BASIC CONCEPTS Food Basic need for all living beings.

s. Gives energy for day today activities Keeps systems functioning well. Supplies nourishing substances to build & repair tissues & regulate various functions. Study of composition & functions essential to enjoy good health. Food does much more than keeping alive & healthy. Adds pleasure to life. We enjoy flavors, aromas, colors, & textures of different cuisines. A way to celebrate special events & festivals with family & friends PHYSIOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS Energy- by oxidation of mainly carbohydrates & lipids, for voluntary & involuntary work. Body building or growth- infant grows into healthy adult., new cells added, cells increase in size. Maintenance or repair- worn out cells continuously get replaced by new ones. Daily wear & tear of cells maintained. Proteins, minerals, & water mainly required for growth as well as maintenance of cells & tissues. Regulation of body processes- beating of heart, maintenance of body temperature, blood clotting & excretion of wastes. Each of these are carried & controlled by specific nutrients. Protective function- vitamins & proteins keep body cells in healthy condition to ward off infection & keep up resistance to disease & help to recover from any infection. PSYCHOLOGICAL FUNCTIONS Fulfilling emotional needs. Used as a reward or as a punishment . People feel secure & comfortable: when served food they are used to consume e.g. A mother prepares childs favorite meal. Many eat food :to relieve anxiety & frustration, Some eat less or refuse food :when depressed or lonely. Certain foods :associated with sickness. Others :associated with good timings. SOCIAL FUNCTIONS Warmth & friendship: expressed through sharing one s food or inviting people to dine. Special or favorite foods prepared :to express respect & affection. Significant part of celebrations :for occasions viz. birthdays, weddings & other joyous occasions Special menus : for festivals Religious significance: Some foods offered to Gods, others avoided on certain days Type of food prepared = a status symbol. Some communities: males given more & better quality foods due to higher social status DEFINITIONS FOOD Any substance that nourishes body & is fit to eat. May be sold or liquid. Provides materials for providing energy, growth, maintenance & regulating various processes. Materials of which the food is made up of are termed as nutrients. NUTRIENTS Chemical substances present in food, Needed to carry out its functions.

Food is source of all nutrients except vitamin D. Each group of nutrients has several nutrients in it & each nutrient has specific functions. Different foods contain different amounts of nutrients. No two foods have identical nutritive value. Nutrients are essential constituents required in suitable amounts. Approx. 50 nutrients placed into 6 categories. Divided into macro & micro nutrients based on their requirement in the body. Most weight of foods we eat is of macronutrients viz. proteins, carbohydrates, lipids & water. Vitamins & minerals also required, present in very minute quantities. Both macro & micro nutrients important for good health, no good health without including all nutrients in the diet. Requirements: macro nutrients terms of grams, micro nutrients in terms of milli or micro grams. NUTRITION Science of nourishing body. Combination of :processes by which the body receives & utilizes various nutrients Refers to :various processes for making use of food. Includes eating right kind & amount of food, absorption of nutrients into the blood stream, use of nutrients by the body cells, maintenance & growth of body cells, tissues, & organs & elimination of wastes. Includes :much more than consuming a balanced diet. Study of :various nutrients, their characteristics, functions, requirements & sources. effect of deficiency, excess intake, digestion, absorption, & utilization as well as interrelationships that occur among some nutrients DIET Kinds of foods & beverages consumed every day. May be a normal diet or a modified diet for treatment of a specific disease or condition. HEALTH WHO: a state of complete physical, mental, & social well being & not merely absence of disease or infirmity. A positive state of complete well being. When tired or exhausted, we cannot concentrate at the work. a balance between work & rest or recreation necessary to improve work efficiency. One must look & feel healthy, & have a balanced mind & be a socially responsible . NUTRITIONAL STATUS Condition of health as influenced by utilization of nutrients. Can be assessed by Surveying kind & amount of food being consumed, Signs of ill health or deficiency symptoms if present, Height, weight, other measurements Level of nutrients in blood & excreted in urine. RELATION OF FOOD & HEALTH Good nutrition & health inter linked closely. Clean, wholesome & nutritious food promotes health & keeps away disease. Balanced Diet is one of the essential factors in ensuring good health. Other factors- wholesomeness of food & clean environment for preparing & eating food.

Food handler should maintain high standards of hygiene, should have basic knowledge of nutrition & hygiene for maximum health benefits. MALNUTRITION When diet does not supply all the nutrients in required amounts, it results in ill health or mal nutrition. Mal means faulty, which is impairment of health resulting from deficiency, excess, or imbalance of nutrients in the diet. UNDERNUTRITION Deficiency of calories &/or one or more nutrients Undernourished person is underweight. OVERNUTRITION Excess of calories &/or one or more nutrients Over nourished person is overweight which can lead to obesity. Hyper vitaminosis causes toxicity.

ENERGY INTRODUCTION Continuous source required to stay alive & keep all organs & systems functioning efficiently. Food a fuel , supplies energy to body : a source of power to work continuously.

As long as life, energy supply cannot be turned off. Energy is ability to do work. If diet adequate in protein but deficient in carbohydrates &/or fat, protein will not be oxidized to meet energy needs first & balance used for other functions. Food is digested, absorbed & supplied to millions of body cells, to be oxidized to release energy.

FORMS Chemical energy: in food, Light or solar energy :for synthesis of Vitamin D & for photosynthesis, Mechanical energy :for movement of muscles, Electrical energy :for functioning of brain & nerve cells, Heat energy: produced when energy is converted from one form to another. Note-Various forms are inter convertible. Living cells: capable of releasing energy stored in certain nutrients- to perform various activities in cell viz. synthesis of proteins, maintaining warmth & contracting muscle. Energy from break down of food: stored in the form of high energy compound ATP, which gets converted to ADP. One mole of ATP provides 8 Kcal/33 KJ of energy. ADP reconverted to ATP by addition of phosphate ions. [ Phosphate ions help in release & transfer of energy.] UNITS Energy present in food or energy needed by body is measured in units called as JOULES or CALORIES. Calorie in nutrition = large calorie or kilocalorie, this is 1000 times bigger than the calorie used in physics. One kilocalorie= amount of heat required to raise temperature of 1 kg water by 1 degree C. International unit joule, is the energy expended when 1kg is moved 1met by a force of 1 Newton. Scientists & nutritionists: concerned with large amounts of energy, so they use kilocalorie, kilojoules or mega joule to express energy. 1 Kilocalorie=40184 kilojoules 1 Mega joule=239 kilocalories. Energy content of foods Measured by calorimeter or by proximate composition. BOMB CALORIMETER Based on principle of calorimeter. Measures heat produced when food sample is ignited by electric spark in presence of oxygen & platinum, which act as a catalyst. Inner part: a known quantity of sample placed. Outer portion: contains a known volume of water. When food sample ignited electrically- heat produced is absorbed by surrounding water---Energy value calculated by measuring rise in water temperature. PROXIMATE COMPOSITION By multiplying the carbohydrate, protein & lipid content of food multiplied by their fuel factor, i.e. calories provided by 1g of the nutrient. Undigested nutrients do not provide any energy, these values need some correction. Potential energy present in food when measured in bomb calorimeter is higher than energy released in body, due to some losses during digestion, absorption, & metabolism. Potential energy value must be corrected to allow for such losses

Physiological fuel factors are based upon: corrections for losses of unabsorbed nutrients in the waste products. On a mixed diet containing high quality protein: 95-90% carbohydrate, 95% lipids & 92% proteins are digested & absorbed. Absorbed carbohydrates & proteins: oxidized fully. Proteins: when oxidized need to be de aminated --- amino group converted to urea, lost in urine--- Hence body loses protein up to 25% that is digested & absorbed. Table- ENERGY VALUE OF FOOD [K CAL/G] ENERGY NEEDS OF BODY Based on: energy required to carry out basal processes, effect of food intake or specific dynamic action, as well as energy cost of activities one indulges in. Energy needed for growth, maintenance, innumerable processes taking place continuously, regulating body temperature as well as for physical & mental activity. Total energy needed by body=Basal metabolic rate + Specific dynamic action + Activity. BASAL METABOLIC RATE Energy required by body to carry out involuntary work & maintaining body temperature Involuntary work: functioning of various organs & systems which work continuously to keep body processes going viz. Heart, blood circulation, kidneys & excretion. Approximately 1/3rd of the energy is needed for these processes Remaining 2/3rd : utilized for maintenance of muscle tone. TEST FOR BASAL METABOLISM Conducted: before breakfast 12-16 hours after the last meal, i.e. in a post-absorptive state-- to eliminate the influence of food. Person should be: relaxed & lying down but awake because sleep reduces BMR & activity or exercise increases rate of oxidation in cells. Person should have: a normal pulse rate & be free from tension & fear of test. Ambient temperature is comfortable: as perspiration or shivering may affect rate of oxidation. TEST Person should have :normal body temperature as fever increases BMR. Test is conducted by measuring amount of oxygen consumed &/or carbon di oxide exhaled in a pre determined time, usually 6-8 minutes. A deviation of 10-15% from accepted standards is considered as normal. The adult BMR is 1 kcal/kg body weight/hour for males & 0.9 kcal/kg body weight/hour for females or approximately 1440 kcal for males & 1080 kcal for females respectively. FACTORS AFFECTING BMR BODY SIZE- A well built person has a greater skin surface area than a shorter or smaller person, losing more heat through skin & hence a higher BMR. BODY COMPOSITION- amount of muscle tissue & adipose or fatty tissue in body affects BMR--- An athlete with well built muscles & little body fat OR a tall & thin person has higher BMR than a non athlete with more body fat of the same weight or a short & obese person---metabolic activity is much more in muscle tissue or lean tissue as compared to adipose or fatty tissue. REGULAR EXERCISE- BMR increases considerably if a person performs regular exercise for 30 minutes in a day. AGE- During periods of rapid growth, BMR increases by 15-20%-- as growth hormone stimulates cell metabolism & new cells are formed---

