2013

Report File
Field Instrumentation

Vidya College 7/18/2013

CERTIFICATEICATE OF ORIGIN

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Table of Contents
1. ............................................................................................................................................................................................ 2. Hazardous Area .................................................................................................................................................................. 3. Field Instruments................................................................................................................................................................ 3.1 Flow Measurement .......................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.1 Flow Measuring Devices .............................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.1 Differential Pressure Flow Devices ........................................................................................................................... 3.1.1.2 Orifice Plate .............................................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.3 Drain and Vent Holes ................................................................................................................................................ 3.1.1.4 Pressure Taps types and location .............................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.5 Flow Nozzle .............................................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.6 Flow nozzle construction and Pressure tap location................................................................................................. 3.1.1.7 Venturi...................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.1.8 Flow Tube ................................................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.9 Pitot tube.................................................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.10 V Cone ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.1.11 Laminar................................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.1.12 Magnetic Flow Meter ............................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.13 Mass Flow Meter .................................................................................................................................................... 2

3.1.1.13 Vortex Shedding flow meter .................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.14 Positive Displacement Flow Meter ......................................................................................................................... 3.1.1.15 Target Flow Meter .................................................................................................................................................. 3.1.1.16 Turbine Flow Meter................................................................................................................................................ 3.1.1.17 Ultrasonic Flow Meter ............................................................................................................................................ 3.1.1.18 Variable area Flow Meter ....................................................................................................................................... 3.1.2 Flow Monitering Devices ............................................................................................................................................. 3.1.2.1 Sight Flow Indicator ................................................................................................................................................... 3.1.2.2 Flow Switches ............................................................................................................................................................ 3.1.3 Selection of flow measuring and monitoring devices .................................................................................................. 3.2 Temperature.................................................................................................................................................................... 3.2.1 Temperature Measurement ......................................................................................................................................... 3.2.1.1 Liquid Bulb Thermometer ......................................................................................................................................... 3.2.1.2 Gas Bulb Thermometer ............................................................................................................................................. 3.2.1.3 Bimetallic Thermometer ......................................................................................................................................... 3.2.1.4 RTD........................................................................................................................................................................... 3.2.1.5 R VS T relationship of various metals ...................................................................................................................... 3.2.1.6 Thermistors ............................................................................................................................................................ 3.2.1.7 Thermocouples ....................................................................................................................................................... 3.3 Pressure ......................................................................................................................................................................... 3.3.1 Pressure Scales ............................................................................................................................................................. 3.3.2 Pressure Measurement ................................................................................................................................................ 3.3.2.1 Bourdon Tube ........................................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2.2 Bellows ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2.3 Diaphragms............................................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2.4 Manometers ............................................................................................................................................................. 3.3.2.5 McLeod Gauge......................................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2.6 Capacitive Pressure Sensor...................................................................................................................................... 3.3.2.7 Piezoresistive and Strain Gauge pressure sensor .................................................................................................... 3

3.3.2.8 Pirani Gauge ............................................................................................................................................................ 3.3.2.9 Ionization Gauge ...................................................................................................................................................... 3.4 Level Measurement ......................................................................................................................................................... 3.4.1 Capacitive Level Measurement ................................................................................................................................... 3.4.2 Differential pressure type level measurement ........................................................................................................... 3.4.3 Float type level measurement .................................................................................................................................... 3.4.4 Bubbler level measurement ......................................................................................................................................... 3.4.5 Radar Level Measurement ........................................................................................................................................... 3.4.6 Nuclear Level Measurement ........................................................................................................................................ 3.4.7 Ultrasonic Level Measurement ....................................................................................................................................

COMPANY PROFILE

Introduction
Instrumentation department has a team of professional engineers and experienced drafting personnel. The instrument design and datasheet is carried out using in-house package. Computer aided techniques are being used in for preparation of drawings. The outputs from the instrumentation department include basic design of instruments using datasheet, power flow diagrams, sizing of control valves, selection of equipments on basis of surrounding in which instruments are installed, cabling and control room designing using ergonomics. These outputs are based upon input information from various groups, which include process design requirements, layout of plant or unit, equipment layout of units or offsite etc. and other operational requirements.

FUNCTIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT

Plant system design
Detailed system design, calculations & sizing of control valve and other instruments, calculations. Preparation of job specifications for all instrumentation equipments & instrumentation systems of all

packages. Preparation of P&I DIAGRAMS by process that is used by instrumentation engineers. Calculations of voltage drop in cables & cable scheduling. Design of control room on basis of ergonomics (human engineering). Flow and pressure calculations on basis of design.

Engineering for procurement FEED (front end engineering design) & Basic Engineering. Deliverable list by the project personnels. Datasheets & specification are prepared as according to process condition.

 Preparation of MRs (material requisitions), technical bid evaluation (TBA), purchase requisition (PR) for all equipments and review of vendor drawings. Technical query (TQ) to the vendor for asking the query related to the instrument specifications. Furnishing instrument input to package system MRs, bid evaluation and other related activities. Participation in the inspection at vendors work of tailor made and other critical instrumentation equipments Preparation of cable layouts (schedule) and their take off. Preparation of communication and screens in control room. Preparation of cable schedules and interconnection diagrams. Preparation of tender specification and their evaluation for Main instrumentation Tender.

FRONT END ENGINEERING DESIGN(FEED) PROJECT GIVEN TO CONTRACTER BY THE CLIENT

DEGIGN BASIS BY PROJECT MANAGEMENT

PROJECT DESIGN BASIS BY INSTRUMENTATI ON

DELIVERABLE LIST BY PROJECT MANAGEMENT DATA SHEETS AND SPECIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS ARE PREPARED BY INSRUMEMTATION DEPARTMENT & SENT TO THE VENDOR

MATERIAL

VENDOR DOCUMENT REVIEW(VDR ) MANUFACTUR ING & INSPECTION NOW INSRUMENTS ARE INSTALLED IN FIELD & COMISSIONING OF PLANT TAKES PLACE

Miscellaneous activities

Preparation of man-hour estimates, drawing schedule and MR schedule. Preparation of progress reports. Assistance drawing commissioning and trouble shooting.

Development activities
Participation in vendor development activities. Standardization of specifications etc through departmental standardization meetings.

PROJECTS IN HAND

Hazardous Area Classifications and Protections:

Hazardous Area:
When electrical equipment is used in, around, or near an atmosphere that has flammable gases or vapors, flammable liquids, combustible dusts, ignitable fibers or flying, there is always a possibility or risk that a fire or explosion might occur. Those areas where the possibility or risk of fire or explosion might occur due to an explosive atmosphere and/or mixture is often called a hazardous location/area. Currently there are two systems used to classify these hazardous areas; 1. The Class/Division system 2. The Zone system.

The Class/Division system is used predominately in the United States and Canada, whereas the rest of the world generally uses the Zone system.

Class/Division System :
1. Class-The Class defines the general nature (or properties) of the hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere which may or may not be in sufficient quantities. a. Class I-Locations in which flammable gases or vapors may or may not be in sufficient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. b. Class II-Locations in which combustible dusts (either in suspension, intermittently, or periodically) may or may not be in sufficient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures.

c. Class III-Locations in which ignitable fibers may or may not be in sufficient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. 2. Division-The Division defines the probability of the hazardous material being able to produce an explosive or ignitable mixture based upon its presence. a. Division 1 indicates that the hazardous material has a high probability of producing an explosive or ignitable mixture due to it being present continuously, intermittently, or periodically or from the equipment itself under normal operating conditions. b. Division 2 indicates that the hazardous material has a low probability of producing an explosive or ignitable mixture and is present only during abnormal conditions for a short period of time. 3. Group-The Group defines the type of hazardous material in the surrounding atmosphere. Groups A, B, C, and D are for gases (Class I only) while groups E, F, and G are for dusts and flyings (Class II or III). a. Group A-Atmospheres containing acetylene. b. Group B-Atmospheres containing a flammable gas, flammable liquid-produced vapor, or combustible liquid-produced vapor whose MESG is less than 0.45 mm or MIC ratio is less than 0.40. Typical gases include hydrogen, butadiene, ethylene oxide, propylene oxide, and acrolein. c. Group C-Atmospheres containing a flammable gas, flammable liquid-produced vapor, or combustible liquid-produced vapor whose MESG is greater than 0.45 mm but less than 0.75 mm or MIC ratio is greater than 0.40 but less than 0.80. Typical gases include ethyl either, ethylene, acetaldehyde, and cyclopropane. d. Group D-Atmospheres containing a flammable gas, flammable liquid-produced vapor, or combustible liquid-produced vapor whose MESE is greater than 0.75 mm or MIC ration is greater than 0.80. Typical gases include acetone, ammonia, benzene, butane, ethanol, gasoline, methane, natural gas, naphtha, and propane. e. Group E-Atmospheres containing combustible metal dusts such as aluminum, magnesium, and their commercial alloys. f. Group F-Atmospheres containing combustible carbonaceous dusts with 8% or more trapped volatiles such as carbon black, coal, or coke dust. g. Group G-Atmospheres containing combustible dusts not included in Group E or Group F. Typical dusts include flour, starch, grain, wood, plastic, and chemicals.

Zone System
Hazardous locations per the Zone system are classifie according to its Zone which can be gas or dust. For gas atmospheres electrical equipment is further divided into Groups and Subgroups.
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Zone-The Zone defines the probability of the hazardous material, gas or dust, being present in sufficient quantities to produce explosive or ignitable mixtures. 1. Gas a. Zone 0Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are present continuously or for long periods of time. b. Zone 1Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are likely to occur under normal operating conditions. c. Zone 2Ignitable concentrations of flammable gases or vapors which are not likely to occur under normal operating conditions and do so only for a short period of time. GroupElectrical equipment used in gas atmospheres is divided into two groups. Group IEquipment used in mines with atmospheres containing methane or gases and vapors of equivalent hazard. Group II-All other equipment; which is further subdivided into three subgroups. Group IIA-Atmospheres containing propane, or gases and vapors of equivalent hazard. Group IIB-Atmospheres containing ethylene, or gases and vapors of equivalent hazard. Group IIC- Atmospheres containing acetylene or hydrogen, or gases and vapors of equivalent hazard.

2. Dust a. Zone 20-An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are present continuously or for long periods of time. b. Zone 21-An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are likely to occur under normal operating conditions. c. Zone 22-An area where combustible dusts or ignitable fibers and flyings are not likely to occur under normal operating conditions and do so only for a short period of time.

