crests at a stationarypoint.

Wave Genesis
The force of wind blowing across the waters surface creates the majority of waves. Larger
waves are created when there is a longer distance (fetch) over which the wind can blow, and
when the winds are stronger.

Typically the largest waves are formed by hurricanes or other storms. Tsunamis are formed by
large movements under the ocean, frequently earthquakes, but also underwater "land slides";
they are typically much larger than other types of waves.

Formation of a Tsunami wave

As long as a wave is in deep water it is unaffected by water depth. When a wave approaches
the shore the water becomes shallower and influences wave behavior. The wave begins to ‘feel
bottom’ at water depth equal to about one-half its wave length.
As the wave continues to advance toward the shore, the slightly faster waves catch up
decreasing the wave length. As the speed and length of the wave diminish, the wave steadily
grows higher. Finally a critical point is reaches when the steep wave form is unable to support
the wave, and it collapses, or breaks. What had been a wave of oscillation now becomes a
wave of translation in which the water advances up the shore. The turbulent water created by
breaking waves is called surf.

Movement of water particles with the passage of a wave

Changes that occur when wave moves onto shore

Wave refraction
Most waves approach a shoreline at an angle. When they reach shallow water of a smoothly
sloping bottom, however, they are bent and tend to become parallel to the shore. Such bending
of waves is called refraction.
Due to refraction, wave impact is concentrated against the sides and ends of headlands
projecting in to the water, while wave attack is weakened in bays. Since the waves reach the
shallow water in front of the headland sooner than they do in adjacent bays, they are bent more
nearly parallel to the protruding land and strike it from all three sides. This wave refraction
causes headlands to be eroded and coves to receive deposition. Over a period of time the
effect of this process is to straighten irregular coastlines.

Wave refraction along an irregular shoreline.

Beach Drift and long-shore currents
Although waves are refracted, most still reach the shore at an angle, however slight.
Consequently, the up-brush of water from each breaking wave is oblique. Nevertheless the
backflow is straight down the slope of the beach. The effect of this pattern of water movement is
to transport particles of sediment in a zigzag pattern along the beach, this movement is called
beach drift. Beach drift, can transport sand and pebbles hundreds or even thousands of mts
each day.

Oblique waves also produce currents with the surf zone that flow parallel to the shore, this
currents are known as long-shore currents.

Beach drift, caused by the upbrush of water from

oblique waves.

Wave refraction at Sitges, Barcelona

The impact of the rock islets at Sitges: refraction

hasled to beach erosion
Marine erosion

The sea operates as an agent of erosion in four different ways:

1.By hydraulic action – it involves the picking up of loose material by currents and waves, and
shattering of rocks as the waves crash, like giant water hammers, against the cliffs.

2.By corrasion – When waves, armed with rock fragments, hurl them against the cliffs and, co-
operating with currents, drag them to and fro across the rocks of the foreshore.

3.By attrition – the fragments or tools are themselves worn down byimpact and friction.

4.By corrosion – solvent and chemical action, on limestones and rocks with a calcareous
cement.

Wave erosion occurs when sediments are caught into the rotational motion of passing waves, or
when sediments are driven shoreward by breaking waves. In this way, unconsolidated
sediments can simply be washed away, but the entrained particles can also abrade solid
bedrock over time.

Alternate wetting and drying of rock encourages weathering processes, such as chemical attack
by hydration and oxidation and physical disintegration in response to salt crystal growth. Frost
action is important on polar coasts. Finally, softer and calcareous rocks surfaces will be
weathered bychemical secretions of shore flora and fauna.

Wave cut platforms and cliffs

The destructive impact of breakers against obstructions is often far greater than generally
realized. Cracks and crevices are quickly opened up and extended. Water, often in the form of
high – pressure spray, is forcibly driven into every opening, tightly compressing the air already
confined within the rocks. As each wave recedes, the compressed air suddenly expands with
explosive force, and large blocks as well as small become loosened and are sooner or later
blown out bodily, by pressure from the back. The combined activity of bombardment and
blasting is most effective as a quarrying process on rocks that are already divided into blocks
by jointing and bedding, or otherwise fractured along faults and crush zones.

When rock is exposed at the shore, the first erosional feature to form is a wave-cut notch,
caused by the breaking of waves against the rock. As this notch is undercut more deeply into
the rock, large pieces of the rock are undermined and may fall off into the ocean. This forms a
sea cliff and provides larger fragments to abrade the rock.