It is highest at the time of birth-- It increases during infancy, preschool age & puberty--- BMR gradually declines with age @ 2% per decade after 21 years. PREGNANCY- It increases rapidly once again during pregnancy & lactation--- During last trimester it increases by 20% during pregnancy due to increased metabolic activity of foetus & increased metabolic activity of maternal tissues. SEX- BMR is 10% higher in males as compared with females--difference is attributed to higher proportion of adipose tissues in females & hormonal variations between sexes. STATE OF REST- BMR is calculated when a person is fully awake & in a complete state of physical as well as mental rest--- It goes down by 10% during sleep--- it increases by 14% if a person is standing. FEVER- Fever increases BMR by 7% for each degree F rise in body temperature---- This is also one of the reasons for loss of weight during fever. STATE OF HEALTH- BMR is low during starvation & malnutrition because of reduction in muscle tissue---- Prolonged calorie malnutrition decreases BMR by 20%----- In diseases & conditions where catabolic processes are high viz. cancers, TB, & burns, BMR is high. HORMONES- Disorders of thyroid gland influence the BMR markedly--Hyperthyroidism increases BMR up to 30% ------ hypothyroidism decreases BMR up to 50-75%---- Injecting 1 mg Adrenaline increases BMR up to 20%. CLIMATE- BMR increases by 10% when climate is cold in order to maintain body temperature, as compared with tropical climate. PSYCHOLOGICAL TENSION- Worry & anxiety increases BMR considerably FACTORS AFFECTING BMR Describes the effect food has in increasing metabolic rate above the level found when fasting. Energy is needed to digest, absorb, & metabolize the food we eat. Food intake stimulates metabolism process leading to an increase in energy expenditure---- This is known as the thermogenic effect or specific dynamic effect. Proteins have maximum effect on SDA--- increasing BMR by about 30% when eaten alone--- carbohydrates & lipids show smaller increases. When eaten together in a normal mixed diet, increase is about 5-10% of basal metabolism. Physical activity Increases energy requirement above the basal metabolism. Wide variations for energy needed for work, recreation & mental activity i.e. all voluntary activities. Some use up more energy for physical activity than for basal metabolism. Activities : Sedentary work- Teaching, office work, executives, housewife, tailoring. Moderate work- Farming, industrial labor, driver, maid servant. Heavy work- Stone cutter, miner, wood cutter. Energy requirement varies: with type of activity & speed & efficiency---- E.g. swimming uses up twice the energy of bicycling--Walking up briskly uses up thrice the energy of walking up at a moderate pace. Body size: Larger the body size, more energy would be needed. Energy expended for physical activities is measured indirectly by strapping a light weight respirometer, collecting the expired air & analyzing CO2 & O2 content to calculate the energy expended. ADJUSTMENT FOR AGE-

BMR & physical activity decreases as age progresses--- Hence calorie expenditure also decreases---be reduced by 5% during 22-35 years, by 3% per decade during 35-55%, , by 5% per decade during 55-75 years & by 7% after 75 years age. ADJUSTMENT FOR CLIMATE Energy cost increases by 3% for every 1 degree C decrease in temperature below 37 degree C in winter--- decreases by 5% for every 1 degree C increase in temperature during summer. LOSSES THROUGH UNDIGESTED FOODS 8-10% of total energy required kept as allowances to cope up for such losses. LOSSES DURING METABOLISM & ABSORPTION OF FOODS 10% of the total energy required kept as allowances to cope up for such losses. OTHER FACTORS Total energy requirement also varies as per sex, age, & the physiological conditions viz. pregnancy & lactation. Energy balance Body uses energy continuously. Energy needs to be replaced. Constant supply of energy is required. Energy balance means intake of energy=output of energy. It will neither lead to gain or loss of body weight. Underweight While fasting or starvation, when food is not available the body draws energy from various stores viz. glycogen, muscles & adipose tissues. Insufficient intake of energy affects working capacity, work efficiency, body weight growth & vulnerability to infections. body weight becomes 15-20% less than desirable weight according to height Possible reasons-Ingesting insufficient quantity of food, less than needed, Digestive disorders, Faulty absorption of nutrients, Intestinal infestations & infections, Poor food habits, Stress, tension, Poverty, Lack of nutrition education. Treatment Modify meals gradually, do not force to eat, serve only when appetite is there. Give up to 6 small appetizing meals per day, served attractively at pleasant timings. Foods to be- easy to absorb, high in calories [Extra intake of 500 cal/day can lead to 1lb gain in body weight in one week.]& proteins [@ 1.2 grams/day], adequate in vitamins, minerals, & give supplementation sometimes. Items to be included- Salad dressings, Cream soups, Desserts, Fresh fruits viz. Banana, Mango, Chikoo, Whole milk, Whole milk curd, Paneer, Nutritious soups, mutton stew, baked fish, cheese sandwich etc. Overweight & obesity If body weight becomes 10% more than desirable weight according to height = overweight. If body weight becomes 20% or more than desirable weight according to the height = obesity. Body mass index [weight in kg]/square of height in meters] for men should be between 20-25 & for women between 19-24. if it is > 25 then the person is obese[gradeI-25 to 29, grade II- 30 to 40 & grade III-> 40] Possible reasons- Family food habits, Ignorance of calorific value, Skipping breakfast, Consumption of high calorie snacks, Sedentary

lifestyle, Not reducing the calorie intake with age, Attending many social events, Distress eating to avoid wastage of food. Treatment Give :only up to 3 meals per day. Foods to be- Low in calories [reduced intake of 500 cal/day can lead to 1lb loss in body weight in one week.], low in fats, high in proteins, high in fibers, giving feeling of fullness, creating satiety, increasing bulk & volume. Items to be included- Salads, high fiber breakfast cereals, lean meat, vegetable juices before meals, soups with more liquid & steamy aroma, plain skimmed milk curds diluted & unsweetened lassi, smoothies as appetite suppressants Items to be avoided- tea, coffee, sugar & refined cereals. 100 calories exchange list Rice/wheat-29 grams, Bengal gram-28 grams, Soyabean-23 grams, Peas107 grams, Cucumber- 769 grams ,Cabbage-373 grams, Carrot- 208 grams, Spinach- 384 grams, Cauliflower- 333 grams, Potato/Colocasia- 103 grams, Turnip- 345 grams, Brinjal- 417 grams, French beans- 384 grams, Apple- 169 grams, Banana-86 grams, Grapes-143 grams, Guava-196 grams, Mango-135 grams, Orange 208 grams, Pears- 192 grams, Melon-600 grams, Almond/coconut- 15 grams, Peanuts-17 grams, grams, Fresh fish109 grams, dried fish- 48 grams,Egg-57 grams, Mutton- 51 grams, Cow milk 149 grams, Buffalo milk-85 grams, Cheese- 29 grams, Whole milk powder-20 grams, Butter-14 grams, Oil- 11 grams, Bread-40 grams, Sugar-25 grams, Honey-11 grams.

CARIBOHYDRATES NTRODUCTION Complex organic compounds made up of C,H,& O elements. Defined as hydrates of carbon as the ratio of hydrogen & oxygen is 2:1 as in case of water. Plants synthesize these by photosynthesis process in presence of sunlight, CO2 & H2O stored in seeds, roots, stems & grains as reserve source of energy. Classified as available & unavailable carbohydrates, depending upon whether they can be digested, absorbed & metabolized or not to produce energy. FUNCTIONS OF AVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATES Supply of energy @ 4cal/gram, supplying 50-60% of the total daily energy required. Protein sparing action- By including sufficient quantity of carbohydrates in the diet, proteins are spared from being used for energy production & can be utilized for other important functions viz. body building, growth, repair & maintenance of body tissues. Anti ketogenic action- If sufficient quantity of carbohydrates is not consumed, body fats stored as adipose tissues get broken down to produce energy, resulting in excess production of acids & ketones. This disturbs acid balance & causes acidosis /ketosis & results in death in the extreme cases. Supply energy for continuous functioning of heart muscles, brain & nervous system. Proper absorption of calcium & vitamin D with the help of lactose keeps our bones & teeth strong. Ribose sugar helps in synthesis of DNA & RNA. Glycogen stored in liver & muscles gets broken down to supply energy in case of emergency viz. fasting, starvation & recovery from illnesses. UNAVAILABLE CARBOHYDRATES Cannot be digested due to absence of enzymes required & energy is not made available after consumption. Collectively termed as dietary fibers. Daily regular intake of 4-6 grams per day as salad vegetables, leafy vegetables, fresh fruits & vegetables, whole cereal grains & pulses, dry fruits, coconut etc. is advisable. Roughage material for food. Sweep food ahead during digestion process in the alimentary canal. Prevent constipation by proper elimination of waste products from the body. Prevent diarrhea by forming solid stools. Essential vitamins & minerals get supplied with fibers. Elimination of extra cholesterol & toxic bile juice from body. Good for diabetics as well as for weight watcher as the give the feeling of fullness in stomach without adding any calories & blood sugar does not rise. PREVETION OF INTESTINAL DISEASES CANCER OF COLON- By minimizing contact of toxic waste products for long. DIVERTICULOSIS-By maintaining proper tone of intestinal muscles so that swelling & formation of patches get prevented in intestine. HAEMORRHOIDS- Swelling of rectal veins gets prevented as there is formation of soft & large stools.

APPENDICITIS- By preventing compaction of toxic wastes it ensures that there is no microbial growth, which can lead to appendicitis MONOSACCHARIDES Single sugars viz. bioses, trioses, tetroses, pentoses do not play important role in human nutrition. 6 carbon containing hexoses are important in nutrition. GLUCOSE/DEXTROSE/GRAPE SUGAR Present in ripe fruits, onions, carrots & young & immature vegetables viz. peas. Honey contains 35% glucose. Simplest form of carbohydrates, Direct source of energy. Preparation of health drinks for ill persons & athletes. Normal blood sugar level is 80-100 mg/100 ml. It increases during diabetes. Skipping breakfast can lead to low blood sugar level esply in the late morning hours, leading to fatigue, reduced work efficiency, lack of concentration, effecting nervous system in extreme cases. FRUCTOSE/FRUIT SUGAR/LAEVULOSE Found wherever glucose is present in nature. Sweetest of all sugars. Uses- sweetening agent in syrups, confectionery products & medicines. GALACTOSE Never found as single sugar in nature. Occurs in combination with glucose, as LACTOSE/MILK SUGAR. Very low in relative sweetness. DISACCHARIDES After chemical combination of two monosachharides, one water molecule gets eliminated & disaccharides with common chemical formula C12H22O11get formed. LACTOSE/MILK SUGAR Made of one molecule each of glucose & galactose. Gives natural sweetness to milk. Helps in proper absorption of Calcium & vitamin D. Some persons with LACTASE enzyme deficiency cannot digest milk properly, & suffer from problems viz. flatulence & gas----- It is advisable to consume fermented milk products for such persons. MALTOSE/MALT SUGAR Formed during malting process when cereal grains viz. barley are soaked in water & germinated. Also produced as an intermediate product during digestion of complex starchy food before it is converted to glucose. In both cases- Amylase action acts on starch. SUCROSE/CANE SUGAR/BEET SUGAR/TABLE SUGAR Contains one molecule each of glucose & fructose. Available in crystalline, powder & syrup forms. Being direct source of energy, its consumption should be restricted, as it causes overweight, obesity, diabetes & dental caries. RELATIVE SWEETNESS POLYSACCHARIDES Formed due to chemical combination of > 2 mono saccharides. AVAILABLE POLYSACCHARIDES STARCH Present stored in most parts of plants as a reserve form of energy as starch granules Cereals & millets upto 70-80%, & root & stem vegetables up to 19-30%. Stored as granules as leucoplasts in plants. CHEMISTRY