Protection Techniques and Methods:

Various protection techniques and methods have been developed and employed, thus reducing or minimizing the potential risks of explosion or fire from electrical equipment located in hazardous locations.
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Class/Division system
Explosion-proofA type of protection that utilizes an enclosure that is capable of withstanding an explosive gas or vapor within it and or preventing the ignition of an explosive gas or vapor that may surround it and that operates at such an external temperature that a surrounding explosive gas or vapor will not be ignited thereby. Intrinsically SafeA type of protection in which the electrical equipment under normal or abnormal conditions is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignitable concentration. Dust Ignition-proofA type of protection that excludes ignitable amounts of dust or amounts that might affect performance or rating and that, when installed and protected in accordance with the original design intent, will not allow arcs, sparks or heat otherwise generated or liberated inside the enclosure to cause ignition of exterior accumulations or atmospheric suspensions of a specified dust. Non-incendiveA type of protection in which the equipment is incapable, under normal conditions, of causing ignition of a specified flammable gas or vapor-in-air mixture due to arcing or thermal effect.

Zone system
Flame-proofA type of protection in which an enclosure can withstand the pressure developed during an internal explosion of an explosive mixture and that prevents the transmission of the explosion to the explosive atmosphere surrounding the enclosure and that operates at such an external temperature that a surrounding explosive gas or vapor will not be ignited there. This type of protection is referred to as Ex d. Intrinsically SafeA type of protection in which the electrical equipment under normal or abnormal conditions is incapable of releasing sufficient electrical or thermal energy to cause ignition of a specific hazardous atmospheric mixture in its most easily ignitable concentrations. This type of protection is referred to as Ex i. Increase SafetyA type of protection in which various measures are applied to reduce the probability of excessive temperatures and the occurrence of arcs or sparks in the interior and on the external parts of electrical apparatus that do not produce them in normal service. Increased safety may be used with flame-proof type of protection. This type of protection is referred to as Ex e. Type nA type of protection applied to electrical equipment such that in normal operation it is not capable of igniting a surrounding explosive atmosphere. This type of protection is referred to as Ex n.

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Field Instrumentation
1. FLOW MEASUREMENT:
FLOW is motion characterstics of fluids. A fluid is defined as a substance that continually deforms (flows) under an applied shear stress regardless of how small the applied stress. All liquids and all gases are fluids. Flow measurement is the quantification of bulk fluid movement. CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW MEASURING AND MONITORING DEVICES There are many ways to measure flow. Each type of flow measuring device has its own specific advantages and limitations and no one device combines all benefits and all features or is universally accepted as best for every application. Also included in this design guide are flow-monitoring devices: sight flow indicators and flow switches. Sight flow indicators are used when it is not necessary to measure flow rate, but only to establish the presence, or absence, of fluid flow. Flow switches are used when it is important to generate a signal when flow has started or stopped, or when a certain flow rate has been reached. The following types of flow measuring and flow monitoring devices are available on the instrumentation and control system market. FLOW MEASURING DEVICES Differential Pressure Flow Meters eg: Orifice Plate, Venturi, Pitot Tube Magnetic Flow Meters Mass Flow Meters Vortex Flow Meters Coriolis Flow Meters Positive Displacement Flow Meters Target Flow Meters Turbine Flow Meters Ultrasonic Flow Meters Variable Area Flow Meters Open Channel Flow Meters 12

FLOW MONITORING DEVICES Sight Flow Indicators Flow Switches Ratio : ratio of orifice hole diameter to pipe diameter, dimensionless

FLOW MEASURING DEVICES 1. DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE FLOW METERS Principle: Differential pressure flow meters restrict the flow in a pipe causing an increase in the velocity of the fluid with a resulting reduction in the pressure downstream. This operating principle is based on the relationship that the pressure drop across the meter is proportional to the square of the flow rate. Differential pressure flow meters, like most flow meters, have a primary and secondary element. The primary element causes a change in kinetic energy, which creates the differential pressure in the pipe. The secondary element measures the differential pressure and provides the signal or read-out that is converted to the actual flow value. Types of primary elements in differential pressure flow meters include: (1) Orifice Plate: The orifice plate is simply a flat piece of metal with a specific-sized hole bore in it and mounted between special orifice flanges in the pipeline. Different Types of Orifice Plates and their applications :

1. Concentric beveled bore: Application : This most common bore used in the industries. This is the only type generally accepted for use in custody Transfer measurement, since adequate data is not available for other bores. Used primarily for clean homogeneous liquids, gases, non viscous fluids. The bevel is matched at 45 angle to the desired throat thickness.

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2. ECCENTRIC BORE: Application: Used for measurement of flow for fluids containing solids and slurries. It is also used for vapors and gases where condensation is present. The eccentric bore is offset to where the bore edge is inscribed in a circle that is 98% the line id.

3.SEGMENTAL BORE : Application: The segmental bore is located in the same way that the eccentric bore is. This type is used primarily for slurries or extremely dirty gases where the flow may contain impurities heavier than the fluid.

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B. UNIVERSAL ORIFICE PLATE : Application: This is a circular plate designed to fit in the Orifice fittings / Plate holders.

Drain and Vent Holes: When an orifice plate is installed in a horizontal pipe and the fluid is a liquid containing entrained gas or the fluid is a wet gas, vapor or saturated steam, some vaporization or condensation may take place. Gas bubbles from vaporization or liquid drops from condensation can cause erroneous differential pressure measurement (and thus erroneous flow measurement) because they may disturb the flow pattern and/or may temporarily partially obstruct the orifice bore. In order to reduce this problem, drain or vent holes can be drilled through the orifice plate, flush with the inside diameter of the pipe. The drain hole will allow liquid drops to pass through the orifice plate at the bottom without causing a build-up of liquid. Likewise, a vent hole at the top of the orifice plate will prevent the build-up of gases. The size of these holes should be kept at a minimum in order to reduce the effect on the flow calibration of the orifice plate. It should be remembered that if the percentage of entrained gasses is to high then an eccentric orifice plate should be used.

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Pressure Tap Types and Locations: Flow measurement with an orifice plate also requires the use of a differential pressure sensing instrument which measures the differential pressure across the orifice plate. There are several locations upstream and downstream of the orifice plate that can be used to sense this differential pressure. These locations are referred to as "pressure taps". There are five common tap locations for taking differential pressure measurements across orifice plates: 1. flange taps: Flange taps have centers 25 mm (1 in) upstream and 25 mm (1 in) downstream of the orifice plate surface. They are normally 12 mm ( in) diameter. This means that the flanges have at least a 2000 kPa (300 psi) rating, because 1000 kPa (150 psi) rated flanges are not sufficiently thick 2. D and D/2 (radius) taps: The upstream tap is located one pipe diameter from the face of the orifice while the downstream tap is located 1/2 pipe diameter from the orifice face. 3. Corner taps: Corner Taps are located directly at the faces of the orifice plate. They are particularly useful for pipe sizes less than 50 mm (2 in) where the vena contracta may occur inside the dimension of the standard flange tap. Vena contracta taps: Vena contracta taps are made at locations, which theoretically take advantage of the highest available differential pressure at the orifice. The upstream tap is located one pipe diameter from the face of the orifice while the downstream tap is located at the vena contracta, the point of minimum pressure caused by the restriction

4.

5. 2D and 8D (pipe) taps : 2D and 8D (pipe) taps or full-flow taps measure the permanent pressure loss across an orifice. The taps are located 2 pipe diameters upstream (ahead of the pressure buildup near the orifice face) and eight pipe diameters downstream where static pressure has reached its maximum following the vena contracta. Advantages and Limitations of Orifice Plates:

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(2) Flow Nozzle: The nozzle, features a rounded entrance that is less susceptible to wear and damage. The nozzle discharge coefficient is consequently less likely to change than in the case of the orifice. However, the nozzle is more expensive than an orifice plate to produce and slightly more difficult to install. At high velocities flow nozzles can handle approximately 60 percent greater flow than orifice plates due to higher coefficient of discharge (0.98 for nozzle vs. 0.6 for orifice plate) for the same pressure drop. However, use of the units is not recommended for highly viscous liquids or those containing large amounts of sticky solids. Flow nozzles can handle dirty and abrasive fluids better than an orifice. Nozzles are primarily used in steam service because of their rigidity, which makes them dimensionally more stable at high temperatures and velocities than orifices.

Flow Nozzle Design : The most widely used flow nozzle in the United States is the ASME type flow nozzle. The ASME flow nozzle has a contoured elliptical inlet in which the curvature is the quadrant of an ellipse. There are three types of long radius ASME flow nozzles: ASME wall tap high beta ratio flow nozzle (0.50 < < 0.80) ASME wall tap low beta ratio flow nozzle (0.20 < < 0.50) ASME throat tap low beta ratio flow nozzle (0.25 < < 0.50)

Advantages and Limitations of Flow Nozzles:

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(3) Venturi : The main advantage of venturi tubes is their ability to handle large flow volumes at low pressure drops. A venturi tube is essentially a section of pipe with tapered entrance and exit sections and a straight throat. As liquid passes through the throat, its velocity increases, causing a pressure differential between the inlet and outlet regions. A venturi tube requires more material, is considerably more difficult to fabricate than a nozzle or orifice plate, and is consequently more expensive than a nozzle or orifice plate. However, roughly 75% to 85% of the pressure drop created by the venturi tube is recovered downstream making it a more desirable restriction from this point of view than the orifice plate. The most commonly used venturi tube in the United States conforms to the dimensions specified by ASME for the so-called "classical/Herschel" venture. The classical Venturi tube consists of a converging conical inlet section, a cylindrical throat and a diverging recovery cone. Venturi tubes are furnished either with flanges at each end or as an "insert" type. The "flange" venturi tube is installed between flanges of the piping system. The "insert" type is furnished with an adapter that is mounted between the flanges of the piping system. Four or more pressure taps are usually installed with the unit to average the measured pressure.

