Content Analysis of Selected Experts Flute Pedagogy Texts and Comparison With Common Flute Method Books For Beginners

Content Analysis of Selected Experts Flute Pedagogy Texts and Comparison with Common Flute Method Books for
Beginners
by
Angela McBrearty
Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts
Supervised by Professor Susan Wharton Conkling
Department of Music Education Eastman School of Music
University of Rochester Rochester, New York
2010
Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 2
Abstract Lehmann and Davidson (2002) indicate that experts already show those cognitive and psychomotor adaptations that non-experts are still trying to acquire, and therefore looking at experts might lead us to better understand where the novices development is heading (p. 544). For this study, I identified experts flute pedagogy texts and conducted a content analysis. The aim of the analysis was to establish which skills of flute playing, if practiced deliberately, might lead to expert performance. Principles of expert pedagogy were deduced. In the second phase of the research, I considered that many children in the United States have their initial exposure to the flute as a result of school music programs. I wanted to determine the extent to which beginning flute method books, which are common resources used by school music teachers, incorporated principles of expert pedagogy. Throughout the comparative analysis, I found that some principles of expert performance were represented in the flute method books for beginners, yet no method book comprehensively enveloped the principles. Therefore, this document concludes with a supplement to beginning flute method books, based on the principles of hand position, finger technique, embouchure, tone, and articulation that were found in the content analysis of expert pedagogical literature.
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................... 6 Expertise ..................................................................................................... 6 Research Aim and Procedures .................................................................... 8 Chapter 2: Content Analysis of Selected Pedagogical Texts ............................... 11 Findings..................................................................................................... 12 The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970) ....................................... 12 The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981). ............................... 15 Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988) .................................................................................. 18 The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002) .............................. 23 Summary ................................................................................................... 25 Chapter 3: Hand Position and Finger Technique .................................................. 33 Hand Position ............................................................................................ 33 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 35 Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 38 Finger Technique ...................................................................................... 40 Chapter 4: Air Stream and Embouchure Placement in the Production of Tone .............................................................. 43 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 46 Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 51 Chapter 5: Articulation ......................................................................................... 58 Commonly Used Method Books ............................................................... 60
Flute Books by Flute Specialists ............................................................... 60 Chapter 6: A Supplement for Teachers and Beginning Flute Students ............... 63 Hand Position Conducive to Efficient Finger Technique ......................... 63 Embouchure Conducive to Beautiful ToneError! Bookmark not defined. Articulation ................................................Error! Bookmark not defined. References ............................................................................................................. 88
List of Tables
Table 1. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Hand Position ... 26 Table 2. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Posture ............... 27 Table 3. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Embouchure ...... 28 Table 4. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Breathing ........... 29 Table 5. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Tone ................... 30 Table 6. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Articulation........ 31 Table 7. Content Analysis of Selected Flute Pedagogy Texts: Beyond Beginner Technique .............................................................................................. 32
Chapter 1: Introduction Expertise What is an expert? In many domains it is easy to recognize an expert: an Olympic athlete, a Pulitzer Prize winner, a chess grand master. In music, expertise is often recognized in a concert artist who performs all over the world, or a winner of a prestigious competition. In other words, performance is the pinnacle of expertise (Ericsson, Krampe, & Tesch-Rmer, 1993). Although the general public often assumes expertise is linked with giftedness, researchers suggest otherwise. According to research on expertise, two environmental factors typically outweigh innate ability in the development of expertise. First, parental support most often determines when a childs training begins (Ericsson et al., 1993). Second, deliberate practice is essential to achieve expertise in any domain (Gruber & Lehmann, 2006). Why should we examine expertise? Lehmann and Davidson (2002) indicate that experts already show those cognitive and psychomotor adaptations that non-experts are still trying to acquire, and therefore looking at experts might lead us to better understand where the novices development is heading (p. 544). The performance of experts provides a temporary pedagogical theory, a temporary scaffolding from which novices may learn to become more expert (Berliner, 1986, p. 6). Expert performers are, in some sense, expert teachers. They instruct using modeling and detailed description that a non-expert cannot provide (Berliner, 1986).
By studying models of expert performance and teaching, psychologists have recognized three phases of expertise development. The pre-instruction phase begins with an individuals introduction to activities in a domain and ends with the start of instruction and deliberate practice. The second phase consists of guided instruction, and the third phase consists of full-time commitment to improving performance. Whereas many individuals reach the second phase of expertise development, few make the transition to the last phase (Lehmann & Davidson, 2002). Following the development of three groups of violinists, Ericsson, Krampe and Tesch-Rmer (1993) introduced a central concept of expertise: deliberate practice leads to expert performance. Those who became professional performers accumulated more practice hours over their life spans. In fact, even at younger ages, this group of violinists practiced more than the amateur violinists. A similar study by Sloboda, Davidson, Howe, and Moore (1996) examined the achievements of five groups of music students, ranging from those who had dropped out of music performance to those achieving at high levels. In this study, too, musical achievement was significantly correlated with deliberate practice. Furthermore, Ericsson et al. (1993) reported that deliberate practice requires external resources, including parents, teachers, practice environments, and materials such as music instruments and texts. During childhood, parental support is a critical resource, because the cost in time and money for a child to sustain activity in music is often extreme. Supervision during practice is also an important resource for novices (Gruber & Lehmann, 2006, p. 461). Deliberate
practice improves the speed of operations, smoothness of operations, and reduces the demands of cognition, but only with appropriate feedback and monitoring (Feltovich, Prietula, & Ericsson, 2006). As a child matures, he or she becomes more independent, and capable of monitoring his or her own practice. A third important resource, at least in the first two phases of development, is an instructor (Lehmann & Davidson, 2002). Lack of any of these resources severely curtails development of expertise (Ericsson et al., 1993). Research Aim and Procedures Lehmann and Davidson (2002) claim that the research on expertise opens up an optimistic view for educators, because it does not focus on innate abilities (p. 557). Moreover, the authors indicate, we can try to adapt insights from this research [on expertise] to individual and group instruction (p. 556). Therefore, using research on expertise as a framework, the aim of the present study was to investigate resources available for teaching a novice flutist. The first stage of the research was identification and content analysis of pedagogical texts written by experts to determine which skills, if practiced, might lead to expert flute performance. Content analysis of these texts served, as Berliner (1986) suggested, as temporary pedagogical theory or scaffolding upon which other comparative analyses might take place. To determine which texts by pedagogy experts should be analyzed, I contacted five established professors of flute at conservatories and schools of music the United States, and I asked each for a list of five recommended texts. The most commonly cited texts included for use in this study were: The Simple
Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002), The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981), The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970), and Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988). In the second phase of the research, I considered that many children in the United States have their initial exposure to the flute as a result of school music programs. I wanted to determine the extent to which beginning flute method books, which are common resources used by school music teachers, incorporated principles of expert pedagogy. Consequently, I asked 30 instrumental music teachers in New York and Pennsylvania to name the flute method book utilized in beginning instruction at their schools. The most commonly used method books were: Breeze Easy (Anzalone, 1979), Essential Elements 2000: Comprehensive Band Method (Lautzenheiser, Higgens, Menghini, Lavender, Rhodes, & Bershenk, 2002), Accent on Achievement (OReilly & Williams, 1997), and Standard of Excellence (Pearson, 1993). Surprising to me, no elementary instrumental music teacher named a text for beginners written by a flute specialist. Therefore, I supplemented the teachers list of resources with four such texts: AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) is a British method written by a flutist with the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra and professor of flute in Cologne, Germany. A former flutist with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra wrote the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941), which was chosen as one of the oldest methods still published and used today. Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) was written by a former professor of
flute at the University of Idaho and clinician for the flute maker Gemeinhardt. It was selected because it includes many illustrations as well as descriptions. Mark Thomas Flute Method, Book I (Thomas, 1988), was developed by a well-known soloist and retired professor of flute. I then compared each of the flute method books to the content analysis of expert texts. I organized this comparative analysis according to some of the basic principles of expert performance deduced from the content analysis: (a) hand position and finger technique; (b) air stream and embouchure placement in the production of tone; and (c) articulation. Throughout the comparative analysis, I found that some principles of expert performance were represented in the flute method books for beginners, yet no method book comprehensively enveloped the principles. Finally, I created a chapter with photographs that demonstrate principles of expert performance. This chapter could be used to supplement any method book aimed at novice flutists. Flute students and flute teachers alike could view it as a resource to assist in the first two phases of expertise development.
Chapter 2: Content Analysis of Selected Pedagogical Texts In this chapter, I analyze the content of texts authored by expert flute pedagogues. To determine which of the expert resources on flute pedagogy should be reviewed and analyzed for purposes of this study, I surveyed five established professors of flute at conservatories and schools of music in the United States. I asked each of them to recommend five expert pedagogical texts. The most commonly cited texts were: The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002), The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981), The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970), and Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988). Using these texts as a context for expert flute pedagogy, and guided by the following questions, I set about analyzing the content of each text: 1. What are the fundamental aspects of flute performance? 2. What terms are used to describe aspects of flute performance? Content analysis is a systematic reading of text and may be either quantitative or qualitative in nature. Krippendorf (2004) contends, ultimately, all reading of texts is qualitative, even where certain characteristics of a text are later converted into numbers (p. 16). The author further posits that qualitative content analysis requires a close reading of texts, even reinterpreting them into new narratives. This particular content analysis is text-driven (Krippendorf, p. 341), motivated by the availability of the expert pedagogical texts. Categorization from these texts was established inductively, in keeping with other narrative traditions in the qualitative paradigm. I began with an assumption that the basic unit of