 High molecular weight polymer of glucose , known as homoglycon. Common chemical formula is [C6H10O5]n. Consists of long chain of glucose units UNAVAILABLE POLYSACHHARIDES CELLULOSE Structural plant cell material present in cell walls is similar to starch in structure. Cannot be digested by human beings, due to lack of cellulose enzyme. Causes: textural changes & softening during cooking & ripening of fruits & vegetables. Use: preparation of different types of gums viz. CMC, MCC, and HMC. HEMICELLULOSES Always found wherever cellulose is present in nature. It is cementing material present between plant cells, Also found in bran of cereal grains & in pods of legumes. Similar to starch in structure but cannot be digested by human beings, due to lack of hemi cellulase enzyme. Causes- textural changes & softening during cooking & ripening of fruits & vegetables. Fruits & vegetables become mushy in texture upon cooking. PECTIN Present in cell walls, between pulp & skin of fruits. Made up of large number of galacturonic acid molecules, Cannot be digested by human beings due to absence of pectinase enzyme. Capable of forming viscous solution in water & is a gelling agent with sugar in presence of acid, hence useful for preparation of jams, jellies & marmalades. Best gel is formed when sugar concentration is min. 65% & the pH is 3.5. Rich sources - Apple, banana, oranges, lemon, papaya. Commercial pectin is available as coarse or fine yellowish white powder which is added to fruit preserves that are low in natural pectin. Also used for preparation of medicine for treatment of diarrhea esply. for children. GUMS Extracted from plants, microbes, sea weeds & algae for various purposes. Commonly extracted from the seeds viz. locust bean gum, guar gum Capable of forming sticky solution when mixed with water. USES As thickening agents-in gravies & sauces. As stabilizers in ice-cream-promoting formation of minute size ice crystals- giving characteristic melting property to ice-cream in the mouth. For adding bulk to the products viz. ice cream. As color & flavor fixing agents in the carbonated beverages. As anti staling agents in bread- preventing the loss of moisture & freshness. As foam stabilizers. Help in re hydration of dehydrated foods before use. AGAR Complex polysaccharide, extracted from algae. Forms a stiff gel at 1% concentration. Uses- preparation of culture media & as stabilizer in food gels. ALGIN-

Fibre 4o grams/day is desirable. Carbohydrates Minimum-100 grams/day Maximum- Less than 70% of total calories from carbohydrates. DEFICIENCY OF CARBOHYDRATES Occurs if consumed < 100 grams/day Uncommon in India- as it forms major bulk of our diet. Results in excess utilization of body fats, leading to ketosis. Results in Hypoglycemia if blood sugar is < 70 mg/100 ml EXCESS INTAKE OF CARBOHYDRATES Dental caries due to excess consumption of sugar. Malnutrition due to consumption of empty calories. Increased triglycerides in blood due to excess consumption of refined cereals, & sugar- leading to heart diseases in future. Excess carbohydrates get converted to body fats, which are stored as adipose tissues in the body, leading to overweight, & obesity. Diabetes due to excess consumption of sugar & insulin deficiency & the blood sugar level becomes > 140 mg/100 ml of blood. Excess consumption of dietary fibers causes irritation to intestinal lining, leading to cramps & bloating due to gas formation. Excess consumption of dietary fibers interferes with the absorption & availability of minerals like Ca, & Fe. ALCOHOL AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY Provides 7 cal/gram OR 5.6 cal/ml Rate of metabolism is very slow in the liver @ 1 gram/30 minutes. Hence it remains in the blood stream for long & causes various harmful side effects. Up to 10% of the total required energy can be derived from alcohol for those who consume it on a regular basis. Chronic alcoholism can lead to Malnutrition. USE OF ARTIFICIAL SWEETNERS Non nutritive sweeteners are used, which are 100-350 times sweeter than sucrose. Useful for obese persons, dieters, & diabetics for preparation of low calorie products & diet coke. Uses-bakery items, sweets, confectionery products, beverages, puddings, chewing gum etc. Use is not recommended in soft drinks, as it may substitute for the essential nutrients.

It is sodium salt of alginic acid i.e. sodium alginate, extracted from sea weeds. Cream colored powder form is used as stabilizer in ice creams & dairy products, preventing formation of ice crystals during freezing & gives good whipping ability. Also used in cakes, fruit drinks, milk shakes, desserts, sugar confectionery & wines. SOME RICH SOURCES OF CARBOHYDRATESCEREALS-Wheat, Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Ragi, Oats, Barley, Corn PULSES- Bengal gram, Whole green gram, Lentils, Besan FRUITS & VEGETABLES-Mango, Chiko, Jackfruit, Custard apple, Banana, Green peas, Beans, potatoes, yam, Colocasia. NUTS & OIL SEEDS- Cashew nut, coconut, ground nut, til seeds MISC. Sugar, Jaggery, Honey, Sago, Tapioca, dates, Raisins, Skimmed milk powder R.D.I. FOR ADULTS

LIPIDS INTRODUCTION derived from a greek word LIPOS, means fats & oils. triglycerides of fatty acids & glycerol formed by combination of 3 fatty acids & glycerol. Carboxyl group of each fatty acid combines with one hydroxyl group each of glycerol. Three water molecules are removed & triglycerides are formed. Fats: solids at room temperature because of more saturated fatty acids, mostly of animal origin except Vanaspathi & margarine, rich in fat soluble vitamins. Oils: liquids at room temperature due to more unsaturated fatty acids except coconut & palm oil & are of plant origin, rich in essential fatty acids. FUNCTIONS Concentrated source of energy: provide 9 cal/gm. In addition to protein sparing action, B1 sparing action. Subcutaneous fat: insulating material-- retains heat in body. Fat around vital body organs: holds them in proper position, absorbs mechanical injuries & protects from shocks. Fats: good sources of fat soluble vitamins, satiety value: hunger satisfaction for long period. Cholesterol building outer cell membranes, nerves present in nerves, digestive juices, bile juices, & sex hormones. helps in synthesis of vitamin D by skin in presence of sunlight. Roles of essential fatty acids neither present in body nor they can be synthesized. should be essentially supplied through diet for healthy skin, normal growth Omega 3, & Omega 6 fatty acids Omega 3 fatty acids are PUFA with the end most double bond on third Carbon atom from the Methyl end/Omega end Omega 6 fatty acids are PUFA with the end most double bond on sixth Carbon atom from the Methyl end./Omega end Linoleic acid & Eicosopentanoic acid are Omega 3 fatty acids. Linoleic acid & Arachidic acid are Omega 6 fatty acids. Omega 3 fatty acids are found in olive oil, fish oils, mustard oil, soybean oil, rajmah, methi. Til, & green leafy vegetables. Omega 6 fatty acids are found in sunflower, cottonseed, corn, sesame, & groundnut. When consumption of Omega 6 fatty acids goes up, need for Omega 3 fatty acids increases. Omega 3 fatty acids & Omega 6 fatty acids should be in a correct ratio to reduce blood cholesterol. Optimum balance between Omega 3 fatty acids & Omega 6 fatty acids is essential for good health. It is good for cardiovascular system, inflammatory reactions, & immune response.

Consumption of 2oo-300 grams fish per week or 15-20 grams of flax seeds per day helps to meet the R.D,A. of Omega 3 fats [0.5-1.0 grams per day] Consume blend of oils to get required E.F.A. e.g. til+mustard / ground nut+mustard/soybean+olive/ corn+rice bran Omega 3 fatty acids are esential parts of each & every cell membrane . They help in maintaining the cell membrane & help to prevent free radicals from attacking DNA in the cell. In body, linoleic acid is converted to Arachidonic acid, required for normal growth, healthy skin, & cholesterol metabolism. Hence Arachidonic acid is not E.F.A. Linoleic acid 18 Carbon atoms & 2 double bonds. Deficiency: skin diseases viz. dermatitis, eczema & formation of scales ,lesions on skin & retarded growth. supplied by :vegetable oils Linolenic acid 18 carbon atoms & 3double bonds. associated with normal growth. deficiency causes skin changes permanently. It is supplied by the vegetable oils. Arachidic acid 20 carbon atoms & 0 double bonds. maintains :integrity of cell membranes. controls :metabolism of cholesterol. helps :in formation of different groups of hormones. helps :in normal blood clotting process. stops gastric juice secretion: when process of digestion is complete. 1] Phospholipids Lecithin only available natural emulsifier, helps in preparation of food emulsions, transportation & utilization of fatty acids in body, keeping blood fat level low , restoring loss of memory & retaining moisture on skin. Cephalin present in brain , nervous tissues & cell walls. helps in metabolism of body fats a part of normal blood clotting process. 2] Glycolipids constituents of brain & nervous tissues. 3] Lipoproteins involved in carrying cholesterol in body. If carried by HDL there is less risk of cholesterol deposition in body. If carried by LDL, the risk of deposition of cholesterol in the arteries supplying fresh blood & oxygen to heart & brain increases. To reduce risk, HDL formation can be promoted by performing regular exercise, keeping weight under control, reducing alcohol consumption, smoking & stress, consumption of saturated fats, excess calories, sugar, salt & consumption of cholesterol rich foods CLASSIFICATION I] SIMPLE LIPIDSA] TRIGLYCERIDES-Fats & oils are triglycerides of fatty acids. B] FATTY ACIDS1] SATURATED FATTY ACIDS even number of Carbon atoms between 4-24. all single bonds between Carbon atoms.

E.g. Butyric[4], Caproic{6], Caprylic[8], Caproic[10], Lauric[12], Myristic[14], Palmitic[16], Stearic[18], Arachidic[20], & Behenic acid[22]. 2] UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS contain 1-6 double bonds between Carbon atoms. If only one double bond, known as MUFA If > 1number of double bonds, called as PUFA Examples Palmitoleic[16:1], Oleic[18:1], Eicosenoic[20:1], & Eruic[22:1] acids are MUFA. Linoleic[18:2], Linolenic[18:3], Arachichidonic[20:4], Cupanodonic[22:5] & Decasohexanoic acids are PUFA. II]COMPOUND LIPIDS formed by combination of lipids with some other compounds. A]PHOSPHOLIPIDS LECITHIHIN= phosphoric acid+ lipids. CEPHALIN- Contains nitrogenous base in addition to phosphoric acid & lipids. B] GLYCOLIPIDS carbohydrates, fatty acids & a nitrogenous base, w/o glycerol. C] LIPOPROTEIN= lipids & proteins. III] DERIVED LIPIDS alcohols, vitamins, pigments, & sterols can be derived after hydrolysis of lipids. CHOLESTEROL White, wax like, tasteless & odorless sterol. Deposition results in formation of plaque, arteriosclerosis, ischemia, angina, cerebro vascular stroke & myocardial infarction i.e. heart attack. cholesterol rich foods viz. egg yolk, all forms of eggs, organ meats viz. kidney, liver, heart, tongue, bakery products viz. cakes, dairy products viz. butter, cream, cheese, ice cream, & whole milk, & animal foods viz. turkey, beef & lamb should be reduced. Functions of cholesterol Required to build and maintain membranes; it regulates membrane fluidity over the range of physiological temperatures. Reduces permeability of plasma membrane to protons (positive hydrogen ions) and sodium ions. Within cell membrane, functions in intracellular transport, cell signalling and nerve conduction. precursor molecule within cells Converted to bile in liver. An important precursor molecule for synthesis of Vitamin D and steroid hormones, including the adrenal gland hormones cortisol and aldosterone as well as the sex hormones progesterone, estrogens, and testosterone, and their derivatives. Some research indicates that it may act as an antioxidant. Hypercholesterolemia Abnormally high cholesterol levels that is, higher concentrations of LDL and lower concentrations of functional HDL are strongly associated with cardiovascular disease Promote atheroma development in arteries (atherosclerosis). This leads to myocardial infarction (heart attack), stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Higher blood LDL, contributes to this process LDL particles/ "bad cholesterol linked to atheroma formation. High concentrations of functional HDL can remove cholesterol from cells and atheroma, & offer protection and are referred as "good cholesterol".