Wave cut plat-form and sea cliff Wave cut notch and platform, Old Red Sandstone
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As the notch is excavated into the rock, behind it is left the wave-cut platform, which is cut at
wave base. The sand and other sediments created by this process may be washed out to sea to
the point that the water is deeper than wave base. In this area particles settle out below wave
base and accumulate into a wave-built platform.
Cliffs originate and are maintained by similar undermining of the sea-ward edge of the land. By
falls from an over-steepened rock-face or by collapse of rocks overhanging the notch which may
have been excavated at the base of the cliffs, the latter gradually recede and present a steep
face towards the advancing sea. But where the cliffs are protected for a time by fallen debris,
and especially if they are composed of poorly consolidated rocks, the upper slopes may be
worn back by weathering, rain-wash and slumping.

Wave cut platform

Wave-cut platform, a geological feature caused by the sea's erosion of cliffs, seen atSoutherndown,
near Bridgend, South Wales.
Welcombe Mouth in North Devon
Sea-arch and stack
When two caves on opposite sides are of a headland unite, a natural arch results, and may
persist for a time known as Sea-arch. Later the arch falls in and the seaward portion of the
headland then remains as an isolated stack. Eventually it too will be consumed by the action of
the waves.

Minor erosional features along a rocky coast, seen at low tide. Surf hollows out sea cave in more erodible part of
bedrock. Cave through headland becomes a sea arch. Surf tears away parts of bedrock, leaving isolated stack as an
‘island’ on wave-cut platform.

Oly mpic-peninsula-pacific-ocean-cape-flattery-makah-indian-reservation-sea-caves
Examples of sea-arch
Anse de l'Est, Ile aux Loups, Iles de la Madeleine, Quebec
Sea arches. Rising sea level is cutting deeply into the sandstone bedrock, etching crevices and arches along
weaknessescaused by fractures. The parallel layersof strata and crosscutting fracturesare visible.

The outer coast of Shetland includes long sections of spectacular cliff coastline. The form of cliffs is intimately
related to rock type and structure, together with the more muted influence of past processes, including glaciation
and sea level history.
 Sea arch at Hawaii's Volcano National Park, on the
Big Island of Hawaii made of igneous rock (basalt),
formed by lava from the Kilauea Volcano and the
Sea arch sculpting power of the Pacific Ocean.

Australia’s Nullarbor plain ends abrutly in limestone

cliffs. Rocks pounded today by ocean were laid down on
Apostle Islands sea arch the sea floor 20 million yearsago.
The Old Man of Hoy, Orkney isles, Scottland. A stack of Old Red Sandstone, 137mt. High rising from the platform of
Devonian lava.

In the bay of Fundy, Nova Scotia, the tide falls Padestal of calcareous sandstone supported by an undercut pillar
45ft. Exposing rockseroded by the water. of shale on the fore shore at Sheepstone, Yorkshire
Blow-hole or gloup

The most striking evidence of undermining is provided by caves. Caves are excavated along
belts of weakness of all kinds, and especially where the rocks are strongly jointed. By
subsequent falling – in of the roof and removal of the debris, long narrow inlets are developed.
Tidal inlet of this kind is called ‘geo’. The roof of a cave at the landward end of a geo – or
indeed of any sea cave – may communicate with the surface by way of a vertical shaft which
may be some distance from the edge of the cliff. A natural chimney of this kind is known as a
blow-hole or gloup.

The Cannon blowhole south of Esha

lighthouse is unusual in that in high
seas water is blown out sideways from
the clif f with a loud report.

Determinants of wave erosion

There are three things that determine the amount of erosion:

•Degree of exposure. Coastline that are fully exposed suffer the most erosion.

•Tidal range. The smallest tidal range concentrates more wave energyand erodes more.

•Composition of bedrock. Sandstone and shale are more easilyeroded than igneous rocks.
Twelv e apostles, Southern Australia, have been carved by thrusting waves and searing winds.

Example of Stacks
Shoreline features
Wave-cut cliffs originate by the cutting action of the surf against the base of coastal land. As
erosion progresses, rocks over hanging the notch at the base of the cliff crumble into the surf
and the cliff retreats. A relatively flat, bench like surface, the wave-cut platform, is left behind by
the receding cliff. The platform broadens as wave attack continues. Some debris produced by
the breaking waves remains along the water’s edge as part of the beach, while the remainder is
transported farther seaward.
Where beach drift and long shore currents are active, several features related to the movement
of sediment along the shore maydevelop.
Spits
Elongated ridges of sand that project from the land in the mouth of an adjacent bay. Storm
waves roll and throw material over to sheltered side, especially when they approach squarely.
Spit thus tend to migrate landwards, often becoming curved in the process. A spit thus may be
developed in to a hook. The dominant winds and waves are the agents essentially responsible
for the curving of spits.