analysis would be the chapter; however, Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988), is a small compendium, so the paragraph served as a better unit of analysis. Additionally, The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002) is organized by topic, yet topics are linked in a refer to section that appears at the end of each entry. This linking function provided the mechanism that led to categorization and content analysis of the Debost text. I began analysis with a close reading of The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970), because it had the earliest publication date. First, I categorized the content, then counted pages and listed terms associated with a specific technical aspect of flute playing. I also searched the text content for links between one technical aspect of flute playing and another aspect. Then, I proceeded in a similar manner, moving in chronological order by publication date through the remaining three texts. Findings from the content analysis are detailed below and summarized in Tables 1-7 at the end of the chapter. Findings The Art of Flute Playing (Putnik, 1970). Edwin Putnik performed with the Chicago Symphony and the Lyric Opera of Chicago while teaching flute students at Northwestern University and the University of Illinois. Later, he taught flute students at Arizona State University, performed with the Gammage Woodwind Quintet, and performed as principal flutist in the Phoenix Symphony. The Art of Flute Playing, intended as a resource for both flute teacher and flute student, was published shortly after Putniks retirement from Arizona State University.
Divided into two sections, Part I covers basic principles for flute playing, and Part II is dedicated to artist development. Putnik begins by describing flutes: their kinds, materials, and shapes. There are five pages dedicated to this discourse. After this preliminary information, the author describes technical aspects of flute playing as if his readers were picking up the flute for the first time. To begin discussion of hand positions, Putnik first illustrates how to assemble the flute. Hand Position, then, refers to the exact placement of hands, arms and fingers on the flute. Terms and phrases used include hand positions, finger position, natural positions, support the flute, the flute rests, left wrist and arm, right wrist and arm, and thumb placement. Putnik discusses natural placement and natural support, and he includes areas of caution. He believes that problems incurred initially with hand position can create problems with tone and technique later in a students development. In the next chapter, Putnik focuses on basic embouchure, beginning with three pages on embouchure placement. The author uses diagrams to help explain the terms aperture, air column, stream of air, centered, coverage of lip plate, use of jaw and intonation. After placement of the embouchure, more is written on refining technique to produce a characteristic tone quality. Here, Putnik makes a direct connection between embouchure and tone. Six pages are dedicated to discussion of tone development using terms such as embouchure, blowing, stream of air, air column, corners of the mouth, upper/lower lip, mouth formation, aperture, centered, cover, angle, and jaw. Another eight pages of notated
exercises are added to aid in development of tone, along with several paragraphs of clarification intended to help produce the second and third octaves. Basic Articulation is the title of the next chapter. The author uses nine pages of description to clarify the correct position of the tongue. The terms tongue, attack, lips, and double and triple tonguing are used to describe the development of this technique. In the chapter entitled Breath Control, Putnik uses three pages to describe how to breathe properly while playing. The terms employed include diaphragm, abdominal muscles, steady pressure, support, chest muscles, lungs, phrasing (in reference to a breath), and vibrato. In the last chapter of Part I, titled Beginning Instruction, Putnik devotes 17 pages to other aspects of flute playing. The subtitles are Sequence and Technique, Correcting Common Problems, and Additional Precautions. Sequence and Technique refers to putting together hand positions, embouchure, jaw movement, and fingering to create first tones. Terms used here are tones, proper breathing, developing embouchure, jaw movement, long tones, octaves, fingerings, lip formation, and breath control. Correcting Common Problems is a distinctive feature of this text, mainly concerned with issues relating to the embouchure. Lack of muscular control and physical characteristics that can affect tone are addressed. Terms used in this section are: placement, physical characteristics, upper lip and lower lip, off-center, blowing, tone, and air column, fingering, relaxed fingers, finger action/dexterity, diaphragm, breathing, and muscles. Finally, in Additional Precautions, Putnik mentions bad habits in
breathing, tonguing, and finger motion that might develop. The chapter ends with a basic fingering chart. Part II, which covers 52 pages, is devoted to development of artistic performance, beyond the beginner level. The topic of tone quality is revisited, but it is discussed in terms of brilliance and size. Articulation is also described again in terms of legato, soft, and hard articulations and how to produce them. Notated exercises are included to illustrate and clarify the description. A chapter entitled Technical Development is dedicated to an overall concept of sound. Tone is described to the performer using terms such as clarity, brilliance, size, capacity for dynamics, evenness, sustained tones, and quality, tone is described to the performer. Chapter ten is entitled Pointers on Performance. It includes terms and topics such as rhythm and articulation (syncopation, rubato) phrasing and interpretation, vibrato, intonation, and ornamentation, along with notated examples. In the last chapter of this section, Putnik describes performance on other flutes such as the E-flat flute, alto flute, bass flute, and piccolo. The Art of Playing the Flute (Mather, 1981). Roger Mather was adjunct professor of music at the University of Iowa from 1973-1996. He was active as clinician, presenting workshops across the United States and as far away as Chenyang China at the International Music Festival. Mather is credited with dozens of articles on flutes and flute playing; in several articles, he was a proponent of breath support (as opposed to breath capacity) for achieving superior tone. He has made a number of presentations for the National Flute Association annual conventions, and he serves on the editorial board of The Flutist Quarterly.
For this study, I analyzed Mathers three volumes entitled The Art of Playing the Flute, Volume I: Breath Control (1980), Volume II: Embouchure (1981), and Volume III: Posture, Fingers, Resonances, Tonguing, Vibrato (1989). Volume I: Breath Control (1980) is a 79-page volume that gives details about breathing for playing the flute. The first two chapters are intended to acquaint the student with the anatomy of the breathing apparatus and increasing the understanding of air flow, pressure and speed. Terms include lungs, exhale/inhale, abdominal wall, diaphragm, and control. The remainder of the book describes goals of breath control and a basic method of breath control, along with more detailed information such as breathing in long passages. Terms used include breath supply, strength of sound, rib cage, mouth and nose, tonguing, reserve air, resonance, tone color, changing pitches, large breaths, shading the pitch, note endings, and developing muscle tone. As its title suggests, The Art of Playing the Flute, Volume II: Embouchure (1981) encompasses 104 pages on the topic of flute embouchure. Mather begins by explaining why embouchure is difficult to develop and why some lip shapes might not lend themselves to producing a good sound. The author describes how the flute works so a reader can understand the function of embouchure. He then describes a basic embouchure shape including lips, air reed, and air pressure. Terms used in this section include: lip opening, tapered ends, width, resistance, embouchure hole, breath control, tone color, raising and lowering the jaw, roll down, and pucker. Mather continues with an explanation of embouchure in
relation to intonation and achieving the second and subsequent octaves. Chapter Five includes a chart listing the embouchure changes for different octaves. The subject of tone is directly connected to embouchure, and Mather describes tone color and quality of sound. Throughout 101 paragraphs, Mather specifically employs the following terms: pucker your lips, use various vowel sounds (u,o,a,eh,e), rolling in and out, tongued and slurred intervals that need embouchure change, dynamic problems with embouchure, excitement in tone, floating sound, transparent sound, personal sound, depth of tone, flexibility, solidity, and authority in performance. In Volume III, entitled The Art of Playing the Flute: Posture, Fingers, Resonances, Tonguing, Vibrato (1989), Mather employs the term resonance in reference to tone development. The author intends for the flutist to become aware of how the lungs are used to increase resonance. He believes that, with good lung resonance, flute sound becomes stronger and purer. Mather includes such terms as raising the breastbone, lung resonance, breastbone, yawning, humming, enlarging the neck, silent singing, the rear and middle of the tongue, jaw opening, cheeks, opening sinuses, lower Adams apple, silent singing, and soft palate. In the same volume, the section Posture includes terms such as freeing your neck, head, and shoulders, centering, balance, relax, elongating, expanding, and anchor in ten pages. The next section, Fingers, begins with instruction on how hands support and balance the flute and then describes in detail the ideal formation of the hands on the flute. Key terms Mather employs are: finger hinges (the knuckles and how they work), finger independence, finger action, efficient
movement, finger strength, efficient fingers and balance. In the following chapter, the author includes a more complex description of the height of the fingers in relation to the keys. The terms used include crisp finger movement, glissando, key slaps, key travel, speed, slurs, and height. In 20 pages on articulation, Mather explains the three basic tonguing methods: behind the teeth, at the lips, and anchored tonguing. First, he describes how the air is blocked and released by the tongue using terms such as attack, release, exhale, air pressure, t, and airflow. The author suggests that the three tonguing methods can then be combined for the most variety. Key terms include tip of tongue, air pocket, response, cracking, anchor, note starts, lip, breath, and note endings. Mather then describes double, triple, flutter, and Baroque tonguing with terms such as t-k, response, hard palate, syllables, lip opening, puff of air, and tongue tip. The last two subtitles to this volume are short and directed toward more experienced players. Vibrato is the first subtitle, covered in four pages with terms such as pulling, abdominal wall, throat, pulse and expressive. Projection is the next subtitle, and it is covered in five pages of text. The terms sound waves, playing direction, and aim are used. The book closes with five pages devoted to stage presence. Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (Wye, 1988). Flutist Trevor Wye has taught flute at the Guildhall School of Music and the Royal Northern College of Music. Currently he teaches at his studio in Kent, England and gives masterclasses and recitals all over the world. Wyes most
noted publications are his Practice Books for the Flute, each a short volume dedicated to a single aspect of flute playing, such as tone, articulation, or breathing. The books include many exercises interspersed with Wyes concise explanations. Proper Flute Playing: A Companion to the Practice Books (1988) is intended to add more detail and topics to the Practice Books. How to find a proper teacher and how to become a proper pupil are two of the additional topics included. The book is relatively small, so it is better analyzed by paragraph instead of by page. In the opening 15 paragraphs of the book, Wye describes what a student must do to find a teacher. Flutists are described as junior, middle, and advanced, and then characteristics of a suitable teacher are stated: the junior flutist should find someone who is, most importantly, enthusiastic. Wye claims that a middle level flutist needs more serious instruction. The teacher should be enthusiastic and play the flute well. An advanced player needs a teacher who is enthusiastic about playing as well as teaching. The next four paragraphs are devoted to a description of flute schools. Wye states that there are nationalistic characteristics of flute playing, but the French school is the most widely known based on the influence of Marcel Moyse and his teaching, books, methods, and playing. Although the author states that schools of today strive for perfection of the flute, he does not describe other nationalistic characteristics of flute playing.
Thirty-five paragraphs are devoted to the topic of practicing. The author includes not only suggestions on how to practice, but he also describes when and where to practice. According to Wye, practice time should be divided into four parts: tone, technique, studies, and repertoire. In his descriptions of practicing tone, Wye uses terms such as: close observation, examine, close scrutiny, long tones, and observance of defects. He comments that technique takes a long time to improve and employs the terms finger muscles, metronome, fingerings, practice with different tempos and rhythms, and accuracy and control. Wye suggests that studies should be practiced in every key, employ a variety of articulations, and cause the student to notice technical problems or challenges. Most importantly, Wye admonishes students to perform studies musically. The author concludes this section of the book with a practice schedule. Wye suggests that the highest level of flute playing requires correct elements of technique. Among those elements is posture, and Wye believes that a flutist should learn correct posture right away. The author uses such terms as head-body-flute relationship, relaxation, play to the front of the body, bring flute to your mouth, and face the music stand. Another important element of technique, according to Wye, is hand position. He uses three paragraphs to discuss the right hand, including the terms curved fingers, limp hands, turn wrist, and relaxed hand position. He uses six paragraphs to discuss left hand position and includes the terms raising the elbow, index finger, side pressure, curved fingers, slipping, adequate support, and relaxed position. Wye devotes several passages to efficient finger technique, which he labels practice technique. The seven paragraphs in