Still, because cardiovascular disease is relatively rare in the younger population, the impact of high cholesterol on health is still larger in older people. It is suggested that the total blood cholesterol level should be: < 200 mg/dL SOURCES OF CHOLESTEROL All foods containing animal fat Major dietary sources include butter, ice cream, cheese, processed cheese, paneer, whole milk, mawa based sweets, egg yolks, beef tallow, pork, lard, poultry with skin ,liver, brain, fish, shell fish,, and shrimp. Human breast milk contains significant quantities. Not present in plant-based food sources unless added during the food's preparation. flax seeds and peanuts contain cholesterol-like compounds called phytosterols, which help to lower serum cholesterol levels. Total fat intake, especially saturated fat and trans fat, plays a larger role in blood cholesterol than intake of cholesterol itself. Saturated fat is present in full fat dairy products, animal fats, several types of oils and chocolate. Trans fats do not occur in significant amounts in nature. Minimize or eliminate trans fats due to adverse health effects. Trans fat is most often encountered in margarine and hydrogenated vegetable fat, and consequently in many fast foods, snack foods, and fried or baked goods. A change in diet in addition to other lifestyle modifications may help reduce blood cholesterol. Avoid animal products consume less than 7% of daily calories from saturated fat and less than 200 mg of cholesterol per day. Any reductions to dietary cholesterol intake are counteracted by the organs such as the liver, which will increase or decrease production of cholesterol to keep blood cholesterol levels constant 2025% of total daily production occurs in liver; & in other sites viz. intestines, adrenal glands, and reproductive organs. TYPES OF FATS LARD 100 % fat, obtained from pigs fat. remains as large particle after creaming. hence suitable for biscuits & flaky pastry BUTTER water in oil type emulsion with 80% fat & 20% water. prepared by ripening cream, till sour----- Then churned by adding ice ------solid chunks of butter get separated & butter milk is obtained as a by product. MARGARINE water in oil emulsion with 80% fat & 20% water. cheaper than butter & is a good substitute for butter. no buttery aroma because fat portion is not made of milk fat. It contains a blend of oils which are partially hydrogenated. non fat portion same like butter, which is prepared by ripening skimmed milk adding some curd or butter milk, to curd. both fat & water phases are blended together. ------emulsifier added for stability----- blend passed through rollers for solidification. VANASPATHI prepared by solidification of blend of vegetables by hydrogenation in presence of Nickel as a catalyst. Preparation involves: Degumming

NeutralizationBleaching After this stage, the oil may be filtered & marketed as refined vegetable oil or it may be taken for hydrogenation in presence of Nickel as a catalyst. It becomes solidified. Then it is chilled for granulation, packed & marketed as vanaspathi. SOURCES OF LIPIDS Most foods except cereals & fruits & vegetables-except olives & avocadoes. PLANT SOURCES- Groundnut, Sesame, Soybean, Rice bran, Coconut, Almond, Cashewnut, Corn, Sunflower, Safflower, Hydrogenated fats, Margarine ANIMAL SOURCES-Mutton, Pork, Fish, Poultry, Eggs, Organ meats, Milk & milk products viz. butter, cream, cheese, yoghurt INVISIBLE SOURCES- Nuts, salad dressings, fleshy foods, desserts, cookies, cakes, milk,egg, yolk, oily fish, meat, milk based sweets. R.D.I. OF LIPIDS Fats not to contribute >. 30 % calories. Calories from saturated fatty acids not to be . 10% of the total. At least 10% of the total calories to come from PUFA. Maintain correct ratio of omega 3 & omega 6 fatty acids. Cholesterol intake should not be . 200 mg per day. Consume variety of oils for EFA. Non vegetarians should consume groundnut oil, corn oil, soybean oil, & olive oil throughout the year. For fish eaters mixture of safflower oil & sunflower oil is adequate DEFICIT INTAKE Leads to deficiency of essential fatty acids, leading to Eczema + skin lesions, dry scales on skin of infants, toad skin or dry papules on upper limbs. Causes deficiency of fat soluble vitamins & affects growth & weight of adults. Deficiency is unlikely to occur in adults-as it is present in minute quantities in adult foods viz. cereals & pulses, which are consumed in large quantities. Excess intake is of great concern. EXCESSIVE INTAKE Consumption according to regions & income groups. In oriental diets 10% of total calories are derived from lipids, whereas in U.S.A. 40% of total calories are derived from lipids. Obesity is caused due to consumption of more calories. Excess fat is stored in body in the form of adipose tissues. Excess consumption causes elevated blood cholesterol levels. High intake of saturated fats & cholesterol are pre disposing factors for cardiovascular diseases. Omega 3 fatty acids have got protective effects. REDUCING LIPIDS IN DIET Use skimmed cow milk & its products. Use lean meat & trim off the visible fat. Steam, boil, or poach foods instead of frying. Use low fat dressings instead of salad dressing. Select fruits for desserts viz. puddings & pastries. Use herbs, spices, lemon juice for flavor, instead of fats. Dry powdered chutneys of flax & niger seeds are rich in EFA, as compared with the oil based pickles.

PROTEINS INTRODN. complex organic compounds most essential substances of animal matter, taking first place in nutrition. made of C,H,O,N, P,S& Fe elements. Structure: very complex. simplest unit is amino acid. totally 22 amino acids present in nature. When two amino acids react, amino group of one reacts with carboxyl group of other.------ After removal of water molecule, peptide is formed. Primary proteins: made up of a straight chain of amino acids. E.g. hormone insulin [51 amino acids in a straight chain]. Secondary proteins: amino acids get cross linked with each other & form larger molecules polypeptides---- Proteins get some shape because of this. E.g. coil like proteins. Tertiary & higher proteins: polypeptides get cross linked with S-H linkages, forming complex or native form of animal & plant proteins. ANIMAL PROTEINS FIBROUS water-insoluble form structure of tissues. Examples: Elastin: in blood capillaries, arteries & ligaments----- is elastic in nature, Keratin :in hair, Collagen: in bones, skin & cartilage Muscle proteins: viz. actin & myosin are all non elastic fibrous proteins. GLOBULAR water-soluble most complex forms of proteins present in: eggs, meat, poultry, milk, cheese & fish coil-like :in structure. When heat is applied: their complex structure is broken down---- due to breaking down of S-H linkages ---- they get denatured. If denaturation is allowed to continue: they form a thick solid gel & get coagulated. Some milk proteins get curdled :when they are heated in presence of acids--- This is because iso electric point pKI i.e. the pH reaches at which the amino acids get dissociated from each other. Some milk proteins collect at surface: trap air ---- form thick scum on top of soups. PLANT PROTEINS GLUTELINS Glutenin: present in wheat: water-insoluble but soluble in acids & alkalies.

PROLAMINES: Gliadin: present in wheat Zein: in maize water-insoluble but soluble in alcohol. Note When water is added to wheat flour, glutenin & gliadin combine & develop gluten, making the dough stretchable. CONJUGATED PROTEINS Formed: if some other nutrients or chemicals combine with proteins. LIPO PROTEINS Combination of lipids & proteins carries cholesterol in body & increases or decreases the risk of cholesterol deposition. GLYCO PROTEINS enzyme mucin :present in saliva = combination of carbohydrates & proteins. PHOSPHO PROTEINS Milk protein casein & the egg white protein vitellin = combination of phosphoric acid & protein. CHROMO PROTEINS Haemoglobin in blood & Myoglobin in meat = combination of pigments & proteins. NUCLEOPROTEINS Nucleic acids + proteins= formation of DNA & RNA. METALLO PROTEINS enzyme ascorbic oxidase contains copper & protein. DEHYDROGENASES Co enzyme dehydrogenase = proteins minus hydrogen. FUNCTIONS ENZYMES All enzymes are proteins, help in digestion, respiration & biochemical processes. ENERGY Proteins supply energy @ 4 cal/gram. IMMUNOPROTEINS Immunoglobulins formed by proteins help to fight with infections & increasing immunity. TRANSPORTERS Globin protein in haemoglobin carries oxygen inside body & CO2 outside from body. STRUCTURAL PROTEINS Proteins are present in protoplasm, nucleus, blood, skin, nails, hair & all body fluids except bile & urine. They help in body building, growth, & repair & maintenance of body tissues. These basic building blocks of body tissues constitute about 1/6th of total body weight. REGULATORY PROTEINSINSULIN regulates blood sugar level in body. THYROXIN regulates B,M,R. & rate of growth of a person. WATER BALANCE regulated by creation of osmotic conditions by proteins. ACID BASE BALANCE regulated by proteins as they act as buffers & maintain blood pH in a constant range between 7.2-7.8. ACTIN & MYOSIN present in muscles

regulate contraction & relaxation of muscles. combine & form ACTOMYOSIN during contraction & get broken down during relaxation process. HISTIDINE amino acid regulates production of HCl required for stimulation of gastric juices during digestion process. PHENYL ALANINE & TYROSINE amino acids provide material required for synthesis of hormones in body. NUTRITIONAL CLASSIFICATION Out of total 22 amino acids present in proteins, 10 are ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS, which are neither present in body nor they can be synthesized by body. Still they are essential for promoting normal growth, repair & maintenance of body tissues. These are ARGININE, ISOLEUCINE, LEUCINE, LYSINE, METHIONINE, PHENYL ALANINE, THREONINE, TRYPTOPHAN, and VALINE & HISTIDINE [BOTH ESSENTIAL FOR CHILDREN ONLY]. Remaining 12 amino acids are NON ESSENTIAL AMINO ACIDS which are either present or can be synthesized in the body. On the basis of presence of essential amino acids in required amounts, proteins are classified asCOMPLETE PROTEINS All proteins of animal origin viz. meat, poultry, fish, egg & milk proteins contain all essential amino acids in the required quantities. INCOMPLETE PROTEINS Gelatin & maize proteins generally lack in most essential amino acids. Such proteins neither promote growth nor do they help in repair & maintenance of body tissues. PARTIALLY COMPLETE PROTEINS Cereals & pulses are deficit in one or two essential; amino acids. Cereals are generally deficit in LYSINE & ISOLEUCINE. Pulses & oil seeds are generally deficit in METHIONINE & TRYPTOPHAN. When cereals & pulses are combined essential amino acids get mutually supplied. Together they become complete proteins. This is called as MUTUAL SUPPLEMENTATION. Examples:Dal chawal, Rajma chawal, Chhole bhature, Dal roti, Khitchdi, Idli, Dosa, Dhokla IMPROVING PROTEIN QUALITYInclude a small quantity of complete foods in every meal in various preparations instead of concentrating it all in one meal.. Include correct mixtures of plant foods viz. cereals+pulses. Add synthetic amino acids to processed foods to compensate for deficiency viz. lysine enriched bread. Use of T.V.P. to improve quality & reducing cost. Include plant proteins with a small quantity of animal protein. SUPPLEMENTATION OF VEGETARIAN PROTEIN FOODSUSE OF SOYBEAN & ITS PRODUCTS Contains 40 % protein, Deficit in Methionine for which it can be substituted with moderate amounts of eggs, cheese or milk in diet. WHOLE SOYBEANS Sprouted Soybeans are added to salads & other dishes or consumed after light sauting, Soy flakes- Get cooked faster, Fried, salted or unsalted nuts- consumed as snacks or Used as a coffee substitute after roasting.