Advantages and Limitations of Venturi Tubes :

(4) Pitot Tube: A pitot tube is a variable head meter, having the classic square-root relationship between flow and differential pressure. Pitot tubes sense two pressures simultaneously, impact and static. The impact unit consists of a tube with one end bent at right angles toward the flow direction. The static tube's end is closed, but a small slot is located in the side of the unit. The tubes can be mounted separately in a pipe or combined in a single casing. In operation, single-tube units detect the difference between the impact pressure and the static pressure at the wall of the pipe. Pressure taps connect the tube to a differential pressure instrument where the pressure differential is measured. Pitot tubes are generally installed by welding to a pipe coupling. The averaging or multiport pitot tube spans the pipe and has virtually replaced the conventional pitot tube. The averaging pitot tube measuring the fluid's pressure plus velocity head extends throughout the process pipe and has multiple holes so as to measure the average velocity head. The tube measuring the fluid's pressure head (static pressure) is incorporated into the flow element and faces downstream. Ease of installation, low cost, low overall pressure loss, good performance and hot tapping capabilities makes the averaging pitot tube popular over other differential pressure producing devices. The averaging pitot tube is normally flanged and is provided with all 18

required mounting hardware including the piping weldolet, flange and associated pipe fittings and root valves necessary for the complete. Averaging pitot tubes are preferred because with a conventional pitot tube it is difficult to determine the location along the pipe's diameter where the "impact opening" (measuring fluid pressure plus velocity head) should be located. This difficulty arises because the average velocity head must be measured. For approximate measurement, a location at 30% of the pipe radius from the pipe wall will provide an approximate average velocity Advantages and Limitations of Pitot Tubes/Averaging Pitot Tubes:

Magnetic flow meter: Electromagnetic flow meters operate on Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction that states that a voltage will be induced when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The liquid serves as the conductor; energized coils outside the flow tube create the magnetic field. The amount of voltage produced is directly proportional to the flow rate. Two electrodes mounted in the pipe wall detect the voltage, which is measured by the secondary element. Advantages and Limitations of Magnetic Flow Meters:

1. Mass flow meters:

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True mass flow meters measure mass flow rate directly using properties of mass as opposed to volumetric flow. These flow meters have found wide application because the fluid measurement is virtually independent of changing fluid parameters. The following types of mass flow meters are available: (1) Coriolis (2) Thermal

A. Coriolis flow meter: Coriolis flow meter operation is based on the natural phenomenon called the Coriolis effect. Coriolis meters measure mass directly and therefore do not have to be adjusted for variations in liquid properties. Coriolis flow meter operates on the basic principle of motion mechanics - Newton's second law of motion, namely force equals mass times acceleration (Force = mass multiplied by acceleration: F = ma). Each of the manufacturers of Coriolis meters has an elaborate description of how the Coriolis force is applied to the particular meter, and it usually involves vibration induced by the flow through a tube or tubes and/or a driver on the tube(s). Therefore special attention is to be paid to the manufacturers recommendation for the pipe support for this type of meter.

Advantages and Limitations of Coriolis Flow Meters :

B. Thermal Flow Meters: Thermal-type mass flow meters have traditionally been used for gas measurement, but designs for liquid flow measurements are available. These mass flow meters also operate independently of density, pressure, and viscosity. Thermal flow meters use a heated sensing element isolated from the fluid flow path. The flow stream 20

conducts heat from the sensing element. The conducted heat is directly proportional to the mass flow rate. The sensor never comes into direct contact with the liquid. The electronics package includes the flow analyzer, temperature compensator, and a signal conditioner that provides a linear output directly proportional to mass flow.

4. Vortex Shedding Flow Meters Vortex shedding flow meter is the only widely used type of oscillatory flow meter. It makes use of a natural phenomenon that occurs when a liquid flows past a bluff object. Eddies or vortices are shed alternately downstream of the object. The frequency of the vortex shedding is directly proportional to the velocity of the liquid flowing through the flow meter. The three major components of the flow meter are a bluff body strutmounted across the flowmeter bore, a sensor to detect the presence of the vortex and to generate an electrical impulse, and signal amplification, and a conditioning transmitter whose output is proportional to the flow rate.

Advantages and Limitations of Vortex Shedding Flow Meters:

2. POSITIVE DISPLACEMENT FLOW METERS: Positive displacement flow meters split the flow of liquids into separate known volumes based on the physical dimensions of the flow meter, and count or totalize them. They are mechanical flow meters in that one or more moving parts, located in the flow stream, physically separate the fluid into increments. Energy to drive these parts is extracted from the flow stream and shows up as pressure loss between the inlet and the outlet of the meter. The general accuracy of these meters is dependent upon minimizing clearances between the moving and stationary parts and maximizing the length of this leakage path. Advantages and Limitations of Positive Displacement Flow Meters: 21

3. TARGET FLOW METERS: Target flow meters sense and measure forces caused by liquid impacting on a target or drag-disk suspended in the liquid stream. A direct indication of the liquid flow rate is achieved by measuring the force exerted on the target. The latest design version uses a precision, low-level force transducer sensing element. The force on the target caused by the liquid flow is sensed by a strain gauge. The output signal from the gauge is indicative of the flow rate.

Advantages and Limitations of Target Flow Meters

4. TURBINE FLOW METERS Turbine flow meters operate linearly with respect to the volume flow rate. Because there is no squareroot relationship (as with differential pressure devices), their rangeability is greater. These flow meters have minimum sensitivity to viscosity changes when used at Reynolds numbers above 10,000. Turbine flow meters can be divided into inline and insertion flow meters. A. Inline Turbine Flow Meters: Most housings are equipped with flanges or fittings to permit them to be connected directly into pipelines. The unit consists of a multiple-bladed rotor mounted within a pipe, perpendicular to the liquid flow. The rotor spins as the liquid passes through the blades. The rotational speed is a direct function of flow rate and can be sensed by a magnetic pick-up, photoelectric cell, or gears. Electrical pulses can be counted and totalized. The number of electrical pulses counted for a given period of time is directly

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proportional to flow volume. A tachometer can be added to measure the turbine's rotational speed and to determine the liquid flow rate.

B. Insertion Turbine Flow meters: One model of insertion turbine flow meter can be used to measure flow rates for a variety of fluids and pipe sizes. Unlike an inline flow meter which replaces a section of pipe, an insertion meter is "tapped" into the flow line and can be mounted virtually anywhere. The insertion turbine flow meter has three main components: the retractor (or probe), the rotor, and the preamplifier. The retractor has a stem which is made of different lengths to accommodate large lines. The retractor positions the rotor (turbine head) within the pipe and also houses a pick-up assembly which detects the rotation of the turbine rotor. The preamplifier converts this rotational frequency, which is proportional to the velocity of the fluid, to an industry standard electrical signal.

Advantages and Limitations of Turbine Flow Meters:

5. ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS: An ultrasonic flow meter is a type of flow meter that measures the velocity of a fluid with ultrasound to calculate volume flow. Using ultrasonic transducers, the flow meter can measure the average velocity along the path of an emitted beam of ultrasound, by averaging the difference in measured transit time between the pulses of ultrasound propagating into and against the direction of the flow or by measuring the frequency shift from the Doppler effect. There are two types of ultrasonic flow meters: (A) Doppler (B) Transit-Time

A. Doppler flow meter:

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Doppler flow meters measure frequency shifts of an ultrasonic signal caused by reflective particles (solids, bubbles, or discontinuity) suspended in the liquid. Two transducers (one transmitter and one receiver) are mounted externally in various locations around the pipe depending on flow profile conditions. The signal of known frequency is sent into the liquid to be measured and the solids, bubbles or discontinuity cause the signal to be reflected to the receiver element. Because the suspended particles causing the reflections are moving, the frequency of the returned signal is shifted. The frequency shift is proportional to the velocity of reflected particles in the liquid. Doppler flow meters cannot be used where the solids concentration is too high (>45% by weight) or if there is too much air or entrained gas because the reflected signal will be attenuated to the point where it cannot be distinguished from the background noise.

Advantages and Limitations of Doppler Flow Meters:

A. Transit-Time Flow Meters: Transit-time flow meters measure the difference in the time of travel diagonally upstream vs. downstream across the pipe. Two transducers (both are transmitter and receiver in one) are mounted either on each side of the pipe (direct mode) or on the same side of the pipe (reflect mode). The configuration is such that the sound waves traveling between the devices are at about a 45 degree angle to the direction of liquid flow. The speed of the time based pulse increases when transmitted with the direction of flow and decreases when transmitted against the direction of flow. A time-differential relationship proportional to the flow velocity can be obtained by transmitting the signal alternately in both directions. The speed of sound is a characteristic of the measured fluids density and this technique allows for a mass flow measurement when combined with a temperature sensor.

Advantages and Limitations of Transit-Time Flow Meters: 24

6. VARIABLE AREA FLOW METERS: The Variable Area Flowmeter is one of the oldest and mature principles in flow measurement. Right from the outset, the Rotameter convinced with its simple design: a float rises inside a conically shaped glass tube as the flow increases and its position on a scale can be read off as the flow rate. Felix Meyer, the founder of Deutsche Rotawerke, was quick to recognise the importance of the variable area flowmeter developed by Karl Kppers who found the perfect shape of a float that causes it to rotate and therefore provides selfstabilization. Rotameters are constant differential pressure devices. Rotameters consist essentially of a tapered tube and a device commonly called "float". When there is no liquid flow, the float rests freely at the bottom of the tube. As liquid enters the bottom of the tube, the float begins to rise. The position of the float varies directly with the flow rate. Its exact position is at the point where the differential pressure between the upper and lower surfaces balance the weight of the float. Because flow rate can be read directly on a scale mounted next to the tube or engraved on the tube, no secondary flow-reading devices are necessary. However, if desired, automatic sensing devices can be used to sense the float's level and transmit a flow signal. Rotameter tubes are manufactured from glass, metal, or plastic. Advantages and Limitations of Variable Area Flow Meters:

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FLOW MONITORING DEVICES: 1. SIGHT FLOW INDICATORS Sight flow indicators are primarily monitoring devices to indicate the presence, or absence, of fluid flow. Typical services are on lubricant, cooling or seal fluids to pumps, turbines and compressors. Some sight flow indicators may be equipped with crude indicating scales to inform the equipment operator of relative flow or changes therein. However, such indicators should not be applied as measuring devices.

The following types of sight flow indicators are available: A. Flapper (Vane) Type: Flapper type flow indicators used in horizontal and vertical up flow lines, have a gravity loaded flapper as the indicating element. The flapper, which is hinged on a stainless steel bearing pin, rests against the inlet port when there is no flow, and lifts from this position when fluid flows through the line. Although the indicator is essentially a two position device, registering. either "flow" or "no flow," it is possible to estimate whether the flow rate is relatively high or low, from the position of the flapper. Two variations of flapper type flow indicators are available: side flapper - mounted at edge of window (uni-directional installation) and midflapper. If the flapper is pivoted centrally, the flow indicator may be used for bi-directional flow but not for vertical installation. B. Rotary Type: Rotary type flow indicators use a rotor (spinning member) as the indicating element. Mounted on a bearing pin in the center of the indicator body, the rotor moves freely in either direction, indicating by its direction, the flow direction; and by its rotation rate, the relative fluid flow rate. 26

C. Ball Type: Ball type flow indicators are based on the circular movement of a ball, which is very prominent in low flow, poor light and at a distance. Ball type flow indicators are available in two basic designs: flow chamber and dome. The flow chamber flow indicator usually has the body shaped to impart a spin to the contained ball and inlet and outlet restrictions to keep the ball in the chamber D. Spinner Type: Spinner type flow indicators include a spinning ring which indicates the approximate flow rate. E. Plain (Transparent or Reflex) Type: The plain sight flow indicators do not have moving parts. In the transparent types, easy visibility of liquid flow is available due to the turbulence in the chamber. The reflex type of flow indicator has the specially designed prismatic window. When liquid is in contact with this window it shows black. Otherwise the glass is a silver color. F. Drip-Lip Type: Where flow is intermittent or of insufficient volume to fill the pipe line (as from small-capacity condensers) drip-lip indicators are typically used. These indicators are usually used for vertically downward flow and are arranged so that the fluid spills downward off a horizontally arranged lip clearly visible at the middle of the sight glasses. G. Float Type: The float type flow indicator is based on the principle of variable area flow metering. The presence of flow and approximate rate of flow is determined by the free vertical movement of a float on a guide rod installed in a tapered metering glass tube.