which he discusses practice technique employ the terms: difficult fingering, tempo, finger independence, and correct fingerings. Wye believes that tone is one of the most important aspects of flute performance, so he dedicates eight pages and twenty-two paragraphs to tone production. Embouchure is included at the beginning of this heading, which might be an indication that Wye considers it the most important factor in developing a beautiful tone. He begins his description of embouchure by claiming that if a student is achieving beautiful tone, the embouchure must be correct. In other words, a student and teacher should be guided by what sounds beautiful and not merely by the appearance of an appropriate embouchure formation. After this, Wye discusses the embouchure in more detail, using terms such as direction of the air, size of the cavities in the mouth, nose and throat, shape of the blow hole in the lips, covering or uncovering the lip plate, projection, colors of sound, the second octave, raising the air stream, intonation, and playing softly in the third octave. This lengthy section ends with a diagram of a face that shows the muscles used in tone production. Wye uses the term articulation where other authors use the term tonguing. In five paragraphs, Wye explains the technique of how and where to place the tongue, and the following terms are employed: tongue forward, lips still, clean tonguing, and move as little as possible. The author also refers students to his other books, especially his practice book entitled Articulation, for more articulation practice.
The remainder of the book is devoted to musical ideas but not necessarily to flute technique. In 15 paragraphs, Wye describes finding a teacher at three different levels: junior, middle, and advanced. Wye covers practicing in 11 paragraphs, including paragraphs on practice technique that have been counted already. The author also discusses studies or etudes in seven paragraphs, and in an additional seven paragraphs he describes an ideal practice schedule. Forty-six paragraphs are devoted to auditions. This topic covers all types of auditions such as college, orchestral, and master classes as well as how to choose the repertoire for the audition and general audition requirements. Shorter topics include the baroque flute, which is described in four paragraphs, and extended techniques, which is described in five paragraphs. Concerts, competitions, and recitalists are described in 32 paragraphs. Wye uses 72 paragraphs to cover the topic of musicality. Under this heading, Wye includes expression, phrasing, tied and dotted notes, syncopation, and styles in music through the centuries. Following the topic of musicality are some smaller topics that are related to the flute, but not related to performance on the flute. These topics include concerts and competitions described in 12 paragraphs, recitalists and competitors explained in 22 paragraphs, and the proper pupil and proper teacher covered in 52 paragraphs. Next is the topic of common problems in teaching, which is covered in 15 paragraphs. Finally, Wye ends his volume with a repertoire list, which is a distinctive feature of this text. The list is in alphabetical order by composer, and it includes titles, composers and publishers of works for an advanced performer.
The Simple Flute: From A-Z (Debost, 2002). Michel Debost was educated at the Conservatoire National Paris, and he performed as principal flutist for the Orchestre de Paris and Orchestre de la Societe des Concerts du Conservatoire. In his teaching career, Debost succeeded Jean-Pierre Rampal as Professor of Flute at the Paris Conservatoire, and he currently serves as Professor of Flute at Oberlin Conservatory of Music. Une Simple Flute was published in 1996, subsequently translated into English, and released as The Simple Flute: From A- Z. Debosts information on playing the flute is organized by topic in alphabetical order. The author describes each topic, summarizes in a sentence or two, and ends each topic entry with a refer to section, directing the reader to related topics in the volume. Analysis of the refer to sections helps reveal the broader categories of flute technique and musical interpretation around which this book is organized. The book includes many topics related to how the fingers are properly placed on the flute, and desirable efficiency of finger technique. A total of 56 pages incorporate information pertaining to hand positions, hands, keys, little devils, musical groups, fingers, stability, stepping stones, technique, trills, fingering, finger antagonisms, practicing, and trills. The next categories to emerge from a content analysis of this volume are embouchure and tone. Thirteen pages are devoted to embouchure, including the topics of head joint alignment, embouchure, jawboning, lips, airbrush, and vibration. In the refer to section under each of these topics, the reader is
referred not only to other embouchure topics, but also to topics related to tone. Twenty-six more pages are dedicated to tone, including the topics of focus, intervals, muscles, tone, intonation, resonance, and flutes (how tone might be improved with a different model of flute), tuning, and vibrato. In turn, Debosts refer to sections link the topic of tone to the topic of breath. He covers topics related to physiology as well as air speed and direction in 28 pages. Debost also devotes space to explaining the topic of focus, which he believes can be accomplished only through proper breathing. The size and amount of breath are directly related to focus of tone. Terms used in regard to breathing include air column, air speed, appoggio, breathing, center of gravity, circular breathing, concentration/relaxation, diaphragm, muscles, isometrics, and yawning. A final category included in Debosts book is articulation, which he covers in 24 pages. The topic of tongue placement on the roof of the mouth includes terms such as valve, movement from front to back, and French tonguing. Debost also covers forte and piano attacks in high and low registers using the terms venting, pulled back, travel, cloudy, air column and release. The topics of finger phrasing, muscles, and scale games (or exercises) can also be included under the broader heading of articulation. Fifty-six pages of Debosts book are devoted to musical interpretation. Some of the pages are targeted specifically to stylistic interpretation of grace notes, appoggiatura, and accents. Other topics are broader and more conceptual, including hierarchy of beats, images, interpretation, rubato, silence, and style.
Additionally, there were a number of smaller topics that could not be categorized. These included four pages on the Paris Conservatoire and four pages on rituals. Rituals are personal habits or routines, and Debost suggests that flutists should be mindful regarding their rituals. Seven pages are devoted to memory. Summary Analysis of expert texts revealed general agreement on essential aspects of flute pedagogy. Categories covered in all texts include hand position, embouchure, tonguing or articulation, and tone production. In three out of the four texts, posture and breathing are established as important skills. Using a framework of expertise explained in Chapter One, the assumption of the present study is that these skills are fundamental; that is, if these skills are practiced deliberately over a period of years, expert performance will develop. Each text also covered other material, including advanced technique and repertoire, stylistic concepts, and information on finding a teacher, but there was not general agreement among the expert pedagogues in these areas. The texts, categories, key terms, and linked to terms are listed completely in Tables 1-7. In subsequent chapters, the skills listed in Tables 1-7 are connected to one another, and general principles of expert performance are deduced. I then analyze flute method books for beginners to determine the extent to which the general principles of expert performance are described.
Table 1. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Hand Position
Putnik Category: Hand Position Key Terms: Placement of hands/arms/ fingers Natural position Hand position Finger position Supporting the flute Left and right arm/wrist and thumb placement Flute rests Natural placement/support
Mather Category: Hand Position Key Terms: Finger independence Finger strength Efficient fingers Support and balance Finger hinges Finger action Crisp movement Efficient movement Balance, Glissando Key slaps key travel slurs height Linked to: Finger technique
Wye Category: Hand Position Key Terms: Curved fingers Limp hands Turn wrist Relax position Raise elbow Side pressure Index finger Support, slipping, relaxed position
Debost Category: Hand Position Key Terms: Hand positions hands Keys Little devils Musical groups Eingers Stability Stepping stones, Technique Trills Fingering Finger antagonisms Practicing Trills Linked to: Technique
Linked to: Fingering Finger dexterity
Linked to: Fingering efficiency Fingerings Practice technique
Table 2. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Posture
Putnik Category: Posture Key Terms: Not Covered
Mather Category: Posture Key Terms: Freeing Neck/head/ shoulder Centering Balance Relax Elongating Expanding Anchor Linked to: Hand positions Embouchure
Wye Category: Posture Key Terms: Head-body-flute Relaxation Play to the front Bring flute to the mouth Face the music stand
Debost Category: Posture Key Terms: Shoulders aligned with elbow Head turned Activate support Instrument to lips Chin is resting place
Linked to:
Linked to: Embouchure
Linked to: Hand positions Support & embouchure
Table 3. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Embouchure
Putnik Category: Embouchure Key Terms: Aperture, Air column Stream of air, centered Coverage of lip plate Use of jaw and intonation
Mather Category: Embouchure Key Terms: Lip shape Air reed Air pressure Lip opening Tapered ends Width, resistance Tone color, breath control Embouchure hole Raise/lower jaw Roll down Pucker
Wye Category: Embouchure Key Terms: Direction of air Size of mouth cavity Nose and throat Shape of blow hole Cover/Uncover lip plate Projection Colors of sound 2nd octave Raising the air stream Intonation Playing softly in 3rd octave Linked to: Tone Intonation
Debost Category: Embouchure Key Terms: Head joint alignment Embouchure Jawboning Lips Air brush Vibration
Linked to: Breathing Tone Development
Linked to: Breath control Tone color Intonation Dynamics
Linked to: Tone
Table 4. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Breathing
Putnik Category: Breathing Key Terms: Diaphragm, Abdominal muscles Steady pressure Support Chest muscles Lungs Phrasing Vibrato
Mather Category: Breathing Key Terms:
Wye Category: Breathing Key Terms:
Debost Category: Breathing Key Terms: Air speed Direction Focus Physiology Size of breath Air column Appogio Center of gravity Circular breathing Concentration/ relaxation Diapghram Muscles Isometrics Yawning
Anatomy Not covered Airflow Pressure, and speed Lungs Exhale/inhale Abdominal wall Diaphragm Control Breath supply Rib cage Strength of sound Mouth and nose Tonguing, reserve air Resonance, tone color Changing pitches Large breaths Shading the pitch Note endings Developing muscle tone Linked to: Resonance Tone color Tone
Linked to: Technical development Tone quality
Linked to: Resonance Tone color Tone
Table 5. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Tone
Putnik Category: Tone Development Key Terms: Embouchure Stream of air Air column Blowing Upper/lower lip Mouth formation Cover, Centered Angle and jaw Corners of the mouth Aperture
Mather Category: Tone Development Key Terms: Tone Color Vowel sounds Rolling in/out Tongue/slurred intervals Dynamics and embouchure change Tone Excitement, and depth Flexibility, Solidity Floating, transparent, and personal sounds Authority in performance Resonances Use of lungs, throat, sinuses and mouth Raise the breastbone Lung resonance Enlarge the neck Silent singing Tongue, cheek Lower Adams apple Throat, sinuses Yawning, humming Jaw opening Soft palate Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato Tone color
Wye Category: Tone Development Key Terms: Close scrutiny/ observation Examine Observation of defects Long tones Direction of air Mouth cavity Shape of blow hole Colors of sound Covering of lip plate Second octave Intonation
Debost Category: Tone Development Key Terms: Air brush Split by tone hole Focus, intervals Muscles Intonation Resonance Tuning Vibrato Use of different flutes in tone
Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato
Table 6. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Articulation
Putnik Category: Tonguing/ Articulation Key Terms: Correct position of the tongue Attack Lips Double and triple
Mather Category: Tonguing/ Articulation Key Terms: Behind the teeth At the lips Anchored Block/release Attack, release Exhale Air pressure t, air flow Tip of the tongue Air pocket Response Cracking Anchor, lip, breath Note starts/endings Linked to:
Wye Category: Tonguing/ Articulation Key Terms: Tongue forward Lips still Clean tonguing Move little
Debost Category: Tonguing/ Articulation Key Terms: Valve Movement Front to back Syllable French tonguing Venting Pulled back Travel, cloudy Air column Release Finger phrasing Muscles Scale games
Linked to: Articulation Double and Triple tongue
Linked to:
Linked to: Articulation High Register
Double and Triple Articulation tongue, flutter, Style Baroque tonguing
Table 7. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Beyond Beginner Technique
Putnik Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms:
Mather Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms:
Wye Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms: Finding a teacher Studies and Etudes Practice Schedule Auditions Flute schools Phrasing Syncopation Style Baroque style Extended technique Musicality 18th c music Classical period 19th c music Impressionists Concerts and competitions Recitalists and competitors Proper pupil Common problems Recommended study material