SOY FLOUR Used for bakery products, pasta products, Missi roti, weaning food mixes. To be kept in cool, dry place to prevent chances of rancidity. TEXTURED VEGETABLE PROTEINS (T.V.P.) Prepared by extrusion of dough heated under pressure , through a nozzle , added with color & flavors & dried as chunks or granules. Added to mince, stews, & pies as meat extender. SPUN VEGETABLE PROTEIN (S.V.P.) Prepared from the protein extracted from Soy flour, dissolved in alkali, forced through tiny holes of spinneret as fine threads of spun material, that are stretched & twisted like bundles of meat fibers, to which- color, flavor, & meat binders are added. Used as meat analogues in savory dishes & traditional dishes viz. stews, curries, burgers, & burger style dry mixes in schools, canteens, & hospitals as meat analogues. SOY MILK Equal to nutritive value of Cows milk, can substitute 50-100% Cows milk. Extracted by soaking beans overnight, draining, grinding into slurry, slow boiling till foaming, simmering for 10-15 minutes, & straining SOY CURD/ SOY CHEESE/ TOFU Formed by curdling soy milk, draining whey, & pressing curd by putting some weight, looking like a cake of soft curd. A good replacement for meat. Containing 7% protein. Goes well with stewed vegetables, in gravies, sauces, with roots & tubers. Can be cooked like scrambled eggs. Blanched slices served with salads or after seasoning. Pieces can be stir fried & served immediately. Cubes can be deep fried & served after sprinkling salt or with sauce. FERMENTED SOYBEAN PRODUCTSSOY SAUCE Prepared by fermenting soaked & steamed Soybeans coated with wheat flour or bran or Sorghum flour, with the help of mould, for 6-12 months after covering with brine. Gives meat like flavor to soups, stews & cooked vegetable dishes. MISO Another mould-ripened product prepared from Rice, Soybeans & salt. Used for flavoring soups. Contains 10-17% proteins. FERMENTED SOYBEAN PRODUCTS TEMPEH Prepared from soaked Soybeans, boiled, drained, chopped, spread thinly after adding mould in powder form, covered with punctured Al sheet Fermented till getting bound solidly by moulds. Can be fried like meat, Cooked in sauces, Added to soups or stews, Used as a meat-substitute. NON-TRADITIONAL SOURCES SINGLE CELL PROTEINYEASTS 35% protein, Deficit in Methionine but it can be added externally.

Rich in Ca & P hence must be consumed with skimmed milk or milk powder, Best source of vitamin B complex. Widely used in infant food mixes. Available in powder, flaky & tablet form. Prevents constipation, protects from vitamin D toxicity, helps in enzyme production, good for heart if consumed with germ. Chances of kidney stones & arthritis due to excess consumption. 3 species used are- Candida utilis grown on paper industry waste, Candida lipolytica on petroleum or Sacharomyces carlsbergensis collected after brewing of beer. SINGLE CELL PROTEIN ALGAE Green algae Chlorella, & blue, brown Contain 50% protein Deficit in Methionine & Cystine. Nutritive value similar to groundnut or yeast protein. Used after drying in soups, noodles & bakery products. Up to 100 g/day is safe. If consumed > 100 g/ day---Diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pain BACTERIA Methylophylus methylotrophus Grown on petro products Used to prepare PRUTEEN a commercial product. Rising cost of petroleum is a main problem FUNGI-MUSHROOMS Contain 27 % protein. Used for preparing soups & stews. A good alternative for liver, Source of folic acid for anemic. All are not edible due to Mycotoxins. LEAF PROTEIN Extracted from plant leaves, Containing 30-35% protein. Useful for treatment of Kwashiorkor. More studies required w.r.t. acceptance & shelf life . SEA WEEDS Kelp, Nori, Irish moss Available in dry, powder & tablet forms, 4-18% protein, A,D, E & K, B complex vitamins Minerals- I & Mg. Useful as salt substitutes. Slightly less nutritious Difficult to digest. Dulse to be soaked in water for several hours. Good for--- treatment of arthritis, constipation, cold, nervous disorders, skin irritation, rheumatism, & health of mucous membranes. FACTORS AFFECTING REQT. BODY WEIGHT-@1gram/kg SPL. PHYSISIOLOGICAL NEEDS GROWTH-@1.6-2 grams/kg for synthesis of new cells PREGNANCY & LACTATION-additional for new tissues & protein synthesis CONVALESCENCE-for rebuilding new tissues INFECTION,FEVER,INJURY/SURGERY,BURNS- additional for repair of broken tissues

ADEQUACY OF CALORIE INTAKE-for protein sparing action QUALITY & EFFICIENCY OF DIGESTION more if poor quality or lower digestibility PREVIOUS STATE OF NUTRITION- more of mal nourished/underweight R.D.A. Adult man:55G/D Adult woman:45 G/D, Pregnancy 2nd half:+ 14 g/D, Lactation :+ 25 g/D, Boys 16-18 years:53.1, Girls- 16-18 years:44, Boys- 13-15 years:51.7, Girls 13-15 years:43.3 Boys 10-12 years:42.1 Girls- 10-12 years:42.1 Children- 7-9 years:35.6 Children 4-6 years:29.4 Children- 1-3 years:22 Infants- 7-12 months :@ 1.7 g / Kg / D Infants- 0-6 months:@ 2 g / Kg / D DEFICIT INTAKE OF PROTEINSKWASHIORKOR Caused due to deficiency of protein after weaning i.e. when feeding of mothers milk is stopped during 1-3 years age. Infant exhibits various changes : mental changes, skin changes, hair changes, liver changes, digestive disturbances, retarded growth, irritability, anemia, frequent infections, swelling of feet, hands & face. DEFICIT INTAKE OF PROTEINS MARASMUS Caused due to combined deficiency of protein as well as calories during 6-18 months age. changes : loss of body weight, sunken abdomen due to wasting of muscles, protruded ribs & bones, sub normal body temperatures, starvation type diarrhea, thin, skinny & lean appearance. However, no mental changes, skin changes, hair changes, liver changes, & digestive disturbances. DEFICIT INTAKE OF PROTEINS MARASMIC KWASHORKOR Symptoms of both Kwashiorkor & Marasmus are exhibited. TREATMENT Increase intake of proteins @ 3-5 g/ Kg /D in the form of milk, Calories @ 100 cal/Kg/D advisable. 20% calories to come from proteins. Use various Cows milk substitutes viz. Soy milk, Tofu, Peanut milk, Toned Vegetable milk. Use of high protein infant food mixes & Protein enriched cereal food mixes. EXCESS INTAKE OF PROTEINS No particular benefits, actually it causes various problems Deficiency of vitamins & minerals: if vegetarian foods are excluded. excess intake of saturated fat, calories & cholesterol :in meat. Chances of intestinal diseases :as toxic wastes remain in contact for long. Excess production of uric acid :increases load on kidney & liver--chances of Gout if uric acid not excreted out from body. EXCESS INTAKE OF PROTEINS

Bones become weak, fragile :as they get mineralized to neutralize acidity due to production of Phosphoric, Nitric & Sulphuric acids in body. Increased chances of urine infection. Conversion of extra protein to fat: adds to body weight. Allergic reactions : nasal congestion & Swelling in throat. Chances of fertilizer & pesticide residues consumed by animals through fodder: reaching in our body. Protein Quality Nutrient density method Obtained from :ratio of Protein content/ No. of calories present in food. indicates about quantity only, not quality. Chemical score method Scores given differently, on basis of presence of essential amino acids in required quantities. No single protein contains exact amount required. Egg is the closest, hence taken as reference or standard protein. Egg, Beef & Fish protein are given chemical scores as 100. where as Groundnut is given a chemical score of 65 only. no idea about digestibility of proteins. Nitrogen balance method Digestibility Coefficient indicates efficiency of digestion of proteins =( Protein intake Protein lost during digestion process)/ Protein intake X 100 Biological Value indicates to what extent absorbed protein is converted to body proteins. =( Protein digested Protein lost during metabolism )/Protein digested X 100 Nitrogen balance method Net Protein Utilization = product of D.C X B.V. / 100 OR = Nitrogen retained/ Food NitrogenX100 Net Available Value = N.P.U. X Original protein content/ 100 Protein Efficiency Ratio ( P.E.R.) Nitrogen balance method does not indicate about efficiency to promote growth. Protein Efficiency Ratio ( P.E.R.) Experimental animals are fed with a known quantity of proteins for one month & gain in body weight is noted. = Gain in body weight/ Intake of proteins X 100 FOODPROTEIN %,D.C., %B.V., %N.P.U., %N.A.V., %P.E.R. Egg:13.3,98,98,96,12.8,4.5 Cows milk:3.5,95,85,81,2.8,3 Buffalo milk:4.3,94,85,81,3.5,3 Meat:19.8,96,82,79,15.6,2.9 Fish :21.5,96,80,77,16.6,2.9 Wheat :11.8,85,60,51,6,1.7 Rice :7,93,70,65,4.6,2.2 Jowar :10.4,81,58,47,4.9,1.6 Bajra :11.6,80,61,49,5.7,1.8 Maize :11.1,85,50,43,4.8,1.4 Ragi :7.1,80,60,48,3.4,1.4