Advantages and Limitations of Sight Flow Indicators:

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1. FLOW SWITCHES: Flow switches are used to determine if the flow rate is above or below a certain value. This value (the set point) can be fixed or adjustable. When the set point is reached, the response can be the actuation of an electric or pneumatic circuit. When the flow switch is actuated, it will stay in that condition until the flow rate moves back from the set point by some amount. The difference between the "set point" and the "reset point" is called the switch dead band. The switch dead band can be fixed or adjustable. If the dead band is small, the switch is likely to cycle its circuit as the flow fluctuates. In certain applications a manual reset feature is desirable. This will guarantee that once the switch is tripped, it will not be allowed to return to its normal state until manually reset 28

by the operator. This feature is designed to require the operator to review and eliminate the cause of the abnormal flow conditions before resetting the switch. The following types of flow switches are available: (A) Differential Pressure (B) Thermal (C) Drag-disk (target) (D) Paddle (E) Vane (F) Piston (G) Rotor (electronic) (H) Shuttle

SELECTION OF FLOW MEASURING AND FLOW MONITORING DEVICES: General limitations: No one type of flow meter combines all of the advantages and features, and can be suitable for every application. The engineer, therefore, faces a very complicated task when having to choose the "ideal" flow meter for a particular application. The purpose of this section is to simplify and clarify the selection process by providing the reader various tools that will lead to the most appropriate choice. In selecting a flow measuring device for a particular application, the engineer should first determine the purpose of the measurement. This is probably the most critical piece of information to obtain. Namely, to determine if one needs to indicate, record or totalize the flow rate, or if it is only necessary to determine if the fluid is flowing or not flowing. For example, if it is only required to know when flow has started or stopped, a flow switch might be the appropriate selection. If, however, the total flow must be known, a different type of measuring device will have to be selected - one that will probably not indicate or record flow rate, but that will indicate the total flow that has passed through it. Therefore, the specific application is the main factor in selecting a flow measuring device.

INITIAL SELECTION APPROACHES: Flow meter selection should be conducted using one of the following approaches: I. Use the same flow meter that has been used on similar applications before. This is the simplest and most inexpensive approach. However, this approach will not necessarily lead to the best flow meter for the particular application because the selection process could have been improper in the past. The selection using this method can be accomplished using documentation of previous projects. Approval of the selected device, however, must be done carefully and include the manufacturer review of the application and verification of the selected method. II. Use the most familiar type of flow measurement. This approach requires certain knowledge of flow measurement instrumentation. However, this approach will almost inevitably lead to the selection of the most commonly used variable differential pressure type. III. Allow manufacturers or knowledgeable and reputable representatives to propose the most suitable flow meter based on process data and plant specific requirements. The manufacturer recommendations must be carefully reviewed and the selected method approved by the design engineer. 29

IV. The most comprehensive and most preferable approach is to review and consider all types of flow meters suitable for the particular application. This is a time-consuming process that can be justified only for the more critical flow application. This approach, however, can lead to the optimum flow meter for the application. The flow meter selection using approach IV should be conducted in two main stages. The first stage would be to eliminate the technically unacceptable flow meters, identify the flow meters, which are capable of performing the required measurement and are available in acceptable materials of construction. The second stage is to make the best choice from what is available.

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2. Temperature
Temperature: A measure proportional to the average translational kinetic energy associated with the disordered microscopic motion of atoms and molecules. The flow of heat is from a high temperature region toward a lower temperature region. temperature region. When a high temperature object is placed in contact with a low temperature object then energy will flow from the high temperature temperature object, then energy will flow from the high temperature object to the lower temperature object, and they will approach an equilibrium temperature. Temperature, measured in Kelvin degrees, is directly proportional to the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance to the average kinetic energy of the molecules in a substance. So, when molecules of a substance have a small average kinetic energy, then the temperature of the substance is low. At a low temperature gas molecules travel, on average at slower speeds than they travel at high temperature average, at slower speeds than they travel at high temperature. Thus, at a low temperature the molecules have, on average less kinetic energy than they do at a high temperature On the Kelvin temperature scale, absolute zero corresponds to a condition below which temperatures do not exist. At absolute zero or 0 o K molecular motion ceases, This value corresponds to a temperature of -273.15 on the Celsius temperature scale. The Kelvin degree is the same size as the Celsius degree; hence the two reference temperatures for Celsius, the freezing point of water (0C), and the boiling point of water (100C), correspond to 273.15K and 373.15K, respectively.

Temperature Measurements:
1. Liquid bulb thermometers: Bulb thermometers rely on the simple principle that a liquid changes its volume relative to its temperature. Liquids take up less space when they are cold and more space when they are warm. A liquid-in-glass thermometer is widely used due to its accuracy for the temperature range -200 to 600C. In the LIG thermometer the thermally sensitive element is a liquid contained in a graduated glass envelope. The principle used to measure temperature is that of the apparent thermal expansion of the liquid. It is the 31

difference between the volumetric reversible thermal expansion of the liquid and its glass container that makes it possible to measure temperature. The liquid-in-glass thermometer comprises: a bulb, a reservoir in which the working liquid can expand or contract in volume a stem, a glass tube containing a tiny capillary connected to the bulb and enlarged at the bottom into a bulb that is partially filled with a working liquid. The tube's bore is extremely small - less than 0.02 inch (0.5 millimetre) in diameter a temperature scale is fixed or engraved on the stem supporting the capillary tube to indicate the range and the value of the temperature. It is the case for the precision thermometers whereas for the low accurate thermometers such as industrial thermometer, the scale is printed on a separate card and then protected from the environment. The liquid-in-glass thermometers is usually calibrated against a standard thermometer and at the melting point of water a reference point, a calibration point, the most common being the ice point a working liquid, usually mercury or alcohol an inert gas is used for mercury intended to high temperature. The thermometer is filled with an inert gas such as argon or nitrogen above the mercury to reduce its volatilization.

The accuracy of measurement depends mainly on the extent of immersion of the thermometer into the medium not just the bulb but also the stem. The response of the thermometer depends on the bulb volume, bulb thickness, total weight and type of thermometer. To reduce the response time, the bulb should be small and the bulb wall thin. The sensitivity depends on the reversible thermal expansion of the liquid compared to the glass.The greater the fluid expansion, the more sensitive the thermometer. Mercury was the liquid the most often used because of its good reaction time, repeatability, linear coefficient of expansion and large temperature range. But it is poisonous and so other working liquids are used. Common organic liquids are toluene, ethyl alcohol, pentane; their expansion is high but not linear and they are limited at high temperature. They need to be dyed, the most common colours being red, blue and green The following table gives for each liquid the useable temperature range. 32

Working liquid Mercury Toluene Ethyl alcohol Pentane

Temperature range (C) -38 to 650 -90 to 100 -110 to 100 -200 to 20

THE LIQUID-IN GLASS THERMOMETER Advantage no power source required Disadvantage limited to applications where manual reading is acceptable, e.g. a household thermometer useable or

repeatable, calibration does have a limited not drift temperature range easy to use & cheap cannot be automated

digitised

2. Gas bulb thermometers:

In a gas bulb thermometer the thermometric property (X) used is the pressure, p, of gas kept at constant volume, V constant , by the copper bulb. p increases with temperature, T, according to the ideal gas law: pV = nRT

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Gas bulb thermometers measures temperature by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas by the variation in volume or pressure of a gas. One common apparatus is a constant volume thermometer. It consists of a bulb connected by a capillary tube to a manometer.

3. Bi-Metallic Thermometers:
Two metals with different thermal expansion coefficients and bond them together, they will bend in one direction if the temperature rises above the temperature at which the boding was done and in the direction if temperature drops. Devices Can be used to indirectly Drive an Electronic Indicator

Bimetallic thermometers are made up of bimetallic strips formed by joining two different metals having different thermal expansion coefficients. Basically, bimetallic strip is a mechanical element which can sense temperature and transform it into a mechanical displacement. This mechanical action from the bimetallic strip can be used to activate a switching mechanism for getting electronic output. Also it can be attached to the pointer of a measuring instrument or a position indicator. Various techniques such as riveting, bolting, fastening can be used to bond two layers of diverse metals in a bimetallic strip. However the most commonly used method is welding. Since two metals are employed to construct a bimetallic strip, hence they are named so.

Working: The working of a bimetallic strip thermometer is based upon the fact that two dissimilar metals behave in a different manner when exposed to temperature variations owing to their different thermal expansion rates. One layer of metal expands or contracts more than the other layer of metal in a bimetallic strip arrangement which results in bending or curvature change of the strip. The working principle of a bimetallic thermometer is illustrated in figure below. One end of a straight bimetallic strip is fixed in place. As the strip is heated, the other end tends to curve away from the side that has the greater coefficient of linear expansion. 34

Main Features:

These types of thermometers work best at higher temperatures, since their accuracy and sensitivity tends to reduce at low temperatures. Bimetallic strip thermometers are manufactured in various designs. One of the most popular design i.e. flat spiral is shown in the figure below. They can also be wound into a single helix or multiple helix form. Bimetallic thermometers can be customized to work as recording thermometers too by affixing a pen to the pointer. The pen is located in such a way that it can make recordings on a circling chart. Bimetallic strips often come in very long sizes. Hence, they are usually coiled into spirals which make them compact and small in size. This also improves the sensitivity of bimetallic strips towards little temperature variations. The bimetallic strip can be scaled up or down. On a large scale, it can provide literally tones of force for mechanical control or other purposes. On a smaller scale, it can provide the force and movement for micro machine integrated circuits Applications: Bimetallic strips are one of the oldest techniques to measure temperature. They can be designed to work at quite high temperatures i.e. upto 500F or 260C. Major application areas of a bimetallic strip thermometer include:

For various household appliances such as ovens etc. Thermostat switches Wall thermometers Grills Circuit breakers for electrical heating devices

4. Resistance Temperature Detectors:

RTD's are stable and have a fairly wide temperature range, but are not inexpensive as thermocouples since they require the use of electric current to make measurements, RTD's are subject to inaccuracies from self-heating. An RTD capitalizes on the fact that the electrical resistance of a material changes as its temperature changes temperature changes. RTD's rely on the resistance change in a metal. The resistance will rise more or less linearly The resistance will rise more or less linearly with temperature. Traditionally RTD's use a length of conductor Traditionally, RTD s use a length of conductor (platinum, nickel iron or copper) wound around an insulator. RTD's are used to measure temperatures from -196 to 482 C.