Debost Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms: Musical interpretation Grace notes, Appoggiatura Accents Paris conservatory Memory Repertoire Tempo Stress Little devils Practicing
Sequence and Vibrato technique Projection Additional Stage presence precautions Musical exercises Correcting common problems Bad habits in: tone, breathing, tonguing, and finger dexterity Technical development
Chapter 3: Hand Position and Finger Technique Efficient and facile finger technique arises from understanding of how to balance the flute in the hands and maintain natural, relaxed hand positions. Similarly, physical problems such as tendonitis may arise if natural hand positions and balance are not realized. It cannot be said, however, that establishing proper hand positions guarantees good finger technique. Therefore, although the content analysis suggests that hand position and finger technique are related, the topics will be treated separately in this chapter. Hand Position In the literature written by expert pedagogues, the primary point of consensus is that the hands need to be relaxed and in their natural shapes to enhance finger movement and agility. Mather (1981) and Putnik (1970) state that the main consideration in holding the flute is to support it in the most natural and comfortable position compatible with finger freedom, steady support, and freedom to breathe properly (p. 7). Debost (2002) believes that one must be as comfortable as possible without tightness (p. 103). Also, the flute must be balanced between the hands in order to hold it properly without pain. Support is provided by the base of the left forefinger, the thumb of the right hand and the right little finger. The chin also adds support (Putnik, p. 7). More specifically, the flute should rest on the first joint of the left forefinger halfway between the embouchure plate and the left thumb (Debost, 2002, p. 101). The left wrist must be turned in enough to allow the fingers to reach their keys comfortably (Putnik, 1970, p. 7) and the left elbow remains in a
relaxed position (Wye, 1988, p. 14). After the first three fingers are on their keys and curved, the thumb should be brought up to its most natural position (Mather, 1989, p. 13). Wye states that the thumb should be high and straight (Wye, p. 14). When the right hand is in its most natural position, away from the flute, the fingers are curved, and the thumb is sideways-on to the index finger (Wye, 1988, p. 13). A similar position should be used with the flute in the hand The thumb supports the flute from below; its place is underneath the first and second fingers, with the flute resting in the middle of the first joint of the thumb (Putnik, 1970, p. 8). If the thumb protrudes excessively, the fingers will be cramped, if it is too far back, proper support and balance for the instrument will be lacking. If the thumb is too far to the left or the right, the fingers will lean accordingly, and they will not be able to move freely (Putnik, p. 7). Fundamental principles for hand positions can be summarized as follows: 1. Understand that flute is balanced at three points: the base of the left forefinger, the thumb of the right hand, the little finger of the right hand. 2. The chin adds support, but there must not be pressure of the flute against the chin. 3. Keep the hands in relaxed, natural positions; mimic the position of the hands at rest. 4. Keep a natural curve of the fingers on and over the keys. 5. The elbows should be relaxed, but lifted away from the body, to allow for free breathing and finger movement.
Commonly Used Method Books In Accent on Achievement (OReilly & Williams, 1997, p. 3) the authors provide a large, clear photograph that enhances these minimal instructions: 1. The flute should be at a slight downward angle and pushed slightly forward with the elbows away from the body. 2. The edge of your right thumbnail is placed under the flute between the first and second fingers. 3. Fingers remain curved even when not pressing down the keys. Included in the instruction is an admonition to keep fingers curved even when not playing. However, this publication omits all information about the left hand. It is important that the flute is placed on the side of the first finger knuckle of the left hand. The proper position of the left hand thumb on the B key is equally important. The flute needs to be balanced in the hands to ensure facile finger technique and to avoid physical problems such as tendonitis. In Breeze Easy (Anzalone, 1979), the only assistance offered to the student regarding hand position comes in the form of photographs (p. 3). Fingers of the right hand are curved and rest on the keys in these photographs; the right hand thumb is placed correctly underneath the first and second fingers, which is its natural position in relation to the hand. The left hand is also displayed in a relaxed and proper hand position. The fingers of the left hand are clearly resting above their keys with the wrist turned slightly out to show that the hand should not rest on the key mechanisms. With these hand positions, the students flute should be balanced properly. However, it would help both the student and teacher to read even brief instructions about how the flute should be balanced in the
hands. The teacher would then be able to use the balance points as a checklist to ascertain whether the students hands are properly positioned. The instructions for hand positions in Essential Elements 2000: Comprehensive Band Method are simple (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 3): Left hand: Rest your left-hand thumb on the undersides long straight key. Keep your wrist straight. Your fingers should arch naturally. Rest your fingertips on the center of the keys. Right Hand: Place the tip of your right thumb on the flutes underside between your first and second fingers. Arch your fingers and rest them lightly on the keys. Put your little finger on the Eb key. The authors state correctly, fingers should arch naturally. Instructions regarding the left hand indicate keep your wrist straight, yet the photograph shows a bent wrist, and this would be confusing for students. Additionally, the authors offer no instruction about the balance point of the left hand first finger or positioning of the right wrist. A drawing of the basic hand positions in Standard of Excellence (Pearson, 1993, p. 3) shows placements that are generally correct. The written instructions, however, are not clear in conveying what these hand positions should be: Step 1 Sit up straight in your chair.
Step 2 Make a C with your left hand so that you form a shelf at the base of your thumb. Rest the flute on that shelf. Step 3 Place your left-hand thumb on the long straight key on the underside of the flute. Move your left hand to the right and rest the flute at the base of the index finger between the knuckle and first joint. Step 4 Place the tip of your right-hand thumb under the flute between the first and second fingers. Step 5 Curving your fingers on both hands, place your right little finger on the Eb key. Your elbows should be away from your body. The flute should be pointing slightly downward. Puzzling is the direction to make a C with the left hand and then rest the flute at the base of the thumb. If a student compares this statement to the second statement to rest the flute at the base of the index finger, he or she might become more confused and fail to understand how to balance the flute correctly. This balance is very important to beginners because if the left hand is not positioned correctly, on those pitches where few fingers are pressed down (such as a C#), the flute will roll or fall down off the lip. Additionally, the statement that elbows should be away from your body does not necessarily convey that elbows should be relaxed. Improper positioning or tension in the elbows often leads to pain in the hands.
Flute Books by Flute Specialists AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) begins with a discussion on how the flute is balanced. It is important that these balance points be utilized in order to prevent physical problems or pain in the hands. The photographs in this volume are clear and large and leave little to misunderstand. A full photograph of both hands occurs on page 13 and a close up of the left hand is on page 15. Then the student has to search for the close up of the right hand, which is not found until page 21, and picture showing the position of the left wrist is not found until page 44. The reasoning for this particular layout is unclear. In the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941) the author presents a photograph to depict hand positions (p. 4). The fingers look relaxed and gently curved on the keys. Wrists are bent to allow for more relaxed fingers. Concerning the left hand, it is unclear where the flute rests on the hand because the reader can only see the back of the hand. The thumb is completely obscured in the photograph; thus, correct hand placement is questionable. The right hand is easier to see in the photograph, and leaves less to the imagination. One aspect that needs to be clarified in this volume is the position of the right wrist and elbow. It is evident that the elbow is supposed to be suspended, but it is not clear at what angle the wrist is to the elbow. If the wrist is bent too much and the elbow lifted too high, there will be tension in the hand and fingers. Conversely, if the wrist is not bent and the elbow remains high the fingers will be lifted too high off the keys to form the appropriate curve.
Photographs depict hand positions in the Mark Thomas Flute Method (Thomas, 1988, p. 9). The hands are relaxed and the fingers curve naturally over their proper keys. A photograph depicts both the front and the back of both hands, and the wrists and elbows appear relaxed and correctly positioned. As already mentioned, photographs cannot describe the balance points for the flute. In Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000), Hahn gives a thorough explanation of the proper playing positions for the hands, and a photograph enhances the instructions. Arms: Stand with arms straight above your head. While holding your breath, drop your arms down to your sides - the position your shoulders are now in is the proper position for playing the flute while either sitting or standing (p. 9). Arms are up and away from the body, the flute slightly tilted toward the floor and the head is perpendicular to the flute. The right forearm is approximately parallel to the floor and the wrist is straight and at the same level as the flute. The left arm is forward and away from the body. The right hand and arm are straight and are perpendicular to the flute. The right hand is pushing forward while the left hand is pulling inward. This action allows you to balance the flute in your hands, thus freeing the fingers to do their work (p. 10). Basic hand position: The tips of the (right) fingers are directly on the keys and the forearm wrist and hand are in a strait line - the thumb is under the index finger. The (left) thumb is strait so that the base of the thumbnail is parallel with the top of the keys. The (right) thumb is on the back of the flute, pushing forward. Tips of the (left) fingers are directly over the keysnote the way the index finger cradles the flute (p. 11). In the photograph and description, the elbows are straight out, parallel to the floor, and not relaxed, which could lead to pain in the students hands. The explanation of balancing the flute is also questionable. Balance is described in this volume as
using force, using one hand to push forward and the other to pull back. The right thumb is also described as pushing forward. In essence, a properly balanced hand will have a subtle equilibrium that creates this pushing and pulling. By being conscious of balance points, the student should not have to be conscious of creating a push and pull effect. Finger Technique Debost (2002) explains that there is no credible interpretation of music without reliable instrumental playing (p. 241). (Debost here refers to finger technique as instrumental playing.) Fingers must be musical; sloppy phrasing comes as much from fingers as from tone (p. 198). Putnik (1970) insists on correct hand and finger positions and the use of only the basic fingerings to develop the necessary facility and independence of the fingers (p. 45). For the freest, fastest action, the fingers and left thumb must maintain their most natural curve possible while they are lowered as directly as possible onto their keys (Mather, 1989, p. 19). The ideal in finger action is minimum motion and effort to close or open the keys (Putnik, p. 45). Fingers must move independently of one another and be strong enough to raise and lower the keys crisply (Mather, p. 19). Knuckles of the fingers act like hinges. Each fingers large knuckle flexes faster than its two smaller ones. For good dexterity, then, the finger should be moved only at its large knuckle. The finger stays curved the same amount regardless of whether it is up, down, or moving (Mather, 1989, p. 19). To achieve this finger technique, one should try to move the right index finger up and down away from the flute, flexing it only at its large knuckle, and concentrate on the
fingers relaxation, ease of movement, and preserving its natural shape (Mather, 1989, p. 20). An exception to this general rule is the movement of the left thumb. The large knuckle for the thumb is at the wrist, and the thumb may be flexed at this knuckle or the next one or both together, whichever offers the most speed (Mather, 1989, pp. 19-20). Noise never comes from fingers lifting off the keys but from their slapping on their way down. A noisy technique, at any speed, is not a sophisticated one (Debost, 2002, p. 81). Efficient finger movement means that no energy is wasted. It requires the recognition that fingers need to relax and to reach their keys as directly as possible. Relaxed fingers must be as close as possible to their natural shape (Mather, 1989, p. 22). In summary, for efficient and facile finger technique: 1. 2. 3. 4. Maintain the most natural curve of fingers for free and fast action. Move fingers from the large knuckle. Set fingers on the keys lightly to minimize noise. Fingers must be centered over their keys even when not in use so that minimal effort is used to open and close keys. Experts write extensively on finger technique. Although technique is linked to hand position, it is also clearly distinguished from hand position. It is puzzling, therefore, that only one beginner book includes any instruction on finger technique.
Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) contains instruction for the beginning flutist to keep fingers close to the keys for efficiency and relaxation. The author also explains how to move the fingers from the first knuckle only to keep movement unencumbered: In order to play music of the complexity needed for the flute, you must be able to make the most efficient use of your fingers. The right wrist being level with the flute allows the fingers of the right hand to approach the flute from above rather than below the instrument. This allows the right hand fingers to do their work in the most natural position possible (p. 23). Place your right fingers on a table surface with your thumb placed over the edge, and with your wrist level with the top of the table, tap or drum your finger tips against the table top in a pattern. Try to accomplish the same thing with your wrist below the level of the table. You will notice that when your wrist is below the level of the table it is much harder to move your fingers in a quick pattern. Also you will find that your hand is much tenser in the second position. The tenseness caused by the awkward position of the fingers contributes to unneeded muscle fatigue, which, in turn, can cause you to make mistakes (p. 24). The reasons for the left thumb being positioned in such a way that the bottom of the thumbnail is equal to the top of the keys is to maintain a non-strained relationship between the thumb and the fingers. All fingers and the left thumb move from the first knuckle only (the joint nearest the hand). Fingers should always remain close to the keys. Remember to always press the keys as lightly as possible. Any extra pressure is hard on the instrument, tends to make your finger movement less efficient, and can cause uneven playing (p. 24). This instruction is further enhanced by suggestions for exercises to be done without the flute in the students hands. The exercises are intended to help the student feel appropriate movement before the flute is put back into the hands.
Chapter 4: Air Stream and Embouchure Placement in the Production of Tone For beginning flutists, no topic tends toward the mysterious more than the production of tone. Perhaps this is because, whereas the students embouchure formation is observable to the teacher, the air stream that is the foundation of tone quality remains invisible. As noted in the content analysis, breathing, embouchure, and tone development are connected concepts. Embouchure placement influences air stream speed, size, and direction, so it is necessary to begin instruction with an appropriately sized aperture between the lips, and it is likewise important that the lips rest easily on the lip plate, neither covering too much nor too little of the tone hole. Flute sound is created by the airbrush hitting the outside wall of the embouchure hole, which then resonates according to the length of the tube (Debost, 2002, p. 69). When the air strikes the outer edge of the tone hole, part of the air enters the tube and the other part is dispersed outside. Air inside the flute resonates and modulates the turbulence produced by the air stream hitting the strike edge of the lip plate. All particles of air in contact with that sound vibrate, including air particles inside the performers lungs and sinuses. Outside the flute, air moves only at the strike edge. Some of it is dispersed in the process and moves away. With good air placement, most of the air is transformed into vibrations (Debost, p. 89). The embouchure hole presents some resistance to the flow of air into and out of the flute tube. This resistance helps control the pitch and gives the sound brilliance, which is necessary for projection and presence
(Mather, 1981, p. 16). Mather characterizes brilliance as a sound that is not too dull or spread (p. 21), has presence, is more focused and compact and projects (p. 22). A student must know how to breathe properly to produce a good tone. Breathing is a natural act, and breathing for the flute is like breathing for life. Breath management is a skill to be learned, however, and it is central to flute playing (Debost, 2002, p. 90). According to Debost, breath management means controlling the air in reference to phrase length and dynamics (Debost, p. 4). Putnik (1970) claims that there are two principal factors in proper breathing for the flutist: sufficient quantity of air, and adequately controlled pressure of support to ensure a steady air stream (p. 15). Wye indicates that the degree to which the lip plate is covered most directly affects the size of the sound and its projection (1988, p. 16). If the lower lip covers too much of the embouchure hole, the result will be a smaller tone; if too little of the embouchure hole is covered, the result will be a windy, unfocused sound (p. 16). Putnik (1970) agrees by stating that if too much embouchure hole is covered, the resulting tone tends to be small and thin in quality, and if too little embouchure is covered, an empty or shallow quality will be created (p. 10). He believes that, on average, one should cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the embouchure hole (p. 10). Debost uses different terminology to express much the same information. He states that if the distance between the lip aperture and embouchures outer edge is too great one produces a turbo sound: large airflow and a hollow sound. Conversely, when the angle of attack is too closed and the lips too close to the
tone edge one gets the gas leak effect: shrill sound, brittle attacks and narrow dynamic range (2002, p. 70). Mather (1981) explains that one should know the ideal size and shape for an embouchure to form the correct one. To do this, there are particular requirements for the lip opening: 1. There should be flexibility in width, from 3-10 millimeters to be able to play different pitches and dynamic levels. 2. The corners of the lips should be tapered. 3. The height of the opening between the lips should be uniform. 4. The slit should be straight. 5. The slit should be horizontal, or slope down to the right 6. Even when puckered, lips should be able to direct the air downward at angles from 70-45 degreesthe exact angle depends on the pitch, dynamic level and color (pp. 28-29). Putnik (1970) explains that to produce pitches in the lower register, the jaw is pulled back, thus directing the air stream downward. The aperture becomes larger and more elongated (teeth are apart) (p. 35). Wye (1988) believes that space between the teeth or yawning will create a larger cavity, thus creating a fuller tone in the lower register. Putnik (1970) also encourages students to practice using an ah vowel sound, which means that teeth are apart. To shift into the upper registers, Putnik suggests that the jaw should come forward, thus raising the angle of the air stream. Because of this action, the lips come forward, and the lower lip covers more embouchure hole. The aperture between the lips becomes smaller and rounder (p. 35). Debost refers to this movement of the jaw as jawboning, and he asks Why is it necessary to use
these facial movements to go from the high note to the low or vice versa? (2002, p. 144). He contends that jawboning is unnecessary because most intervals in the flute repertoire are within the octave (p. 144). Debost suggests that involvement of the whole body helps the flutist shift between registers, and he advises the flutist to: a) support as low as possible; b) employ smooth phrasing with the fingers; and c) maintain the stability of the lip plate on the chin (p. 144). In the expert literature, we can find general agreement about how embouchure placement and air stream interact to produce tone. That expert agreement can be synthesized as follows: 1. Maintain a steady air stream through breath management and support. 2. Cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the lip plate. 3. Part lips to create an embouchure opening of 3-10 mm, depending on pitch and dynamic level. 4. Create an ah feeling inside the mouth, with teeth apart, for the low register. There remains controversy over the best way for a beginning student to shift from the lower to the upper register. Whereas there is general agreement among experts that the aperture between the lips becomes smaller and the air moves faster, there is disagreement about whether the jaw should be involved in the shift. Commonly Used Method Books In Accent on Achievement (OReilly & Williams, 1997, p. 4), authors suggest rolling the lip plate down so that the lower edge of the embouchure hole
is on the edge of the lower lip. This is a good, succinct description of how to achieve placement. Likewise, looking in a mirror to see that only half of the embouchure hole is covered is a useful technique for beginning students. 1. Stick your lower lip out slightly as if you are pouting. 2. Remove the head joint and with the open end pointing to the right, place the lower edge of the embouchure hole on the lower edge of your lower lip. 3. Without changing the placement on your lip, roll the head joint away so that you are blowing directly across the embouchure hole. 4. Firm the corners of your mouth, allowing the very center of your lips to feel as if you are saying who. 5. If you look in a mirror, you will see only half of the embouchure hole. 6. Practice taking a full breath, filling the bottom of your lungs so that your stomach expands. Then fill the top of your lungs without raising your shoulders. Always using a full breath while playing helps to produce long, full tones. 7. Using only the head joint, form an embouchure and start blowing a focused stream of air by whispering doo, feeling as if you are holding back some of your breath. After youve made a tone, try placing your right hand over the open end of the head joint to produce a lower pitch. 8. Next produce several notes on one breath by whispering doodoo-doo, being sure that your tongue is behind your teeth. 9. Produce as many notes as possible on one breath, always feeling you are holding back some breath. As you practice, you will learn to focus the air more efficiently to produce longer tones. In contrast, the statement that the student should stick your lower lip out as if pouting is not helpful in that there is no further explanation of why this should be done or what to do with the pout once it is achieved. Firming the corners of the mouth is both explained in the text and presented in the photograph; however, the
corners of the lips in the photograph look very tight, as opposed to firm, which if imitated, would lead to unnecessary muscle tension and rough, inflexible tone quality. Although the instruction to blow directly across the embouchure hole is a good initial introduction to flute tone production, a better explanation of how much air is blown across and how much air is blown into the flute would be more appropriate. Even a beginning student needs a basic understanding that the various registers of the flute require the air to be directed differently across the embouchure hole. Breathing methods are controversial and generally left up to individual instructors, yet these author addresses breathing in a simple manner. A characteristic tone is focused, which is explained here as always feeling you are holding back some breath, and focus the air more efficiently to produce longer tones. Perhaps a longer explanation of breathing and how to hold back air would be effective. Finally, lip and teeth spacing are not addressed. Breeze Easy (Anzalone, 1979) has no written explanation of embouchure formation or of tone production, but it does include a photograph that shows a proper embouchure (p. 3). In that photograph, one can see that the head joint of the flute is placed on the bottom part of the lip, and the head is straight, not looking down or tilted to the side. This correctly demonstrates the relationship of the performers head to the head joint of the flute. A photograph can be a great help when describing proper flute playing technique, but without the clarification that text provides, a student might be misled in developing appropriate
embouchure formation. Here, it is unclear how much of the lip plate is covered because one cannot see any part of the lip plate in the photograph. Additionally, in this photograph, the head joint looks slightly tilted in toward the lips. This should not be encouraged with a beginning student. Lip and jaw spacing, and air flow across and into the embouchure hole are not included in this text. The authors of Essential Elements 2000 (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 2) introduce embouchure placement correctly, because a good embouchure is centered on the lips. 1. Hold the end of the head joint in your left hand. Cover the open end with the palm of your right hand. 2. Rest the embouchure plate on your bottom lip. Center the embouchure hole in the center of your lips. Check by touching the embouchure hole with the tip of your tongue. 3. Gently roll the head joint forward so that approximately one quarter of the embouchure hole is covered by the lower lip. 4. Keep the upper and lower teeth spaced slightly apart. 5. Draw the corners of your mouth straight back and relax your lower lip. 6. Make a small opening in the center of your lips. Blow air partly into and partly across the embouchure hole. 7. Practice regularly in front of a mirror. Roll the head joint in or out to find the embouchure position that produces your best clear and full tone. The authors include instructions for covering the lip plate, keeping teeth slightly apart and blowing partly across and partly into the flute. There are elements missing from this explanation, however. When a student rolls the lip plate down after centering the embouchure hole on the lips, the lip plate will be too high and