Chana dal:22.5,84,62,52,11.7,1.7

MINERALS INTRODUCTION 4% of total body weight. Inorganic elements, Present as- salts, metallic ions or in combination with organic compounds in foods. Left as ash, after total combustion/ burning of food. General functions Maintaining good health, Proper growth, Formation of bones & teeth, Circulation of body fluids, Controlling chemical reactions & life processes etc. Common sources Animal foods Green leafy vegetables. Losses Leaching [due to water solubility]. Excess intake Poisoning may result, Action of other minerals & vital body organs may get affected. CALCIUM Most abundant mineral in skeletal tissues and bones (1,200 g) Constitutes 3% of the total minerals 99% present stored in bones & teeth as calcium phosphate, Remaining present in blood. Every minute 1/4th Ca from blood gets exchanged with the Ca from bones. Ca level in blood be maintained properly. Increased level causes Ca rigor, due to which the muscles can contract but not relax properly. Decreased level causes Ca tetany, : muscular contraction becomes uncontrollable. Level in blood is controlled by- parathyroid hormone & Vitamin D. Functions Gives hardness to bones to hold body weight Control of transfer of metallic ions through the cell membranes. Normal action of heart muscles, heart beat, blood pressure, blood clotting process etc. Transfer of nerve impulses [we can think & act] Acts as an efficient pain reliever [anodyne]. A co factor for action of several enzymes. Attaches muscles used for motion in the body. Controls working of diaphragm & maintains normal breathing process. Helps in digestion of milk proteins by forming curd [calcium caseinate] with casein Absorption of Ca Factors favoring Gastric acidity Vitamin D Lactose Ascorbic acid Factors inhibiting Phytic acid in outer covering of cereal grains, Oxalic acid in spinach,

 Excess intake of protein ,P rich foods viz. meat, ham & soft drinks, Cooking food in Al vessels. R.D.A. Adults & children- 400-500 mg/Day. Infants up to 1 year age & 16-18 years old adolescents- 500-600 mg/day. 13-15 years old adolescents- 600-700 mg/day. Pregnant & lactating women- 1000 mg/day. Deficiency Initial symptoms- nervousness, insomnia & cramps. Rickets in children- poor quality bones & teeth, malformed teeth, retarded growth, poor posture, bowed legs, rachitic rosary, hollow pigeon like breast, knock knees, skull deformation, weak muscles, general body pain, child looks tired & is not able to relax properly, bad temper, irritation, easy wound bleeding, enlarged wrists & ankles, death in extreme cases due to tetany. Rickets is called as Osteomalacia in adults, more common in women, due to repeated pregnancies or those living in the areas of low sunshine & deficiency of Ca, vit. D, & P- softening of bones leads to deformed spine, rheumatic pain in legs & lower back, waddling gait, skeletal pain, weakness of muscles, difficulty while climbing upstairs or while getting up from the chair, & spontaneous fractures. Osteoporosis-due to lowered absorption of Ca, low serum levels of Ca, & reduced bone mineralization Bones cannot withstand weight & bend into deformities Sources Milk and milk products [except butter] such as curds, butter milk, and cheese, tofu, Green leafy vegetables Ragi Betal leaf with lime Almond, Sesame seeds, melon seeds Egg yolk, Cabbage, beet root, Small fishes eaten with bones, Sea foods viz. clams, oysters etc. SODIUM Na, K & Cl constitute2%, 5% & 35 of the body weight respectively. Mainly present in extra cellular fluids. Maintains water balance by creating osmotic conditions. Maintains acid base balance. Relaxation of contracted muscles. Proper transmission of nerve impulses. Absorption of glucose in the intestine. Elimination of acids from body. Present in various digestive juices, bile juice & the pancreatic juice. Prevents clogging of minerals in blood. Maintains health of kidney, liver & lymph system. R.D.A. 0.6-3.5 grams/day is sufficient. Dietary intake is almost 3-4 times than required. When there is excess intake, we feel thirsty & drink lot of water. Excess sodium is excreted through sweat & urine. Obese persons & persons with kidney ailments retain sodium in body.

For each gram of sodium retained, 70 ml. water also gets retained, causing oedema Excess Main cause for hypertension Other effects- skin problems, ear trouble, stomach disorders, kidney ailments, even heart failure etc. Deficit intake Rare, but possible after dehydration. Effects- cramps, loss of appetite, inability to concentrate properly at work, disturbed acid base balance, causing diarrhea & vomiting. Sources Learn to consume unsalted foods, Restrict consumption of salt rich foods viz. pickles, ham, cheese, sauces, salted butter, salted fish, ketchup, chips, instant food mixes, Papad In extreme cases replace intake of sodium with potassium IRON Generally deficit in Indian diet. 70% is in haemoglobin Body contains 3-5 grams of iron. 2/3rd is present in blood. 30-35% is present in liver, spleen & bone marrow. Remaining iron is present in the muscle pigment myoglobin & in the enzymes. Functions Hemoglobin helps in transfer of oxygen inside & CO2 outside the body. Helps in synthesis of RBCs @ 100/min. with a normal lifespan of 120 days. Present as a part of various enzymes that are involved in the oxidation reactions. Giving strength to the nervous system & cerebellum. Preventing toxicity of drugs in liver. Helps in conversion of beta carotene to vitamin A. Helps in clearance of blood fats. Absorption Acid medium, vitamin C, Vit. E, Hcl: favour absorption Phytates and oxalates, fibers, & excess consumption of tea :inhibit absorption 23% haeme iron is absorbed Only 3-8% non-haeme iron is absorbed Only 20% iron in food gets absorbed by the body R.D.A. Adult man- 20 mg/day Adult woman- 30 mg/day Adolescent boys- 25 mg/day. Adolescent girls- 35 mg/day Children- 15-20 mg/day Infants- @ 1 mg/kg of body weight

DeficiencyHypochromic anaemia, More commonly caused in infants, children, adolescents, girls & pregnant women. Hb level in blood goes down below 8 %. Haemoglobin 5-9 g / 100 ml Size of RBCs gets reduced. Symptoms Breathlessness, suffocation even after slight exertion, pale skin, cells are pale, brittle & rigid nails, General fatigue headache, weakness, loss of body weight, irritation, failure of growth, loss of appetite, edema of ankles, Pallor, Spoon-shaped nails etc. Treatment Include more green leafy vegetables, pulses, high protein foods, vitamin C rich foods & iron fortified salt. Sources Rich- liver, heart, organ meats ,oysters, shellfish, lean meat, egg yolk, Good- meat, poultry, fish, nuts, peaches, apricots, grapes, prunes, figs etc. Fairly good- greens, whole cereal grains. enriched cereals, Legumes, black till seeds, bitter gourds, sapota, raisins, jaggery, tomato, palak, drumstick, betal leaf , poha, iron cooking utensils etc. Iron fortified salt containing iron sulphate & sodium bi sulphate Iron enriched cereal grains containing iron sulphate IODINE A poisonous gas in ionic form, Less toxic when present in the body. Present up to 15-20 grams in body, 70-80 % is in the thyroid gland. Remaining is present in blood & body cells. Affects growth and metabolism in very minute amounts Functions Combines with tyrosine & forms thyroid hormone, which regulates the rate of B.M.R., body temperature, rate of growth, formation of nerve cells & the reproductive system. Thyroxine controls the rate at which oxygen is used & energy is releases. Without iodine, cells lack in oxygen. Allows clear & efficient use of brain , Lowers nervous tension, Maintains mental alertness. Helps in converting beta carotene to Vitamin A. Helps in formation of phagocytes for immunity. Absorption Iodine content of food depends on iodine content of soil on which they are grown Goitrogens interfere with thyroxine activity - seen in cabbage, peanuts, etc. R.D.A. 50-150micorograms/day is sufficient. 25 micrograms/day during pregnancy 50 micrograms/day during lactation Deficiency In hilly areas, lost from the soil along with rain water. Effects-Low BMR, muscular flabbiness, dry skin, thick lips, mental and skeletal retardation. Deficiency is more in females

Goiter Enlargement of thyroid gland in an attempt to secrete more thyroxine Iodine gets trapped in the thyroid glands, Weighs up to 200-500 mg. Although painless, it affects appearance of person. Common during pregnancy. Goitrogens are pro-goiter substances found in raw cabbage, soybeans, turnips & red scales of ground nut. Deficiency Cretinism Infants borne are physically & mentally dwarfs I.Q. < 20, Abnormalities on face & body, dry skin. Chances of mental & skeletal retardation Irreversible changes in nervous system. Excess intake Intake of > 200 micrograms/day causes condition similar to goiter. Enlarged thyroid gland blocks air passage & infants suffer from suffocation. Sources Water, soil, Salt water fish, shellfish, Iodine content of eggs, meat, dairy products depends on iodine content of diet of animal Fortification of salt with potassium iodate [Iodized salt contains 100 mg Potassium iodate /kg of common salt] Consume sea foods at least once or twice a week. FLUORINE A poisonous gas, Occurs as fluoride ions in drinking water. Exists in bones and teeth along with calcium Sources Tea leaves, Food Water Milk, Eggs, Topical applications of stannous fluoride by dentists. 1 ppm or 1 mg per litre is the ideal level of fluoride in drinking water Functions Forms tooth enamel along with calcium making teeth more resistant to decay When bones & teeth mineralize, hydroxyapatite is formed. Fluoride replaces its hydroxyl ions & helps to prevent tooth decay Maintains bone structure Strengthens bones & teeth by increasing bone density. Helps repair of bones & teeth. Activation & inactivation of several enzymes. Required for growth. Helps in fighting against contagious diseases. R.D.A. 1.5-4 mg/day is sufficient, Made possible by drinking water containing 1 p.p.m. fluorine. Note Whiteness of eyes indicates that sufficient fluorine is present in the body.

No need to use fluoride toothpastes, because drinking water supplies the required fluorine. Tooth paste manufacturers actually add waste products from Aluminum industry in those tooth pastes.