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 Resistance of a small wire is used to detect temperature detect temperature. Factors other than temperature that effect resistance must be minimized. Primary effect is strain. Element types: There are three main categories of RTD sensors; Thin Film, Wire-Wound, and Coiled Elements. While these types are the ones most widely used in industry there are some places where other more exotic shapes are used, for example carbon resistors are used at ultra low temperatures (-173 C to -273 C).

Carbon resistor elements are widely available and are very inexpensive. They have very reproducible results at low temperatures. They are the most reliable form at extremely low temperatures. They generally do not suffer from significant hysteresis or strain gauge effects. Strain free elements use a wire coil minimally supported within a sealed housing filled with an inert gas. These sensors are used up to 961.78 C and are used in the SPRTs that define ITS-90. They consisted of platinum wire loosely coiled over a support structure so the element is free to expand and contract with temperature, but it is very susceptible to shock and vibration as the loops of platinum can sway back and forth causing deformation.

Thin film PRT

Thin film elements have a sensing element that is formed by depositing a very thin layer of resistive material, normally platinum, on a ceramic substrate. This layer is usually just 10 to 100 angstroms (1 to 10 nanometers) thick. This film is then coated with an epoxy or glass that helps protect the deposited film and also acts as a strain relief for the external lead-wires. Disadvantages of this type are that they are not as stable as their wire 36

wound or coiled counterparts. They also can only be used over a limited temperature range due to the different expansion rates of the substrate and resistive deposited giving a "strain gauge" effect that can be seen in the resistive temperature coefficient. These elements work with temperatures to 300 C.

Wire Wound PRT

Wire-wound elements can have greater accuracy, especially for wide temperature ranges. The coil diameter provides a compromise between mechanical stability and allowing expansion of the wire to minimize strain and consequential drift. The sensing wire is wrapped around an insulating mandrel or core. The winding core can be round or flat, but must be an electrical insulator. The coefficient of thermal expansion of the winding core material is matched to the sensing wire to minimize any mechanical strain. This strain on the element wire will result in a thermal measurement error. The sensing wire is connected to a larger wire, usually referred to as the element lead or wire. This wire is selected to be compatible with the sensing wire so that the combination does not generate an emf that would distort the thermal measurement. These elements work with temperatures to 660 C.

Coil Element PRT

Coiled elements have largely replaced wire-wound elements in industry. This design has a wire coil which can expand freely over temperature, held in place by some mechanical support which lets the coil keep its shape. This strain free design allows the sensing wire to expand and contract free of influence from other materials; in this respect it is similar to the SPRT, the primary standard upon which ITS-90 is based, while providing the durability necessary for industrial use. The basis of the sensing element is a small coil of platinum sensing wire. This coil resembles a filament in an incandescent light bulb. The housing or mandrel is a hard fired ceramic oxide tube with equally spaced bores that run transverse to the axes. The coil is inserted in the bores of the mandrel and then packed with a very finely ground ceramic powder. This permits the sensing wire to move while still remaining in good thermal contact with the process. These Elements works with temperatures to 850 C.

R vs T relationship of various metals: Common RTD sensing elements constructed of platinum, copper or nickel have a unique, and repeatable and predictable resistance versus temperature relationship (R vs T) and operating temperature range. The R vs T relationship is defined as the amount of resistance change of the sensor per degree of temperature change. The relative change in resistance (temperature coefficient of resistance) varies only slightly over the useful range of the sensor. 37

Platinum is a noble metal and has the most stable resistance-temperature relationship over the largest temperature range. Nickel elements have a limited temperature range because the amount of change in resistance per degree of change in temperature becomes very non-linear at temperatures over 572 F (300 C). Copper has a very linear resistance-temperature relationship, however copper oxidizes at moderate temperatures and cannot be used over 302 F (150 C). Platinum is the best metal for RTDs because it follows a very linear resistance-temperature relationship and it follows the R vs T relationship in a highly repeatable manner over a wide temperature range. The unique properties of platinum make it the material of choice for temperature standards over the range of -272.5 C to 961.78 C, and is used in the sensors that define the International Temperature Standard, ITS-90. Platinum is chosen also because of its chemical inertness. The significant characteristic of metals used as resistive elements is the linear approximation of the resistance versus temperature relationship between 0 and 100 C. This temperature coefficient of resistance is called alpha, . The equation below defines ; its units are ohm/ohm/C.

the resistance of the sensor at 0C the resistance of the sensor at 100C Pure platinum has an alpha of 0.003925 ohm/ohm/C and is used in the construction of laboratory grade RTDs. Conversely two widely recognized standards for industrial RTDs IEC 60751 and ASTM E-1137 specify an alpha of 0.00385 ohms/ohm/C. Before these standards were widely adopted several different alpha values were used. It is still possible to find older probes that are made with platinum that have alpha values of 0.003916 ohms/ohm/C and 0.003902 ohms/ohm/C. These different alpha values for platinum are achieved by doping; basically carefully introducing impurities into the platinum. The impurities introduced during doping become embedded in the lattice structure of the platinum and result in a different R vs. T curve and hence alpha value.

Advantages and limitations: The advantages of platinum resistance thermometers include:

High accuracy Low drift Wide operating range Suitability for precision applications Limitations: RTDs in industrial applications are rarely used above 660 C. At temperatures above 660 C it becomes increasingly difficult to prevent the platinum from becoming contaminated by impurities from the metal sheath 38

of the thermometer. This is why laboratory standard thermometers replace the metal sheath with a glass construction. At very low temperatures, say below -270 C (or 3 K), because there are very few phonons, the resistance of an RTD is mainly determined by impurities and boundary scattering and thus basically independent of temperature. As a result, the sensitivity of the RTD is essentially zero and therefore not useful.

Compared to thermistors, platinum RTDs are less sensitive to small temperature changes and have a slower response time. However, thermistors have a smaller temperature range and stability.

5. Thermistors:
A thermistor is an electrical resistor used to measure temperature. A thermistor designed such that its resistance varies with temperature. A thermistor is a type of resistor whose resistance varies significantly with temperature, more so than in standard resistors. The word is a portmanteau of thermal and resistor. Thermistors are widely used as inrush current limiters, temperature sensors, self-resetting overcurrent protectors, and self-regulating heating elements. Thermistors differ from resistance temperature detectors (RTD) in that the material used in a thermistor is generally a ceramic or polymer, while RTDs use pure metals. The temperature response is also different; RTDs are useful over larger temperature ranges, while thermistors typically achieve a higher precision within a limited temperature range, typically 90 C to 130 C.

Basic operation: Assuming, as a first-order approximation, that the relationship between resistance and temperature is linear, then:

where = change in resistance = change in temperature 39

= first-order temperature coefficient of resistance Thermistors can be classified into two types, depending on the sign of . If is positive, the resistance increases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a positive temperature coefficient (PTC) thermistor, or posistor. If is negative, the resistance decreases with increasing temperature, and the device is called a negative temperature coefficient (NTC) thermistor. Resistors that are not thermistors are designed to have a as close to zero as possible, so that their resistance remains nearly constant over a wide temperature range. Instead of the temperature coefficient k, sometimes the temperature coefficient of resistance is used. It is defined as[2] (alpha sub T)

Conduction model: NTC: Many NTC thermistors are made from a pressed disc or cast chip of a semiconductor such as a sintered metal oxide. They work because raising the temperature of a semiconductor increases the number of electrons able to move about and carry charge - it promotes them into the conduction band. The more charge carriers that are available, the more current a material can conduct. This is described in the formula: , where =electric current (amperes) = density of charge carriers (count/m) = cross-sectional area of the material (m) = velocity of charge carriers (m/s) = charge of an electron( coulomb)

The current is measured using an ammeter. Over large changes in temperature, calibration is necessary. Over small changes in temperature, if the right semiconductor is used, the resistance of the material is linearly proportional to the temperature. There are many different semiconducting thermistors with a range from about 0.01 kelvin to 2,000 kelvins (273.14 C to 1,700 C)

PTC: Most PTC thermistors are of the "switching" type, which means that their resistance rises suddenly at a certain critical temperature. The devices are made of a doped polycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. The dielectric constant of this ferroelectric material varies with temperature. Below the Curie point temperature, the high dielectric constant prevents the formation of potential barriers between the crystal grains, leading to a low resistance. In this region the device has a small negative temperature coefficient. At the Curie point temperature, the dielectric constant drops sufficiently to allow the formation of potential barriers at the grain boundaries, and the resistance increases sharply. At even higher 40

temperatures, the material reverts to NTC behaviour. The equations used for modeling this behaviour were derived by W. Heywang and G. H. Jonker in the 1960s. Another type of PTC thermistor is the polymer PTC, which is sold under brand names such as "Polyswitch" "Semifuse", and "Multifuse". This consists of a slice of plastic with carbon grains embedded in it. When the plastic is cool, the carbon grains are all in contact with each other, forming a conductive path through the device. When the plastic heats up, it expands, forcing the carbon grains apart, and causing the resistance of the device to rise rapidly. Like the BaTiO3 thermistor, this device has a highly nonlinear resistance/temperature response and is used for switching, not for proportional temperature measurement. Yet another type of thermistor is a silistor, a thermally sensitive silicon resistor. Silistors employ silicon as the semiconductive component material. In contrary to the "switching" type thermistor, silistors have an almost linear resistance-temperature characteristic. Thermistors usually are made of a semiconductor and have the following properties: Much larger dR/dT than RTDs

Fast Response Fast Response Inconsistent, must be calibrated individually Can change over time

Applications:

PTC thermistors can be used as current-limiting devices for circuit protection, as replacements for fuses. Current through the device causes a small amount of resistive heating. If the current is large enough to generate more heat than the device can lose to its surroundings, the device heats up, causing its resistance to increase. This creates a self-reinforcing effect that drives the resistance upwards, therefore limiting the current. PTC thermistors were used as timers in the degaussing coil circuit of most CRT displays. When the display unit is initially switched on, current flows through the thermistor and degaussing coil. The coil and thermistor are intentionally sized so that the current flow will heat the thermistor to the point that the degaussing coil shuts off in under a second. For effective degaussing, it is necessary that the magnitude of the alternating magnetic field produced by the degaussing coil decreases smoothly and continuously, rather than sharply switching off or decreasing in steps; the PTC thermistor accomplishes this naturally as it heats up. A degaussing circuit using a PTC thermistor is simple, reliable (for its simplicity), and inexpensive. PTC thermistors were used as heater in automotive industry to provide additional heat inside cabin with diesel engine or to heat diesel in cold climatic conditions before engine injection.