will need to be adjusted slightly lower. Further, when forming the embouchure, drawing the corners of the mouth straight back generally produces a tight and sharp tone, and this should be avoided. Standard of Excellence (Pearson, 1993, p. 3) begins with the embouchure correctly positioned on the flute: Step 1 Remove the head joint and place your right hand over the open end. Shape your mouth as if saying whee-too. Step 2 Place the head joint on your chin and position it so that the edge of the embouchure hole is at the bottom of the lower lip. The corners of the lower lip should rest against the embouchure plate. Step 3 Cover 1/4 to 1/3 of the embouchure hole with your lower lip. Take a full breath of air and blow over the hole using the syllable doo to play a long steady tone. Step 4 Assemble the head joint to the body. Position your flute to the right of your body, with the flute pointing slightly downward. Step 5 Take a full breath of air and play a long steady tone. The author accurately explains that when the student forms the embouchure and is ready to play, the student should blow gently across the tone hole. While not stated directly here, playing a long steady tone may assist the student in developing breath control, thus positively affecting tone quality. The photograph in this volume generally enhances the written instruction.
A confusing aspect of this text occurs at the outset with the statement shape your mouth as if saying whee-too. It is unclear how this is beneficial, since the two syllables require different lip formations. Additionally, the statement to rest the corners of the lips against the embouchure plate implies that the student should pucker the lips forward and down, which is a confusing direction for a beginner. Again, teeth and lip spacing are not addressed in this volume. Flute Books by Flute Specialists The written instructions in AMA 2000 (Winn, 2000) are clear and concise. These instructions allow the teacher to help the students make individualized and appropriate adjustments:
Hold the head joint without covering the end. Place the center of the hole in the middle of your bottom lip. Breathe in after you have placed the mouth piece on your lip.
(p. 6)
Cover 1/3 of the hole with your lower lip. Shape your lips as you would for u as in tuba Blow gently against the opposite edge of the mouthpiece. Your teacher will help you find the best position (p. 7). The embouchure for a low note should look like this (The
picture shows approximately 1/3 of the hole is covered.) (p. 10).
Higher Tones: The trick to the 2nd 8va is to change the embouchure very little. As soon as you have a good sound, dont change the embouchure - just go from note to note, remember how the embouchure feels and that will help the sound (p. 40).
Higher tone - push the bottom jaw a little forward (p. 10). Make the hole between the lips a little bit smaller as you
bring the lips forward.
You may have to blow a little harder - to make the air stream
quicker.
Dont let the mouthpiece roll inwards. Be careful that the corners of the mouth are relaxed
particularly when you play a high note (p. 11). The instruction blow gently against the opposite edge of the mouthpiece, correctly implies the split air stream necessary for good tone production. A photograph (p. 7) shows clearly how a low tone is produced; the lips blow the air in a downward direction without covering too much of the lip plate hole. The explanation of the mechanics of tone production in the upper register is accurate, and the explanation is enhanced by a clear photograph (p. 10). Although this method book has much to recommend it, it still omits any explanation of lip and jaw opening. It might also be helpful to include a general discussion of tone quality along with upper register instruction. In the forward material of the Eck Method for Flute (Eck, 1941, p. 2), the author states that the method of presentation has been left to the instructor who, through his frequent contact with the pupil, is best qualified to determine the most efficient procedure. Instruction on embouchure formation is as follows:
Put head joint in your two hands, the end nearest the embouchure, in the palm of your left hand the other side in the right. Close the two lips lightly and spread them a little as you would when smiling. Place the embouchure at your lower lip so that you feel the rim of it at a point on the red of the lip just above the white. The center of the rim should be about at the center of the lip. This is not a fast rule. Some experimenting as to position is necessary. Take a good breath and close your lips so as to stop the air from getting out. At the same moment place the tip of the tongue at the edge of the upper teeth. Now withdraw the tongue slightly. Unless willfully held back, the air will flow out through an automatically made opening of the two lips. The opening should be rather small in order to make the air last as long as possible. Direct the air against the outer edge of the embouchure. The splitting of the air-stream when directed against the outer edge of the embouchure produces the sound. It will take some experimenting. Try to get a better sound by turning the embouchure in or out; covering a little more of the hole or a little less. After the air-stream is all spent, repeat the operation. Dont take too deep a breath and dont press the headpiece hard against your jaw. Only the lips are slightly drawn. Always play with a relaxed position. That applies to hands, wrists, arms, throat and other facial muscles; only the lips are slightly drawn (p. 3). One of the best aspects of this instruction is the admonition, dont press the head piece hard against the jaw. This guards against one of the most common problems of beginning flutists. Another beneficial instruction is to relax the muscles, including facial muscles. This implies relaxing not just the embouchure, but also the neck, hands and arms. A photograph in this volume shows a very small lip opening, and accompanying text explains, the opening should be rather small. An aperture as small as the one in the photograph, however, would inhibit any students tone quality. Further, the photograph shows an embouchure that is slightly off center. While this can occur with some students because of a particular lip shape, it should not be depicted as the norm for all students. Perhaps several different
embouchures could be shown to remind students that not all faces are alike. Eck offers a comprehensive explanation for how to produce a beautiful tone. The author also writes that a student should keep the embouchure relaxed and make the air stream last as long as possible. The explanation would be enhanced by instruction on lip opening, teeth spacing and air direction. The text and photograph in the Mark Thomas Flute Method (Thomas, 1988) present correct embouchure formation: The most important part of flute playing is correct embouchure. The embouchure should be relaxed though controlled with the upper lip muscles not the corners of the lips directing the airflow over the lip plate. Never smile while playing for smiling causes needless fatigue of the facial muscles. Keep teeth as far apart as possible while playing, just as a fine singer does- to provide a more open cavity for better resonance. Gently place the lip plate of the flute on the natural indentation directly under your bottom lip allowing the lip to cover approximately half of the opening. Do not press too hard. Draw the corners slightly down (do not smile). A good note to begin on is A4. Try to keep as much of the lower lip in contact with the lip plate as possible as you blow and feel the upper lip stretch slightly in the center across the upper teeth, causing the air stream to be at a slightly downward angle (p. 9). For middle register notes, move your jaw forward while using less upper lip pressure. This adjustment will allow the air angle to flow at a slightly higher (more across) angle than previously used for the low register. If you closed your teeth while playing in the middle register (dont do it) they would be aligned evenly (p. 9). The third octave or upper register is undoubtedly the most difficult. Continue to move your jaw forward and more open as if singing ah and firm the upper lip as you did in the low register. The air stream once again will be directed downward, as in the low register, but will be more forward and down. (Think of yawning.) Keep as relaxed as possible (p. 10).
Thomas explains the relaxed but controlled embouchure and jaw opening that promote resonance in tone production. Within this explanation, however, is the controversial idea of moving the jaw for the different registers. For example, the instruction for the third register states that the jaw should move forward and the lips should be firm while at the same time the air stream should be directed downward. Those two statements appear to contradict each other, and the technique would be difficult for a beginner to understand. Concerning embouchure formation and tone production, Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 2000) is perhaps the most comprehensive of all the method books reviewed. Sound is produced on your flute when an air stream is directed across the embouchure hole in a manner that causes 50% of the air to go into the flute while the other 50% continues across (p. 11). Different lip shapes will produce different angles of air stream but as long as the air stream is directed in such a way that 50% of the air stream goes into the flute equally resonant sounds will be produced (p. 12). The easiest way to achieve this feeling you will have when playing the flute is to place your forefinger across your chin and make a pouting motion with your mouth - pushing your lower lip out against your finger. Now taking the head joint of the flute in both hands but with the open end of the flute covered place it in a position that allows your lower lip to touch the flute just as it touched your finger. Begin the position with your lips closed then allow your lips to be pushed slightly open by blowing through them (syllable poo). If you have trouble producing a tone this way try turning the head joint until you find the point where the air stream is at the correct angle. If you still cannot produce a sound try raising or lowering the head joint until a sound is produced (p. 12). In order to become an accomplished flutist you must work on refining your sound into a beautiful tone. It must be free from excessive amounts of air and must be consistent throughout all registers. To accomplish this you must practice extremely carefully, listening to each note you produce (p. 14).
The shape and size of the hole formed by your lips directly influence the quality of your sound. When playing the note, stand in front of a mirror and try changing the shape of your embouchure hole. Listen to the changes in the sounds being produced. Once you are satisfied that you are playing the note as beautifully as possible try slurring one half step lower. You will discover that in order to do this you must slightly change your embouchure. As you become accomplished in the production of tone, check yourself in the mirror. You should be able to see the following things: a. There is a slight change of embouchure for each note of the flute. b. High notes require a more forward placement of the lips. c. The lowest notes require that the lips be pulled back. d. The rounder the hole the more hollow the sound. e. The thinner the hole the more edgy the sound. f. The hole size decreased by approximately for each octave change. g. The surface of the lower lip forms a straight line against the embouchure plate (p. 15). The most important change that must occur in order for you to play up an octave is that the hole formed by your lips must move closer to the front edge of the embouchure hole. Your lips must extend forward which occurs by increasing the pout already in your lower lip, which helps bring the corners of your mouth forward. At the same time the hole made by the shape of your lips becomes smaller. If you make the correct change in your embouchure no more air will be required for the upper registers than for the lower. Be sure to use the motion of your lips to make the embouchure change and not simply blowing harder for the upper notes (p. 13). Once you have learned the motion of the lips required to produce the octave you will be ready to exaggerate the motion yet further, which will enable you to produce, with no change in fingering, a 5th above the octave (the harmonic) (p. 13). One of the purposes of the octave-fifth exercise is to force the embouchure into the correct position for performing notes of the high register. If your embouchure is in the correct position for the
harmonic note, when you change for the correct fingering for the note you will produce a note of the third register that is both under control and in tune (p. 14). This detailed explanation of embouchure and tone might be a great help for the teacher, but it could be too much explanation for the student. The author correctly explains how much air should go into the flute and how much should be blown across it, and that this split airflow is the basis for a resonant sound. The instruction to keep the lips closed then allow your lips to be pushed slightly open by blowing through them describes a relaxed embouchure. The checklist for tone is a good reminder, and the instructions on producing tone in the upper register are likewise beneficial. The photograph that accompanies this instruction shows a student pulling the corners of the lips back tightly, however. In this case, the photos appear to contradict the written instruction. The author includes an exercise for building tone with the harmonic series; however, this exercise could be enhanced with another checklist.
Chapter 5: Articulation Refined flute playing relies on ability to articulate superbly. The nuances of articulation go far beyond simple staccato or legato. There is an almost unlimited degree of shading between the two that greatly enhances the expression of the musical phrase by an experienced performer. As demonstrated in the content analysis, experts agree that articulation works in this manner: a tone is started by establishing requisite air pressure in the mouth cavity, then releasing this air by means of the tongue (Putnik, 1970, p. 12). The tongue works as a valve that stops the air until it is pulled back (Debost, 2002, p. 249). It also works to form an inaudible tah, encouraging a more open throat in the attack. The tongue is used to start notes not stop them. Simply interrupting the air stream should stop the note (Putnik, p. 12). Experts differ on where the tongue should be placed inside the mouth cavity for clean and efficient articulation. Wye (1988) states that a student should place the tongue against or between the teeth. He suggests that moving the tongue further back in the mouth delays the tone (p. 22). Putnik (1970) gives a more specific explanation by stating that the tongue should touch the gum just above and behind the upper front teeth. Only the tip of the tongue is used in this basic attack (p. 12). If the presumption is as Putnik describes then the tongue form is from front to back, not as a hammer from the back to the front (Debost, 2002). Debost gets around the controversies of articulation by saying that it is of little consequence where the tongue is placed. There is not one fixed position (p. 167).