Excess 2-8 p.p.m. in drinking water Mottling of teeth, Formation of brown stains on teeth. 3-5 p.p.m. in drinking water Dental fluorosis, Deformed teeth Tooth decay. 6-10 p.p.m. in drinking water Deposition of calcium on nerves & muscles in the back portion, Stiffening of bone joints, Person becomes crippled ,cannot bend down, Sclerosis of bones, Porker back, Neurological disturbances next to vertebral column. EXCESS Fluorosis is hereditary too. Can affect working of thyroid gland, liver, kidney & heart. Chances of stone formation increase. Itching of skin, Chest pain, Diarrhea & vomiting. Deficiency Destruction of tooth enamel Bacterial growth & tooth decay. Osteoporosis

VITAMINS Derived from vital amine , as early scientists felt that amines were vital for life. Discovered during 1900-1950, one at a time as a cure for classic diseases, others discovered after research on various body functions. Required in minute quantities, called micronutrients,

Defined - group of potent organic compounds, essential for specific body functions, many of which cannot be synthesized in adequate amounts by the body, hence, should be obtained from diet. Can be synthesized commercially, but fresh foods always preferred. Fat soluble vitamins require fat for absorption, can be stored in the body, if stores are adequate-deficiency symptoms will not be seen immediately, even if there is poor intake. Water soluble vitamins get absorbed easily, excess secreted in urine, not stored in the body. FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS VITAMIN A Generic name given to a group of compounds viz. RETINOL/RETINALDEHYDE/RETINOIC ACID/RETINYL ESTER, having Vitamin A activity. Pure vitamin A is pale yellow crystalline compound, occurring naturally in the animal kingdom in the fatty phases of foods of animal origin. Occurs as beta carotene pigment in plant foods that is known as its precursor. Functions Normal Vision formation in night & in dim light- by rhodopsin, [formed when vitamin A combines with protein opsin ] Normal working of retina. Synthesis & maintenance of healthy epithelial membranes, forming outermost skin lining & innermost lining of mucous membranes of respiratory, gastrointestinal & genitourinal tract. Epithelial glands secrete mucous that lubricates the linings of eyes, respiratory & gastrointestinal tract. Growth & dev. of skeletal & soft tissues- normal bone & tooth development & proper growth. Formation of tooth enamel & gums Fighting against infections by keeping mucous membranes in healthy condition that acts as a barrier to infection. DEFICIENCY Dry, rough skin [Xeroderma] Bone development- growth failure & stunted bones seen in children, Poor teeth formation Night blindness/Nyctalopia & delayed dark adaptation- one of the earliest signs of vitamin A deficiency, individual cannot see well in dimlight, esply after coming from a brightly lit area, occurs due to insufficient vitamin A to bring about quick rhodopsin formation. Epithelial changes- Epithelium becomes dry, scaly, & rough. Goose pimples are seen on upper forearms & thighs. CHANGES IN EYES Decreased secretion of tears [Xerosis of conjunctivae & cornea] Eyeball becomes dry & lusterless Photophobia or sensitivity to bright light. Softening of cornea & permanent blindness[keratomalacia] Xeropthalmia Cornea becomes dry & inflamed. Leads to keratomalacia, if not treated. Bitots spots: Triangular grey pigmented on conjunctivae, [not interfering the normal vision formation ]. SOURCES- Liver, Sausages, organ meats, Whole milk & milk products , Butter, Cream, clarified butter, egg yolk, Oily fish, Fish liver oils- [Best is COD LIVER OIL], Greens, Yellow orange & red fruits & veg. HYPERVITAMINOSIS A- High doses not recommended as excess stored in liver, excessive accumulation is toxic, causing- nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, Anorexia, Fatigue, Weight loss, Skin lesions,

thickening of long bones, Pains in bones & joints, Loss of hair, Liver enlargement Characteristics-, Bile required for absorption, Mineral oil interferes absorption, Stable to heat, acid & alkali, Slow loss by air, heat & drying, Loss by rancidity & wilting VITAMIN D Two forms -vit.D2 [activated ergosterol or calciferol] & vit.D3 [7 dehydrocholesterol/ choleocalciferol] Vit.D3 is produced when 7 Dehydrocholesterol in skin is exposed to UV rays in sun. Vit. D differs from other fat soluble vitamins, as it is synthesized in the body, we do not have to depend on diet FUNCTIONS Calcium absorption Re absorption of phosphate Formation of new bone cells Mineralization of bones & teeth after absorption of Ca & vit. D, Dev. of new bones & teeth, giving them strength. Formation of DNA Healthy heart action Nervous stability Protects thyroid & parathyroid Glands Regulating Ca & P level in blood. SOURCES Main source is sun light, Milk, Fortified milk,Butter,Vanaspathi,Margarine Egg yolk Liver Salt water fish,Fish oils, Fish liver oils, [best is HALIBUT LIVER OIL] Organ meats R.D.A. 100-200 I.U. per day DEFICIENCY Rickets in infants & children, esply. In dark skinned children, bones are soft, yielding to pressure- poor quality bones & teeth, malformed teeth, retarded growth, poor posture, bowed legs, rachitic rosary, hollow pigeon like breast, pot belly, knocked knees, skull deformation [enlarged], delayed closing of skull bones, weak muscles, general body pain, child looks tired & is not able to relax properly, bad temper, irritation, easy wound bleeding, enlarged wrists & ankle joints, death in extreme cases due to tetany. Rickets is called as Osteomalacia in adults, more common in women, due to repeated pregnancies or those living in the areas of low sunshine & deficiency of Ca, vit. D, & P- softening of bones leads to deformed spine, rheumatic pain in legs & lower back, waddling gait, skeletal pain, weakness of muscles, difficulty while climbing upstairs or while getting up from the chair, & spontaneous fractures. Leads to lowered absorption of Ca, low serum levels of Ca, & reduced bone mineralization Bones cannot withstand weight & bend into deformities HYPERVITAMINOSIS D Possible due to excessive use of fortified foods Anorexia Fatigue Weight loss Vomiting

 Diarrhea Weakness Headache Renal damage Growth failure Calcification of soft tissues & kidney stones. CHARACTERISTICS Barriers to synthesis -clothing, soot, fog, window glass, melanin pigment on skin, sunscreen lotions with high S.P.F. Excess stored in liver Stable to heat & oxidation Destroyed by rancidity VITAMIN E/TOCOPHEROL/TOCOTRIENOLS FUNCTIONS Most potent natural antioxidant found in food [ for vit. C, amino acids & PUFA] Gets oxidized & protects integrity of cell membranes from damage. Prevents oxidation of Vit. A in the intestine Converts free radicals to active form Prevents destruction of cell membranes, hence hemolysis of RBCs FUNCTIONS Strength of capillaries Male virility Muscular efficiency Effective use of linoleic acid Protects lungs from pollutants viz. NO2 & O3 - Good for smokers Many claims are made that its supplements can prevent or cure a wide variety of diseases, from reproductive function to skin problems viz. psoriasis & acne, but there is no proof. SOURCES Widely distributed in foods esply. vegetable oils viz. corn, soya, sunflower, safflower etc. Dark greens, Legumes [Peas] Egg yolk Margarine Milk fats Nuts Wheat germ oil, Whole grains R.D.A. Adults- 30 mg/day Others- 5-20 mg/day DEFICIENCY Severe deficiency is uncommon, causing increased haemolysis of RBCs in premature infants. Thrombosis Muscular dystrophy Deposit of brown pigment [ Ceroid ] on skin. Foetal death Reproductive changes in experimental animals. Heart & liver problems Poor absorption of fat Asthma, Diabetes HYPERVITAMINOSIS Relatively neuro toxic Increases serum lipid level. Decreases serum thyroid levels

CHARACTERISTICS Synthesized by intestinal bacteria too. Strong antioxidant Stable to heat except frying & acids Losses by rancidity & u.v. rays of sunlight VITAMIN K/ PHYLLAQUINONE/MELANOIDINE FUNCTIONS Formation of prothrombin & other proteins [blood clotting factors] in liver Ability of blood to clot depends upon high prothrombin level. Prevents hemorrhage in infants immediately after birth R.D.A. Adults- 70-400 microg /day Others-12-100 microg /day is optimum SOURCES Intestinal bacteria supply at least half the daily needs. Excellent sources Greens, Cauliflower, Cabbage & Pork liver Also supplied by : cheese, egg yolk, & tomato DEFICIENCY Uncommon in adults Delayed blood clotting Frequent nose bleeding Hemorrhage in new borne infants Deficiency occurs due to malabsorption, use of oral sulfa drugs, & antibiotics, which are vit.K antagonists, causing haemorrhages HYPERVITAMINOSIS K Hyper bilirubinaemia in infants,Jaundice Kernictus,Mild hemolytic anemia. CHARACTERISTICS K1 is found in plants, K2 is synthesized by intestinal bacteria, & K3 is the synthetic form. Requires fat & bile salts for efficient absorption Mineral oil interferes absorption Fairly stable to heat & oxidation. Losses by light & alkali

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMINS VITAMIN C Discovered as an acid in lime juice that prevented Scurvy among British sailors on long voyages at sea. Named Ascorbic acid because anti scorbutic. Functions Builds bone matrix, cartilages, teeth, collagen, capillaries, and connective & general body tissues.

Synthesis of collagen, which is intercellular cementing substance that keeps cells in bone & muscle tissues together. Heals wounds, fractures, burns & bleeding gums as intercellular cementing substance Functions Tissue growth, tissue building & re building. Cell metabolism. Activates brain, kidney, liver & adrenal glands. Helps in absorption of iron from food hence helps in making hemoglobin. Increases resistance to infections, fever, & stress. Required during pregnancy, helps in proper growth during periods of rapid growth having its increased need. DEFICIENCY defective formation of intercellular cementing substance---Impaired wound healing as collagen is not synthesized. Increased susceptibility to infections. Painful stiff aching joints, bleeding in joint muscles, gums & below skin, skin bruises by slightest injury, weak walled capillaries, improper dev. of bones & cartilages, lassitude Sore mouth, Severe deficiency causes Scurvy: swelling, infection, bleeding of gums, & anemia SOURCES Fresh citrus fruits viz. orange, sweetlime, grape fruit, lemon, other fruits viz. Tomatoes, Greens, Cabbage, Pepper, Potatoes, Guava, Ber, are excellent sources. Cereals & pulses : poor but formed in sprouted pulses. [85% in grain +15% in sprout] & are a good alternative to fresh fruits & vegetables during scarcity. Green gram: thrice as much vitamin C as compared to Bengal gram. Berries viz. ziziphus, strawberries, gooseberries, & cashew fruit are seasonal rich sources. Richest source is AMLA, providing 600 mg/100 g as compared to 30mg/100 g provided by oranges. R.D.A. Infants up to 1 yr- 20 mg/day, Lactation- 80 mg/day, All others- 40 mg/day EXCESSIVE INTAKE Benefits of mega doses to prevent common cold & cancer is still controversial. Increased intake beyond the RDA is advised in surgical cases, infections, & drug therapy but mega doses of 1-5 g/day is still under study. Characteristics FRESH FRUIT & VEGETABLE VITAMIN Highly water soluble, Very little stored in body. Destroyed most easily as compared to all other vitamins. Losses: Readily oxidized & destroyed by heat, presence of alkali, aging & drying, Heating & dehydration reduces vitamin C content of all fresh fruits except amla which retains some vitamin C in the preserve. Very little losses in canning & quick freezing Accelerators- Cu & Fe, Acid prevents losses. To prevent losses keep vessel covered, cook just until tender, cook covered in pressure cooker,

 cover fruit juices, avoid adding soda for faster cooking or color retention, avoid chopping finely, use minimum water for cooking. B COMPLEX VITAMINS out of 11, 8 are essential, & their functions are closely related. Remaining 3 i.e. PABA, choline, & inositol have active role in cell metabolism but diet & intestine can make good of this requirement. Differ in structure, distribution in foods, stability & deficiency symptoms. Groups Classic deficiency disease vitamins- B1, B2,B3 Anemia preventing- Pyridoxine, Folic acid, Cyanocobalamin. Recently discovered coenzyme factors- Pantothenic acid, Biotin. VITAMIN B1/THIAMINE FUNCTIONS Controls energy metabolism. Coenzyme for T.P.P. enzyme, required for breakdown of glucose to obtain energy Maintaining a healthy nervous system. Required for normal appetite & digestion. Production from glucose & keto acids Conversion of excess glucose to body fats as stored form of energy. R.D.A @ 0.5 mg/1000 cal. SOURCES Protein rich foods viz. Meat esply. Pork, Organs esply. Liver, Nuts, Peanut butter, Legumes esply. Soya, Milk & dairy products, Eggs, Whole cereals, Enriched cereals, parboiled rice, unpolished rice, Sprouted pulses, Brewers yeast, Wheat germ. DEFICIENCY Abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates, Indigestion, Constipation, Fatigue, Beri beri: Polished rice eaters disease Wet beri beri Severe edema Depression, Enlargement of heart, Weak heart muscles, Palpitations, Increased heart beat, Prevention Use parboiled rice which retains vitamin B1. Dry beri beri Polyneuritis or Irritation of nerves, Weak & heavy legs, Numbness of extremities, Tender muscles, weakness, cramped muscles, Loss of calf muscle tone & coordination, Emaciation, Burning sensation & numbness in feet & arms, Neurological symptoms from foot to calf muscles in thigh. CHARACTERISTICS-