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NTC thermistors are used as resistance thermometers in low-temperature measurements of the order of 10 K. NTC thermistors can be used as inrush-current limiting devices in power supply circuits. They present a higher resistance initially which prevents large currents from flowing at turn-on, and then heat up and become much lower resistance to allow higher current flow during normal operation. These thermistors are usually much larger than measuring type thermistors, and are purposely designed for this application. NTC thermistors are regularly used in automotive applications. For example, they monitor things like coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside the engine and provide data to the ECU and, indirectly, to the dashboard. NTC thermistors can be also used to monitor the temperature of an incubator. Thermistors are also commonly used in modern digital thermostats and to monitor the temperature of battery packs while charging. Thermistors are often used in the hot ends of 3D printers; they monitor the heat produced and allow the printer's control circuitry to keep a constant temperature for melting the plastic filament. NTC thermistors are used in the Food Handling and Processing industry, especially for food storage systems and food preparation. Maintaining the correct temperature is critical to prevent food borne illness. NTC thermistors are used throughout the Consumer Appliance industry for measuring temperature. Toasters, coffee makers, refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers, etc. all rely on thermistors for proper temperature control.

6. Thermocouples:
Thermocouples operate on the principle that a voltage is generated by two dissimilar metals in contact with each other when a temperature variation exists through the metals. Thermocouples are active measurement devices since there is no power input to thermocouples. Temperature difference generates voltage. The thermocouple effect (the Seebeck effect) when showing that a new voltage is generated when the junctions of different metals are heated to different temperatures.Thermocouples can be used over a wide range of temperatures, from liquid helium (-270C) to high temperature furnaces (2200C).Many of the thermocouple combinations give a nearly linear output in a wide range of temperatures. The number of potential combinations is virtually infinite. A few examples are given in the Table below:

How to Select Thermocouple:-

Junction protection: sheath or not Tip size: big or small 42

Thermocouple type (T, J, K, E, S, R): Temperature range (cryogenic or high temperature) Corrosion (noble metal is more inert to chemical attack) Termination: wire or connector Cost

Operation Principles of Thermocouples: Metals used for thermocouples can be classified in terms of thermoelectricpolarity.A positive material is one on which the EMF increases with temperature alongits length. Materials which are more greatly positive than others have a higher EMF vs temp. slope. As an example, an iron-palladium thermocouple, the cold end of the iron will be positive with respect to the cold end of the palladium.

If this circuit is broken at the center, net open circuit voltage (Seebeck voltage) is a function of the junction temperature and this varies with the composition of the two metals.

Types of thermocouples: ASTM, which is recognized in the United States as the authority for temperature measurement, has established guidelines for the different thermocouple types. These guidelines cover composition, color codes, and manufacturing specifications.

BASE METAL THERMOCOUPLES 43

Base metal thermocouple types are composed of common, inexpensive metals such as nickel, iron and copper. The thermocouple types E, J, K, N and T are among this group and are the most commonly used type of thermocouple. Each leg of these different thermocouples is composed of a special alloy, which is usually referred to by their common names. Type E The type E thermocouple is composed of a positive leg of chromel (nickel/10% chromium) and a negative leg of constantan (nickel/45% copper). The temperature range for this thermocouple is 330 to 1600F (-200 to 900C). The type E thermocouple has the highest millivolt (EMF) output of all established thermocouple types. Type E sensors can be used in sub-zero, oxidizing or inert applications but should not be used in sulfurous, vacuum or low oxygen atmospheres. The color code for type E is purple for positive and red for negative. Type J Type J thermocouples have an iron positive leg and a constantan negative leg. Type J thermocouples have a useful temperature range of 32 to 1400F (0 to 750C) and can be used in vacuum, oxidizing, reducing and inert atmospheres. Due to the oxidation (rusting) problems associated with the iron leg, care must be used when choosing this type for use in oxidizing environments above 1000F. The color code for type J is white for positive and red for negative. Type K The type K thermocouple has a Chromel positive leg and an Alumel (nickel/ 5% aluminum and silicon) negative leg. The temperature range for type K alloys is 328 to 2282F (-200 to 1250C). Type K sensors are recommended for use in oxidizing or completely inert environments. Type K and type E should not be used in sulfurous environments. Because type K has better oxidation resistance then types E, J and T, its main area of usage is at temperatures above 1000F but vacuum and low oxygen conditions should be avoided. Type N Type N thermocouples are made with a Nicrosil (nickel 14% chromium 1.5 % silicon) positive leg and a Nisil (nickel 4.5% silicon - .1% magnesium) negative leg. The temperature range for Type N is 450 to 2372F (-270 to 1300C) and the color code is orange for positive and red for negative. Type N is very similar to Type K except that it is less susceptible to selective oxidation. Type N should not be used in vacuum and reducing environments in an unsheathed design.

NOBLE METAL THERMOCOUPLES

Noble metal thermocouples are manufactured with wire that is made with precious or noble metals like Platinum and Rhodium. Noble metal thermocouples are for use in oxidizing or inert applications and must be used with a ceramic protection tube surrounding the thermocouple element. These sensors are usually fragile and must not be used in applications that are reducing or in applications that contain metallic vapors. Type R Type R thermocouples are made with a platinum/13% rhodium positive leg and a pure platinum negative leg. The temperature range for type R is 32 2642F (0 to 1450C) and the color code is black for positive and red for negative. Type S Type S thermocouples are made with a platinum/10% rhodium positive leg and a pure platinum negative leg. The temperature range for type S is 32 2642F (0 to 1450C) and the color code is black for positive and red for negative. Type B Type B thermocouples are made with a platinum/30% rhodium positive leg and a platinum/6% Rhodium negative leg. The temperature range for type r is 32 3092F (0 to 1700C) and the color code is gray for positive and red for negative.

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Temperature Sensors Comparision:

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3. PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
What is pressure? Pressure is the normal force per unit area exerted by a quid upon a surface. It has the same units as stress. In gases, pressure has a statistical interpretation. The pressure is a measure of the average kinetic energy of molecules impacting the containing walls The SI unit of pressure is the Pascal (Pa), which equals 1N/m 2. In English units, the unit is the psi (pound per square inch). Pressure may be measured in atmospheres, bar or in terms of the height of a liquid column (usually Mercury). The value of the force per unit area on one side of the container wall corresponds to the absolute pressure. If we subtract the atmospheric pressure from the absolute pressure, we Get gage or manometric pressure. So absolute pressure=gauge pressure+atmospheric pressure The absolute pressure cannot be negative, since zero absolute pressure means no molecules. This implies that a vacuum pressure lower than the atmospheric pressure can never be obtained. Pressure is probably one of the most commonly measured variables in the power plant. It includes the measurement of steam pressure; feed water pressure, condenser pressure, lubricating oil pressure and many more. Pressure is actually the measurement of force acting on area of surface. We could represent this as: 46

The units of measurement are either in pounds per square inch (PSI) in British units or Pascals (Pa) in metric. As one PSI is approximately 7000 Pa, we often use kPa and MPa as units of pressure. Pressure Scales: Pressure varies depending on altitude above sea level, weather pressure fronts and other conditions. The measure of pressure is, therefore, relative and pressure measurements are stated as either gauge or absolute. Gauge pressure is the unit we encounter in everyday work (e.g., tire ratings are in gauge pressure). A gauge pressure device will indicate zero pressure when bled down to atmospheric pressure (i.e., gauge pressure is referenced to atmospheric pressure). Gauge pressure is denoted by a (g) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g., kPa (g)]. Absolute pressure includes the effect of atmospheric pressure with the gauge pressure. It is denoted by an (a) at the end of the pressure unit [e.g., kPa (a)]. An absolute pressure indicator would indicate atmospheric pressure when completely vented down to atmosphere - it would not indicate scale zero. Absolute Pressure = Gauge Pressure + Atmospheric Pressure Figure illustrates the relationship between absolute and gauge. Note that the base point for gauge scale is [0 kPa (g)] or standard atmospheric pressure 101.3 kPa (a). The majority of pressure measurements in a plant are gauge. Absolute measurements tend to be used where pressures are below atmosphere. Typically this is around the condenser and vacuum building.

Relationship between Absolute and Gauge Pressures

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Pressure Measurement: The object of pressure sensing is to produce a dial indication, control operation or a standard (4 - 20 mA) electronic signal that represents the pressure in a process. To accomplish this, most pressure sensors translate pressure into physical motion that is in proportion to the applied pressure. The most common pressure sensors or primary pressure elements are described below. They include diaphragms, pressure bellows, bourdon tubes and pressure capsules. With these pressure sensors, physical motion is proportional to the applied pressure within the operating range. Mechanical pressure elements

1. BOURDON TUBE:
The Bourdon Tube is a nonliquid pressure measurement device. It is widely used in applications where inexpensive static pressure measurements are needed. A typical Bourdon tube contains a curved tube that is open to external pressure input on one end and is coupled mechanically to an indicating needle on the other end, as shown schematically below.