Expert literature is more consistent on the relationship between articulation and tone production: the aim is to let the air pressure build up behind the tongue until the release (Mather, 1981, p. 54). In so doing, one must set the embouchure completely for the note well before the air is released (p. 62). When releasing the air for the initial pitch in a phrase, attention must be transferred from the tongue action to making the air flow through the lip opening at full speed (p. 63). The lips should be still (Wye, 1988, p. 22). If a tone is attacked with too much vigor, it may so overload the flute with air that the musical sound cannot start until the pressure has dropped to normal for the body of the note (Mather, p. 55). For each pitch later in the phrase, the tongue simultaneously stops and releases the air while the player exhales continuously (p. 54). For fast tonguing, the action must be only at the tip of the tongue: if the base of the tongue moves unduly, it will interfere with the air stream causing untidiness and ugly articulation (Wye, p. 22). In summary, experts agree on these basic articulation procedures: 1. Place the tip of the tongue above and behind the upper front teeth. 2. Use the tongue as a valve that releases the air. 3. Let air pressure build up behind the tongue until the release. 4. Move the tongue as quickly and neatly as possible. 5. Keep the air speed up after the release of the air. 6. For more rapid tonguing, concentrate the action at the tip and top of the tongue.
Commonly Used Method Books In Accent on Achievement, authors mention articulation briefly (OReilly & Williams, 1997, p. 4): Start blowing a focused stream of air by whispering doo. Produce several notes on one breath by whispering doo-doo-doo being sure that your tongue is behind your teeth. This method begins articulation without the encumbrance of the instrument, which aids both student and instructor in listening for a correct articulation. However, this instruction fails to bring the articulation exercise back to the flute. Essential Elements 2000 (Lautzenheiser et al., 2002, p. 2) also provides only minimal instruction on articulation: Slowly whisper too as you gradually exhale air into your palm. Your tongue is like a faucet or valve that releases the airstream. The analogy comparing the tongue to a valve or faucet is apt for beginning flutists. The syllable too is adequate for beginners, although it may make the tongue curve unnecessarily in the mouth. Like other method books, this instruction begins articulation without the instrument. Flute Books by Flute Specialists AMA Flute 2000 (Winn, 2000) includes succinct explanation and helpful photographs of tongue placement: Begin each note with the tongue. You must move the tongue in exactly the same way as you would say Ta or the French word Tu (p. 15). You must move the tongue backward from behind the upper teeth (p. 19).
It is puzzling, however, that the photograph and explanation of tongue placement occur four pages after the initial explanation of articulation. Additionally, the statement to move the tongue backward from behind the upper teeth might imply inefficient movement at the base of the tongue, which should be avoided. The only statement in the Eck Method for flute (Eck, 1941) regarding articulation is an accurate one: Every note not slurred should be started with a definite attack, not by just blowing into the instrument (p. 4). Thomas advocates using only the head joint to practice articulation in his Flute Method (1988, p.11). This frees the student from worrying about finger placement and allows him or her to think about embouchure and articulation: Attack each note by using the syllable du. Practice without the flute first, by blowing a small stream of air while saying the syllable. Using the syllable du is not incorrect, but beginning with ta or tu moves the tongue forward and creates a sharp, clear attack. In Practical Hints on Playing the Flute (Hahn, 1983), there is a comprehensive explanation of articulation: Start each note with your tongue using the syllable tu or du. Two basic tongue motions that can accomplish the enunciation of the syllable, tip-tonguing or anchor tonguing. In tip-tonguing you speak the syllable du with the tip of your tongue touching the hard palate just behind your upper front teeth. In anchor-tonguing the tip of the tongue anchors behind the lower teeth at the front of your mouth. In order to produce the syllable du in this manner the tongue is arched up so that the middle part of your tongue touches the hard palate in the same place that the tip of your tongue touches in tip-tonguing. Use whichever technique works for you (pp. 20-21). The tongue functions as a release valve for your air. The tongue should get out of the way in order to let the air flow through. The movement of the tongue should be as slight as possible (p. 21).
Anchor tonguing, however, seems impractical for beginning students. Anchoring the tongue behind the lower teeth in the mouth and then using the middle of the tongue to articulate would be too complicated and difficult for the beginner. It is an acceptable method for advanced flutists who would use it for a particular kind of expression. Additionally, there is a problem with Hahns terminology, because in tip-tonguing, the tongue touches the alveolar ridge, rather than the hard palate.
Chapter 6: A Supplement for Teachers and Beginning Flute Students As can be seen throughout the previous chapters, many facets of flute method books for beginning players are accurate and useful. Nevertheless, no method book for beginning flute players completely envelops all principles of expert playing. Therefore, this document concludes with a supplement to beginning flute method books, based on the principles of hand position, finger technique, embouchure, tone, and articulation that were found in the content analysis of expert pedagogical literature. Hand Position Conducive to Efficient Finger Technique Experts agree that hands should remain in natural positions. Generally, right hand position should be learned first. Then, the right hand can keep its position and the flute head joint can rest on the left shoulder while learning the left hand position. Right hand 1. Shake out the right hand down by your side to relax it. 2. Now let your hand set naturally on a flat surface. 3. Notice that the fingers have a natural curve and the thumb falls naturally underneath the first and second fingers. This is how it should look on the flutefingers with a gentle curve and the thumb naturally positioned underneath the first and second fingers.
Content Anal lysis Flute Ped dagogy p. 64
r this position n when placi ing the finge ers on the ke eys. 4. Strive for
ral position for f the thumb b is to be som mewhat on i its side. Kee ep it in its 5. The natur natural po osition. d to slant slig ghtly to the l left, but the f first finger s should not 6. It is okay for the hand rest on the e flute. 7. Balance points p for the e right hand are the thum mb and little finger.
8. If you loo ok straight at t your finger rs, they migh ht appear to b be flat, but if you turn your head and look at your fi ingers from t the side, you u will notice e that they curve.
9. When loo oking in the mirror, m you should s see a gentle slope e from the si ide of the wrist dow wn to the elbo ow.
Left L hand
k at your left t hand. The flute will ba alance on the e side of the first 10. Now look finger bet tween the sec cond and thi ird knuckle. With the fir rst finger of f the right hand, noti ice the inden ntation.
f properl ly with the ri ight hand, an nd rest the h head joint on n your left 11. Hold the flute shoulder. Let the flut te balance on n the indenta ation of your r first finger that you found in step s 9. The side of the first fi finger sh hould be betw ween the first and second ke eys.
d the first thr ree fingers and a place the em comforta ably onto the eir keys. 12. Now bend
s in place, le et the thumb rest naturall ly on the B k key. In 13. With left hand fingers this positi ion the thum mb will be tur rned on its si ide.
hat the little finger rests on o the A-fla at key, and do oes not hang g below 14. Be sure th the flute or o stand strai ight in the ai ir.
e fingers don nt just touch h the keys bu ut rest in the e middle 15. It is important that the ys. of the key
Embouchure E e Conducive e to Beautifu ful Tone
1. With lips closed and mouth m in a relaxed, natu ural expressio on look in th he mirror. e distorts this s look as litt tle as possibl le. A proper embouchure
low the lowe er lip. 2. Place the first finger of the right hand just bel
eeth, and the en part the lip ps slightly. T This is the em mbouchure f formation 3. Part the te that you want w to achie eve.
t head join nt of the flut te, covering the end with h your right h hand. 4. Take out the 5. Place the embouchure e hole in the middle of c losed lips.
6. Looking in i a mirror, roll r the head d joint outwa ard until you u can see approxim mately until half h of the em mbouchure h hole.
e lip plate un ntil it is just below b the lo ower lip, sim milar to step 2 2. 7. Lower the eeth, and the en part the lip ps slightly a as you did in step 3, and blow. 8. Part the te r lip should direct the an ngle of the ai ir stream so that more ai ir goes 9. The upper down into o than goes across a the flu ute.
elaxed again nst the lower r lip. While y you are play ying, your 10. Keep the head joint re teacher sh hould be able e to pull the head joint a away with ea ase.
roduced whe en the airstre eam hits the outside wall l of the embouchure 11. Tone is pr hole, as marked m in thi is picture. Pa art of the air enters the tu ube and the o other part is disperse ed outside. 12. Beautiful tone comes from a com mbination of b breath flow a and a well-f formed ure. embouchu
13. Expert pe edagogues di isagree abou ut the best wa ay to shift fl lute tone from m the lower register into the e upper regis ster. One wa ay is by mov ving the lowe er jaw, which also moves the e lips forward d.
4. Play a fir rst octave F. Be sure tha at the embou uchure is loo ose and the airstream 14 is aimed slightly s dow wnward.
ntinuing to play, p move th he lower jaw w out as far a as it will go. Notice 15. While con that the em mbouchure eventually e disappears.
m the jaw only half f as far as yo ou moved it in step 15. Think of 16. Now try moving aiming the airstream across a the em mbouchure h hole instead of slightly downward d. It is norm mal for nothin ng to happen n at first. Ke eep trying, b but dont resort to blowing b hard der.
u move your r jaw in this way, your li ips will natur urally come f forward. 17. When you The embo ouchure start ts to look lik ke an oo. w to shift the t tone from m the lower register to th he upper reg gister is to 18. Another way maintain breath b suppo ort and keep the lip plate e stable on th he chin.
Articulation
Articulation can be difficult to teach to a beginning flute student because the teacher cannot see inside the students mouth to examine where the tongue strikes the roof of the mouth. As can be seen in the literature written by expert pedagogues, there are several articulations that are equally appropriate for a beginning flute student.
1. Run your tongue back and forth along your hard palate. See how far forward you can move the tip of your tongue without touching your front teeth. 2. Say tah, and be sure that the tip of your tongue does not touch your front teeth. 3. Take a breath and place your tongue in the correct spot to say tah. Let your tongue act as a valve to release the air when you say tah. 4. The action of your tongue should always be light, never explosive or heavy. 5. Your teacher should listen carefully to be sure you are not making extra thunk noises with your tongue, caused by placing the tongue too far back in the mouth.
6.
Say tah in this spot.
References Anzalone, V. (1979). Breeze easy. New York, NY: Warner Brothers. Berliner, D.C. (1986). In pursuit of the expert pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 15(7), 5-13. Debost, M. (2002). The simple flute: From A-Z. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Eck, E. (1941). Eck method for flute. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Ericsson, K.A., Krampe, R. T., & Tesch-Romer, C. (1993). The role of deliberate practice in the acquisition of expert performance. Psychological Review,100, 363-406. Feltovich, P.J., Prietula, M.J., & Ericsson, K.A. (2006). Studies of expertise from psychological perspectives. In K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, R.R. Hoffman, & P.J. Feltovich (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 41-68). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Hahn, R.R. (2000). Practical hints on playing the flute. Miami, FL: Warner Brothers. Krippendorf, K. (2004). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Lehmann, A.C., & Davidson, J.W. (2002). Taking an acquired skills perspective on music performance. In R. Colwell & C. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning (pp. 542-562). New York: Oxford University Press.
Lehmann, A.C., & Gruber, H. (2006) Music. In K.A. Ericsson, N. Charness, R.R. Hoffman, & P.J. Feltovich (Eds.). The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 457-470). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. Mather, R. (1981-1989). The art of playing the flute (Vols. 1-3). Iowa City, IA: Romney Press. OReilly, J., & Williams, M. (1997). Accent on achievement. New York, NY: Alfred Music Company. Pearson, B. (1993). Standard of excellence. San Diego, CA: Neil Kjos Music Company. Putnik, E. (1970). The art of flute playing. Miami, FL: Summy-Birchard Music. Sloboda, J.A., Davidson, J.W., Howe, M.J.A., & Moore, D. (1996). The role of practice in the development of expert musical performance. British Journal of Psychology, 87, 287-309. Thomas, M. (1988). Mark Thomas flute method. San Antonio, TX: Southern Music Company. Winn, R. (1998). AMA flute 2000. Pacific, MO: Mel Bay. Wye, T. (1988). Proper flute playing. London: Novello.