Development of a hooked spit by the refraction of oblique waves Notsuke Hooked Spit, Hokkaido, Japan

Spurn Head, built by beach drifting in to the estuary of the Humber, in continuation of the Holderness coast,
Humberside, England.

Examplesof Spit
River Yare, Norfolk, England River Alde, Suffolk, England
Examplesof river deflection in East Anglia by the southerly extension of sand and shingle spits.
Southward drift is very active along the east coast of Norfolk and Suffolk. Ten centuries ago the
Yarmouth sands had already spread across the estuary of the Yare, forming an obstruction
which deflected the river towards the south. The spit then continued to grow south-wards,
hugging the coast as closely as possible, with river confined between itself and the mainland.
By 1347 the end of the spot and the outlet of the river had reached Lowestoft. At Aldeburgh,
halfway between Lowestoft and Harwich, the longest spot on the east cost has similarly diverted
the outlet of the Alde.

Hooked spit, New Zealand

Tombolo
A bar connecting an island to the mainland or to another island is called a tombolo.

The offshore hill or stack bends the incoming waves around it so that their energy sweeps sand
onto the tombolo from both sides. Once the stack erodes down the waterline, the tombolo will
disappear. Stacks don’t last long, and that’s why tombolos are uncommon.

Tombolo Stockton Island Ashland County

Examples of Tombolo
Baymouth bar
A sand bar that completely crosses a bay, sealing it off from the open ocean. Such a feature
tends to form across bays where currents are weak, allowing a spit to extend to the other side.

Baymouth barrier, Grand Beach, Lake Winnipeg, Manitoba

A spit north of Gdansk and two smoothly curved bay-mouth bars enclosing broad
lagoonsalong the south-east Baltic coast of Poland and Lithuania.

Baymouth bar
Offshore bars and barrier islands
The Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States are bordered by long stretches of barrier
beaches which are separated from the mainland by lagoons or expanses of sea, except where
they are locally tied to headlands. These are known as offshore bars or if they should be
discontinuous at both ends, as barrier islands, which are low ridges of sand that parallel the
coast.

A bar or barrier beach extends from one headland to another. When the bay inside is
completely enclosed it becomes a marsh, or if it receives streams from the mainland, a
shoreline lake.

Barrier island, crosssection

Offshore bars and barrier islands with lagoons, along the Offshore barsand barrier islands
coast of North Carolina, USA
Classification of coast
When waves break against headlands most of their energy dissipates. Therefore the waves
inside adjacent bays have lower energy and as a result sediments are deposited in the
bays. As headlands erode and bays fill with sediment, an irregular coastline eventually
becomes smooth.

Graphical representation of classification of coasts.

Development of the Coast-line

Emergent coasts
Emergent coasts develop either because of an area uplifted or as a result of a drop in sea level.
Land formed under water that becomes dry land, characterized by the presence of extensive
elevated wave-cut platforms, terraces or platforms and wave cut cliffs.

An emerging coast due to post-glacial isostatic uplift, Finland

Emergent coast
Submergent coasts
Submergent coasts are created when sea level rises or the land adjacent to the sea subsides.
Dry land gets drowned either by land subsidence or a rise in sea level. Their appearance is
controlled bythe erosional processes prior to the rise of the sea level.

Submerging edge of preglacial erosion surface, near New Richmond, Quebec

The gently tilted land surface, seen here extending under the sea, along the north coast of Baie des Chaleurs, is an
ancient landscape that was created by erosion across the soft rock in the region. This preglacial erosional surface
postdates an older erosion surface, which was uplifted, tilted, and eroded, leaving sooth summits of resistant,
igneousrock. The juxtaposition of these two ancient landscapesgivesGaspesie a bilevel terrain.

A celebrated coast of submergence: Rio de Janeiro, Barzil

From a structural point of view, the coasts are classified by Suess as two contrasting types as
Atlantic and Pacific.

Coasts of Atlantic or transverse type are determined by fractures and subsidences that
characteristically cut across the strike or ‘grain’ of the folded rock formations; they
characteristically border relatively young oceans that are widening as a result of sea floor
spreading.

Submerged Atlantic or transverse cost. Old red sandstone crops out along anticlines which have remained as
uplands or broad ridges that jut out as promontories. Less resistant Carboniferous strata outcrop as synclines in
the valleys, which passseawardsinto long baysor rias, south-west Eire.

Coasts of Pacific or longitudinal type border or lie within mountain chains, including island
festoons like those of Asia and follow the general ‘grain’ of the land. When partially drowned
such coasts are said to be of Dalmatian type.

Submerged ‘Pacific’ or longitudinal coast (Dalmatian type), Yugoslavia