Typical Bourdon Tube Pressure Gages

The external pressure is guided into the tube and causes it to flex, resulting in a change in curvature of the tube. These curvature changes are linked to the dial indicator for a number readout. Alternatively, a strain gage circuit can be attached on the tube to convert the pressure-induced deflections into electric voltage signals. These signals can then be output electronically, rather than mechanically with the dial indicator. There are three basic designs of a bourdon tube: A) C-Spring Bourdon Tube b) Spiral Bourdon Tube c) Helical Bourdon Tube

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As pressure is applied to a C-spring bourdon tube, the C-shaped spring wants to straighten out. Movement of the free end gives a reading on a gauge. Motion of the free-end is non-linear, but it can be linearized by using cams and gears. 1. C-springs are limited to 20,000psi and their inaccuracy is about 1%. One big disadvantage is that error can be introduced from surrounding vibrations. C-springs can also be connected to a transmitter to produce an output signal. 2. Spiral-type bourdon tubes are more accurate than C-spring ones because for every unit of pressure that is applied, more motion of the tube is done. They are more sensitive and more accurate than a C-spring. 3. Helical bourdon tubes produce the largest amount of motion out of the 3 types of bourdon tubes, and have much better over-range protection than spiral type. The helical types won't become damaged if you go over the pressure limit a little bit. Pros and Cons: Pros Cons Limited to static or quasi-static measurements. Accuracy may be insufficient for many applications. A mercury barometer can be used to calibrate and check Bourdon Tubes. Portable Convenient No leveling required

2. Bellows :

A bellows is made of several capsules. These are hollow flattened structures made from thin metal plate. When pressurized the bellows expand and produce mechanical movement. If the bellows is encapsulated inside an outer container, then the movement is proportional to the difference between the pressure on the inside and outside. Bellows and single capsules are used in many instruments. They are very useful for measuring small pressures.

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A bellows gauge contains an elastic element that is a convoluted unit that expands and contracts axially with changes in pressure. The pressure to be measured can be applied to the outside or inside of the bellows.

However, in practice, most bellows measuring devices have the pressure applied to the outside of the bellows. Like Bourdon-tube elements, the elastic elements in bellows gauges are made of brass, phosphor bronze, stainless steel, beryllium-copper, or other metal that is suitable for the intended purpose of the gauge. Most bellows gauges are spring-loaded; that is, a spring opposes the bellows, thus preventing full expansion of the bellows. Limiting the expansion of the bellows in this way protects the bellows and prolongs its life. In a springloaded bellows element, the deflection is the result of the force acting on the bellows and the opposing force of the spring. Although some bellows instruments can be designed for measuring pressures up to 800 psig, their primary application aboard ship is in the measurement of low pressures or small pressure differentials.

3. Diaphragms:
A diaphragm is a circular-shaped convoluted membrane that is attached to the pressure fixture around the circumference. The pressure medium is on one side and the indication medium is on the other. The deflection that is created by pressure in the vessel would be in the direction of the arrow indicated.

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Diaphragms provide fast acting and accurate pressure indication. However, the movement or stroke is not as large as the bellows. The diaphragm has a flexible membrane with two sides. On one side is an enclosed capsule containing air or some other fluid at a predetermined pressure? The other side can be left open to the air or screwed in to whatever system the gauge is meant to measure. The diaphragm also attaches to some sort of meter, which shows how high the pressure is. Detecting Pressure A fluid in contact with a flexible membrane pushes on that membrane, bending it. The pressure is a measure of how hard it pushes. When the outside preference is low, the reference pressure bends the membrane out. As the outside pressure increases, it pushes back on the membrane, bending it back the other way. By measuring how far the membrane bends, the gauge can detect the outside pressure. Measuring the Pressure There are many different ways to measure the pressure from a dynamic pressure gauge. One of the simplest ones is to attach a needle to the gauge. When the pressure increases, it pushes on the needle, moving it up and down along a dial which shows the pressure. Another way is to use an electric resistance strain gauge. An electric resistance strain gauge uses a long strip of an electric resistor--a device that resists the flow of electricity. The resistor is attached to the diaphragm. As the diaphragm bends, it stretches out the resistor, increasing the resistance. The resistor has an electric current running through it. The more the diaphragm bends and increases the resistance, the more the current drops. By measuring the electric current, the gauge can determine how far the diaphragm has bent, and thus, how much pressure the outside air is creating.

4. Manometers:
A very simple device used to measure pressure is the manometer: a uid-lled tube where an appliedgas pressure causes the uid height to shift proportionately. This is why pressure is often measured in units of liquid height (e.g. Inches of water, inches of mercury). A manometer is fundamentally an instrument of dierential pressure measurement, indicating the dierence between two pressures by a shift in liquid column height:

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It is entirely acceptable to simply vent one tube of a manometer and use it as a gauge pressure instrument, comparing the applied pressure at one tube against atmospheric pressure in the other. Manometers come in a variety of forms, the most common being the U-tube, well (sometimes called a cistern), raised well, and inclined:

U-tube manometers are very inexpensive, and are generally made from clear plastic. Cistern-style manometers are the norm for calibration bench work, and are typically constructed from metal cisterns and glass tubes Inclined manometers are used to measure very low pressures, owing to their exceptional sensitivity. Absolute pressure may also be measured by a manometer, if one of the pressure ports connects to a sealed vacuum chamber. This is how a mercury barometer is constructed for the measurement of absolute ambient air pressure: by sealing o one side of a manometer and removing all the air in that side, such that the applied (atmospheric) pressure is always compared against a vacuum. 52

Manometers incorporating a well have the advantage of single-point reading: one need only compare the height of one liquid column, not the dierence in height between two liquid columns. The cross-sectional area of the liquid column in the well is so much greater than that within the transparent manometer tube that the change in height within the well is usually negligible. In cases where the dierence is signicant, the spacing between divisions on the manometer scale may be skewed to compensate. Inclined manometers enjoy the advantage of increased sensitivity. Since manometers fundamentally operate on the principle of pressure balanced by liquid height, and this liquid height is always measured parallel to the line of gravitational pull (perfectly vertical), inclining the manometer tube means that liquid must travel farther along the tube to generate the same change in (purely) vertical height than it would in a vertical manometer tube. Thus, an inclined manometer tube causes an amplication in liquid motion for a given amount of pressure change, allowing measurements of greater resolution.

5. McLeod Gauge:
The McLeod Gage is considered the standard for low-pressure (vacuum) measurements, where the pressure is below 10-4 torr (10-4 mmHg, 1.3310-2 Pa, 1.9310-6 psi). A McLeod Gage compresses a sample of low pressure gas to a sufficiently high pressure, obtains the compressed pressure from a standard manometer, and then calculates the original low pressure through Boyle's law. The compression is passed through a dense, nearlyincompressible, low vapor pressure fluid, such as mercury. A schematic of the McLeod Gage is shown below.

Typical McLeod Gage and Its Measurement The error in typical McLeod gage measurements is usually larger than 1% and may be much larger, due to the possibility of gas to liquid (or solid) phase change during compression, and to the contamination by mercury vapors.

Pros and Cons Pros:

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- Can serve as a reliable benchmark. - Simple and reliable.

Cons: -Limited to static measurements. -Accuracy may not high enough for some applications. -Cannot be used in weightless (0 g) environments. -The liquid in the McLeod Gage must NOT interact with the targeted gas. -Condensation of low-pressure gas to the liquid/solid phase may occur during the compression stage. -Contamination by mercury vapors may occur.

6. Capacitive pressure sensors:

Capacitive pressure sensors use the electrical property of capacitance to measure the displacement of a diaphragm. The diaphragm is an elastic pressure sensor displaced in proportion to changes in pressure. It acts as one plate of a capacitor. The diaphragm consists of a thin plate of metal alloy, such as stainless steel or brass. It is circular and fixed continuously around its edges to a cylinder. This diagram shows how it displaces when a pressure is applied to it. It is a differential pressure sensor, because it is subject to atmospheric pressure. The amount by which the diaphragm moves with respect to the unknown pressure applied to it depends on its shape and construction, size, thickness, and material. Therefore the precise relationship between pressure and displacement varies with each design. However, the displacement is small, rarely more than a few millimeters, often fractions of a millimeter. Because of this, these devices are often individually calibrated (against an accurate inclined tube manometer, for example

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Because the displacement of the diaphragm is small, a displacement sensing device with high resolution, sensitivity and accuracy is required. Also, a non-contact device is required as any mechanical resistance will reduce the displacement even more. Using the diaphragm as one plate of a capacitor is a non-contact displacement sensing method, providing an electrical output with infinite resolution particularly suited to small displacements. This diagram shows a diaphragm and capacitor combination. One plate of the capacitor is fixed; the other plate is the diaphragm. The dielectric is usually air. Notice that it does not use the variable area technique like the capacitive displacement sensor. Instead, the distance between the plates is varied. When there is a change in pressure, the diaphragm deflects in proportion to it, and this causes the distance d between the plates of the capacitor to change. The capacitance c of the capacitor is (approximately) inversely proportional to the distance d between the plates. That is, c 1/d. An electrical signal is connected to the two plates of the capacitor. The change in value of the capacitance causes this electrical signal to vary. This is then conditioned and displayed on a device calibrated in terms of pressure. There are techniques other than change in capacitance used to measure the displacement of a diaphragm. For example, another design of pressure sensor uses a diaphragm made from silicon. Semiconductor strain gauges are diffused into the diaphragm. They are arranged in a form similar to the Wheatstone bridge. A stable electrical output is produced, and the arrangement of the strain gauges compensates for temperature changes. However, these types of pressure sensor are relatively expensive. Because of the sensitivity of diaphragm based pressure sensors, they are used to measure small changes in pressure. An example application is small changes in pressure in liquid or gas pipelines so that the flow rate can be measured. See the flow section for how this achieved.

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7. Piezoresistive and strain gauge pressure sensors: A pressure sensor similar to the piezoelectric pressure sensor is the piezoresistive pressure sensor. These devices use silicon Diaphragms, which form part of a semiconductor integrated circuit chip. Piezoresistivity is a strain dependent resistivity in single crystal semiconductors. Four piezoresistors on the diaphragm form a Wheatstone bridge as shown here. When pressure is applied to the diaphragm it causes a strain in the resistors. The resistance of the piezoresistors changes in proportion to this strain, and hence the change in pressure. A typical specification of a piezoresistive pressure transducer can be found in the [reference section]. The range of piezoresistive pressure sensors is normally low, typically at a maximum of about 0 to 200 kPa. They are used where good repeatability, high accuracy, low hysteresis and long term stability are required. A typical application is in sensing the pressure at the bottom of a water tank. This pressure is directly related to the depth of water, and so the pressure sensor forms part of a level measurement system. For measuring higher pressure ranges, instead of piezoresistors, bonded resistance strain gauges may be used. These are based on a similar principle to the piezoresistive strain gauge, in that the resistors are bonded to a diaphragm and formed into a Wheatstone bridge. They can measure pressures up to about 25000 kPa.