Content Analysis of Selected Experts Flute Pedagogy Texts and Comparison With Common Flute Method Books For Beginners

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Content Analysis of Selected Experts Flute Pedagogy Texts and Comparison with Common Flute Method Books for

Supervised by Professor Susan Wharton Conkling

Department of Music Education Eastman School of Music

University of Rochester Rochester, New York

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 2

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Table 1. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Hand Position

Linked to: Fingering Finger dexterity

Linked to: Fingering efficiency Fingerings Practice technique

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 27

Table 2. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Posture

Putnik Category: Posture Key Terms: Not Covered

Linked to: Embouchure

Linked to: Hand positions Support & embouchure

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 28

Table 3. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Embouchure

Linked to: Breathing Tone Development

Linked to: Breath control Tone color Intonation Dynamics

Linked to: Tone

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 29

Table 4. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Breathing

Mather Category: Breathing Key Terms:

Wye Category: Breathing Key Terms:

Linked to: Technical development Tone quality

Linked to: Resonance Tone color Tone

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 30

Table 5. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Tone

Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato

Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato

Linked to: Embouchure Vibrato

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 31

Table 6. Content Analysis of Expert Flute Pedagogy Texts: Articulation

Linked to: Articulation Double and Triple tongue

Linked to: Articulation High Register

Double and Triple Articulation tongue, flutter, Style Baroque tonguing

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 32

Putnik Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms:

Mather Category: Beyond Beginner Technique Key Terms:

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 33

Content Analysis Flute Pedagogy p. 34