Strain gauge

8. Pirani Gauge: The Pirani gauge is a roughing pressure vacuum gauge. It uses the thermal conductivity of gases to measure pressure. The Pirani gauge head is based around a heated wire placed in a vacuum system, the electrical resistance of the wire being proportional to its temperature.At atmospheric pressure, gas molecules collide with the wire and remove heat energy from it (effectively cooling the wire). As gas molecules are removed 56

(when the system is pumped down) there are less molecules and therefore less col-lisions. Fewer collisions mean that less heat is removed from the wire and so it heats up. As it heats up, its electrical resistance increases. A simple circuit utilising the wire detects the change in resistance and, once calibrated, can directly correlate the relationship between pressure and resistance. This effect only works in the pressure region from atmosphere to approx 10 -3 mbar. Therefore other types of gauge have to be used to measure pressures lower than this.

9. Ionization Gauges:
When operating below the Pirani gauge range, an ion gauge can be used to measure pressure. There are a range of gauge heads and filament materials to cover specific pressure ranges and vacuum requirements in this region. The ion gauge consists of three distinct parts; the filament, the grid, and the collector. The filament produces electrons by thermonic emission. A positive charge on the grid attracts the electrons away from the filament; they circulate around the grid passing through the fine structure many times until eventually they collide with the grid. Gas molecules inside the grid may collide with circulating electrons. The collision can result in the gas molecule being ionised. The collector inside the grid is negatively charged and attracts these positively charged ions. Likewise they are repelled from the positive grid at the same time. The number of ions collected by the collector is directly proportional to the number of molecules inside the vacuum system. By this method, measuring the collected ion current gives a direct reading of the pressure. There are other factors which determine the lowest pressure that a gauge head can measure. One of these limiting factors is the X-ray limit. When an electron collides with the grid, there is a probability of a photoelectron being produced. Once generated, there is also a chance that the photoelectron will hit the collector and produce an electron. Unfortunately, the collector does not know the electrical difference between collecting a positive charge and losing a negative charge. This means that every time an electron is knocked off the collector, the electronics measure it as receiving a positive ion instead. This effect is very small and depends on the design of the gauge head. It normally generates a current measured in the picoamp range. At 10 -10 to 10 11 mbar, however, this is also the current produced by the gauge head itself. If pressure is plotted against current, the graph can be seen to tail off as this X-ray current becomes the dominant effect. The X-ray current therefore limits the lowest pressure that the ion gauge can measure. 57

IONIZATION GAUGE

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4. LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Level measurement refers to instrumentation techniques designed to measure the height of a fluid or solid within a containing vessel. BASIC OBJECTIVES OF THE TRAINING. KNOWING DIFFERENT TYPES OF LEVEL MEASURING TECHNIQUES IN DIFFERENT TYPES OF SERVICES IN PLANT. KNOWING THE ACCESSORIES REQUIRED OTHER THAN PRIMARY ELEMENTS.

Different types of Level Measurement Techniques (1) Capacitive level measurement (2) Displacers / Floats type (3) Differential Pressure type (4) Bubbler level measurement (5) Radar level measurment (6) Nuclear level measurment (7) Ultrasonic level measurement

1.Capacitive level measurement:

Capacitive level measurement is based on the condenser principle. Measurement electrodes, product and containers form an electrical condenser. The capacity of a condenser is defined by three parameters:

Size of the electrode surfaces Distance between the electrode surfaces Material between the electrodes (insulator)

The capacity of a cylinder condenser is calculated using the following equation: 59

Advantages and disadvantages of capacitive level measurement Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple application Low investment costs Also suitable for gas overlays and steam formation in the container.

Tangential measurement Type of electrode highly dependent on product attributes Non-conductive and conductive media cannot be measured with the same measuring probe.

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2. Differential pressure type level measurement:

The overlay pressure on containers overlaid with inert gas or breathed through sterile filters distorts the measurement of a hydrostatic level measurement, this pressure must be measured with a second pressure transmitter and subtracted from the total pressure measured in the bottom container section, in order to determine the correct hydrostatic pressure. The pressure differential measurement, there are two ways of measuring the pressure differential.

HFST=PHydr/g

Advantages

Disadvantages

Simple application Relatively low investment costs Can be used for pressure overlay containers and containers with sterile filters High level of accuracy

Tangential measurement Temperature-dependent, as the density of the measuring media is also temperature-dependent Media with different densities cannot be measured without reconfiguration.

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3. Displacer/float type level measurement:

Float devices operate on the buoyancy Principle, as liquid level changes a (predominately) sealed container will, providing its density is lower than that of the liquid, move correspond- -ingly. Displacers work on the Archimedes Principle, when a body is immersed in a fluid it loses weight equal to that of the fluid displaced. By detection of the apparent weight of the immersed displacer, a level measurement can be inferred. When the cross sectional area of the displacer and the density of the liquid is constant, then a unit change in level will result in a reproducible unit change in displacer weight. Advantages: Both floats and displacers work well with clean liquids and are accurate and adaptable to wide variations in fluid densities. Once commissioned the process fluid measured must maintain its density if repeatability is required, this is particularly true of displacers. Float Switches are available with a glandless design and are capable of fail safe operation in extreme process conditions, unlike displacers, which if the torque tube fails can provide a leak path. Disadvantages: Displacers are affected by changes in product density since the displacement of the body (its weight loss) is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced. If the specific gravity changes, then the weight of the displaced material changes, thus changing the calibration. This is especially problematic in interface measurements, where both liquids increase or decrease density, while the signal is proportional to the density difference.

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4. Bubbler level measurement .:

Theory: This simple level measurement has a dip tube installed with the open end close to the bottom of the process vessel. A flow of gas, usually air or nitrogen passes through the tube and the resultant air pressure in the tube corresponds to the hydraulic head of the liquid in the vessel. The air pressure in the bubbler tube varies proportionally with the change in head pressure.

Advantages Simplicity of design and low initial purchase cost are frequently given as advantages of bubblers, but this is somewhat misleading. The system consists of a pipe, an air supply, a pressure transmitter and a differential pressure regulator. The regulator produces the constant gas flow required to prevent calibration changes. Disadvantages Calibration is directly affected by changes in product density. It is frequently also necessary to periodically clean this device. The tip of the pipe can collect material from the process, solidify, and plug the hole. Bubblers are not suitable for use in non-vented vessels.

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5. Radar level measurement:

Theory: The two technologies on the market are frequency modulated continuous wave (FMCW) or pulsed wave time of flight. Pulsed Wave systems emit a microwave burst towards the process material, this burst is reflected by the surface of the material and detected by the same sensor which now acts as a receiver. Level is inferred from the time of flight (transmission to reception) of the microwave signal. Microwave "echoes" are evaluated by sampling and building up a historical profile of the echoes. FMCW systems, however, continuously emit a swept frequency signal and distance is inferred from the difference in frequency between the transmit and receive signals at any point in time. Advantages: This non-contact technology produces highly accurate measurements in storage tanks and some process vessels. Radar is an excellent, but fairly expensive technology for continuous level measurements. Several manufacturers have reduced the cost of the technology with various process radar offerings. These systems do not have the accuracy (and associated cost) of radar used for inventory control. In conclusion, radar can be highly accurate, is immune to most vapours / physical characteristics of the measured media, other than, in some cases, dielectric constant. Disadvantages: Its primary disadvantage is cost, which can be justified for tank gauging and inventory control. The pressure ratings on radar antenna are limited and these devices cannot measure interfaces. Pulse radar has difficulty making accurate measurement when the media is in close proximity to the antenna because the time difference between send and return signals is too fast to measure accurately.

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6. Nuclear level measurement:

Theory Nucleonic level controls are used for point and continuous measurements, typically where most other technologies are unsuccessful. The radioisotopes used for level measurement emit energy at a fairly constant rate but in random bursts. Gamma radiation, the source generally used for nucleonic level gauging is similar to microwaves or even light. The short wavelength and higher energy of gamma radiation penetrates the vessel wall and process media. A detector on the other side of the vessel measures the radiation field strength and infers the level in the vessel. Different radioisotopes are used, based on the penetrating power needed to "see" the process within the vessel. With single point gauges the radiation provides a simple on/off switching function, whereas with continuous level measurement the percentage of transmission decreases as the level increases. Advantages As no penetration of the vessel is needed there are a number of situations that cause nucleonic transmitters to be considered over other technologies. These applications generally involve high temperatures / pressures or where toxic or corrosive materials are within the vessel. Placing the source and / or detector in wells within the vessel can reduce source sizes. An extension of this is to use a moving source within the vessel; this facilitates the unique ability to combine density profiling with accurate tracking of a moving interface. Disadvantages It would appear that nucleonic gauges provide a truly universal "fit and forget" level measurement technology. Although when the "cost of ownership" is calculated nuclear level measurement is often more expensive than conventional systems. Hidden costs include initial licensing and periodic surveying. These services are usually provided by external authorities or by the equipment supplier, assuming they have appropriately qualified staff. If no longer required, the nucleonic gauge must be disposed of through appropriately licensed, external organizations, which again can be a costly exercise.

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7. Ultrasonic level measurement:

Theory Ultrasonic transmitters work on the principle of sending a sound wave from a peizo electric transducer to the contents of the vessel. The device measures the length of time it takes for the reflected sound wave to return to the transducer. A successful measurement depends on reflection from the process material in a straight line back to the transducer. Ultrasonic waves detect an object in the same way as Radar does it. Ultrasonic uses the sound waves, and Radar uses radio waves. When ultrasonic pulse signal is targeted towards an object, it is reflected by the object and echo returns to the sender. The time travelled by the ultrasonic pulse is calculated, and the distance of the object is found. Bats use well known method to measure the distance while travelling. Ultrasonic level measurement principle is also used to find out fish positions in ocean, locate submarines below water level, also the position of a scuba diver in sea.

Advantages of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter: Ultrasonic level transmitter has no moving parts, and it can measure level without making physical contact with the object. This typical characteristic of the transmitter is useful for measuring levels in tanks with corrosive, boiling and hazardous chemicals. The accuracy of the reading remains unaffected even after changes in the chemical composition or the dielectric constant of the materials in the process fluids. Limitations of Ultrasonic Level Transmitter: Ultrasonic level transmitters are the best level measuring devices where the received echo of the ultrasound is of acceptable quality. It is not so convenient if the tank depth is high or the echo is absorbed or dispersed. The object s hould not be sound absorbing type. It is also unsuitable for tanks with too much smoke or high density moisture. 66

Liquids RF Admittance Ultrasonic Radar YES YES YES

Granulars LIMITED LIMITED LIMITED

Slurries YES YES YES

Interfaces YES CANT BE USED CANT BE USED

Differential Pressure

YES

CANT BE USED

LIMITED

LIMITED

Displacers Bubblers Nuclear

YES YES YES

CANT BE USED CANT BE USED LIMITED

LIMITED LIMITED YES

LIMITED CANT BE USED LIMITED

Code Key

O.K.

Use Caution

Not practical

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