Limited amount gets stored in body, Stable in dry form, Deficiency due to excess consumption of tea, alcohol, refined wheat flour & polished rice, LOSSES Quick loss by heat in neutral & acidic solutions, Destroyed by milling, sulphates & alkali, To prevent losses: Avoid over cooking, discarding cooking water, cooking in open container & excess water, cook covered with a minimum of cooking water. VITAMIN B2/ RIBOFLAVIN FUNCTIONS Vital coenzyme for protein metabolism. Controls removal of amino nitrogen from amino acids Coenzyme in carbohydrate metabolism for FMN & FAD enzymes Sources Milk & cheese [rich ], Meat, organs esply. Liver. Whole cereals, Legumes esply. Soya, Milk , Eggs, Brewers yeast, Liver concentrate, dark green leafy vegetables, enriched cereal foods. R.D.A. @ 0.55 mg/1000 cal. DEFICIENCY Digestive disturbances, Skin -Scaly & greasy, Eyes: look bloodshot, eye fatigue, Burning, watering, & itching of eyes, Blurred & dim vision, Sensitive to bright light i.e. photophobia, Inflammation of mouth, lips & tongue, Lesions on angles of mouth, Glossitis- swollen, red tongue, Cheilosis:Swelling of lips Angular stomatitis: Cracks in the skin at the angles in mouth CHARACTERISTICS- Limited amount stored in body, Stable in dry form, Deficiency due to excess consumption of tea, alcohol, refined wheat flour & polished rice. LOSSES- Sensitive to light, Quick loss by heat in neutral & acidic solutions, Destroyed by milling, sulphates & alkali, 3/4th lost if milk kept in transparent glass bottles. TO AVOID LOSSES- Avoid over cooking, discarding cooking water, cooking in open container & excess water, Cook covered with a minimum of cooking water. VITAMIN B3/NIACIN/NICOTINIC ACID Connected with several metabolic reactions as a component that brings about breakdown of glucose, amino acids, & fatty acids to yield energy i.e. for release of energy from food. Coenzyme for NAD & NADP in tissue oxidation to release energy from glucose, amino acids, & fatty acids De amination of protein Conversion of glucose along with riboflavin Required for Healthy skin, Normal gastrointestinal tract, Maintenance of nervous system. SOURCES-

Protein rich foods Meat, organs esply. Liver, Poultry, Nuts esply peanuts, beans, peas, legumes esply. Soya, Brewers yeast, Liver concentrate, Whole cereals except maize & rice, enriched cereals, Greens, potato, milk, eggs, & cheeses are poor sources of niacin but rich in tryptophan R.D.A. @ 6.6 mg/1000 cal DEFICIENCY Stimulation with Riboflavin deficiency, Begins with Weakness, Headache, Lassitude, Loss of weight, Anorexia, sore & swollen tongue. PELLAGRA: Characterized by 4 Ds i.e. Diarrhea, Dementia [confusion, mania, poor memory, hallucinations], Dermatitis [skin eruptions, it is symmetrical & aggravated by exposure to sunlight] & Death Caused by consumption of 3 Ms i.e. meat, maize & molasses CHARACTERISTICS Limited amount stored in body, Synthesized by the amino acid Tryptophan @ 1 mg/60 mg LOSSES Most stable of all B complex vitamins, Stable to heat, light, acid, oxidation, & alkali, Even boiling & autoclaving do not decrease its value. VITAMIN B 6 / PYRIDIXINE Contains amino acid alanine. Coenzyme in protein metabolism in active phosphate form to form new N.E.A.A. Formation of serotonin-constrictor of blood vessels, Haeme synthesis. Stimulation of brain, metabolism & cerebral activity. Incorporates 2 amino acids in Hb Formation of Vit. B3 from tryptophan & cystine from methionine Conversion of linolenic acid to arachidonic acid. Production of antibodies. SOURCES- Yeast, Wheat, Corn, Liver, Kidney, Meat, Poultry, Fish, Eggs, Potatoes, Sweet potato, Whole cereal grains, soybeans, & groundnuts. R.D.A. Adults- 2-2.5 mg/d More required in pregnancy or if a woman takes more contraceptives so that it can convert tryptophan to niacin. Reqt increases with increase in protein content in the diet. DEFICIENCY Occurs with P.C.M. & B complex deficiency. Hypo chromic anemia as haeme is not formed due to severe deficiency, RBCs are pale in color. Central nervous system disturbancesdpression, confusion, irritability. Convulsive seizures. Vomiting, abdominal pain Skin greasy around eyes, angles of mouth & eyebrows Urinary calculi Soreness of tongue, depression & sleepiness. EFFECT OF COOKING Stable to heat & acids, Resistant to processing & storage, Lost during milling process FOLIC ACID/FOLACIN

Vitamin C is needed for converting inactive folic acid to active form, to be able to perform functions Inter conversion of amino acids. Synthesis of pyrimidine & purine linked with DNA & RNA. Formation of either RBCs or Hb. Effective for treatment of intestinal mal absorption disorder sprue. SOURCES Good- fresh greens, dry beans, pulses, liver & kidney, whole pulses, yeast, fermented foods viz. idli & dosa Relatively poor- fruits, milk, poultry & egg R.D.A. 100 micro g/d is sufficient, Pregnancy- 300 microg/d, Lactation- 500 microg/d DEFICIENCY Megaloblastic/macrocytic anemia Bone marrow releases large nucleated, immature cells into circulation, Reduced no. of R.B.CS, WBCs & platelets, Common in pregnancy & infancy, Hb level falls as low as 2-4%, Blood transfusion may be needed. Other symptoms Weakness, pallor, Glossitis ,Diarrhea ,Weight loss. CHARACTERISTICS Name derived from foliage, means leaf, Some synthesis by intestinal bacteria, Slightly water soluble EFFECT OF COOKING Stable in acidic medium, Lost by boiling in acidic medium, easily oxidized in acidic medium, Sensitive to light, Lost in milling, processing & storage VITAMIN B12 / CYANOCOBALAMINE Acts as a coenzyme Control agent in synthesis of DNA & cell proteins along with folic acid. Helps folic acid in maturation & formation of RBCs Activation of folic coenzyme Synthesis of myelin sheeth around nerve fibres. Lipo protein action of nervous tissues. Treatment of intestinal mal absorption disorder sprue SOURCES Entirely from animal foods viz. liver, kidney & lean meat. Fair- milk, eggs, cheeses. Not present in fruits & vegetables R.D.A. Under 1 micrograms/day is sufficient, Pregnancy & lactation- 1.5 micrograms/day DEFICIENCY Either causes Megaloblastic or Pernicious anemia. Later is more common & serious. Person appears well nourished w.r.t. body weight. Skin & eyes are pale. Tongue is raw & red. Mouth ulcers are present. Tingling sensation & feeling of pins & needles in fingers. Hb is low.

 Megaloblasts appear in blood. Megaloblastic anemia is seen in strict vegans not consuming milk. Pernicious anaemia Results in nucleated blood cells, normal life span reduced from 120 days to 60 days, Strict vegetarians- mental abnormalities & permanent changes in the central nervous system. Treatment requires injections of B12 throughout the life. Occurs due to absence of intrinsic factor in the persons gastric juice. Other effectsweight loss, sore tongue, weakness, apathy, depression, tingling of extremities, yellow & pale skin CHARACTERISTICS Presence of Cobalt in the centre, Occurs as protein complex in foods, Also present in well water, Absorbed only if a glycoprotein called as intrinsic factor is present in the gastric juice. EFFECT OF COOKING Coenzyme form is heat unstable. Lost during- pasteurization & evaporation of milk PANTOTHENIC ACID Incorporated in coenzyme A for energy production from fats & carbohydrates in cells. Degradation & synthesis of amino acids Precursor of cholesterol & steroid hormones. Haeme synthesis. SOURCES Rich- liver, kidney, yeast Good- egg yolk, skimmed milk powder Fair- lean meat, beef, cheese, legumes, sweet potato, yellow corn. DEFICIENCY Pain in arms, legs, Loss of appetite , Nausea & indigestion, Pulse rise, Fainting attacks, Fatigue, Frequent infections, Weakness, Impaired coordination, High B.P., Headache, Dizziness, Muscle cramps, Insomnia , Emotional instability, Changes in heart beat RDA Adults- 10 mg/day Pregnancy & lactation- 10-15 mg/day sufficient. Note- R.D.A. is not prescribed as deficiency is unlikely CHARACTERISTICS Derived from a Greek word Pantothen, meaning from all sides & every corner hence deficiency is unlikely to occur Also synthesized by intestinal bacteria

WATERINTRODUCTION Most important of all the nutrients, Without water one cannot survive for not > 2-3 days. . At birth: there is 75% water [w/w], Adults contain 60%, & during old age there is 50% water in body. 2/3rd water is present as intracellular fluid Remaining 1/3rd as extra cellular fluid, which is further sub divided as intravascular & intercellular fluid. FUNCTIONS SOLVENT 3-5 lit. water present in arteries, veins & capillaries Acts as solvent for nutrients & hormones, All transported to body parts to nourish cells. Intravascular fluid acts as solvent & transporter for metabolic wastes. BODY BUILDER Intracellular water gets incorporated in the synthesis of new material i.e. glycogen containing 2/3rd water & adipose tissue containing 20% water. Body muscles require 75% water. CATALYST In biological reactions in cell, In stomach & small intestine, catalyst for digestion of food. LUBRICANT Synovial fluid at the bone joints prevents friction TEMPERATURE CONTROL-

When water evaporates from the body surface, it dissipates extra heat produced during metabolism of food ,from body & gives a cooling sensation. WORK PERFORMANCE Reduction in 4-5% water in body causes 20-30% decline in work performance. 10% dehydration can cause circulatory failure ACID BASE BALANCE Forms carbonic acid & soda bi carbonate [20:1] to maintain blood pH between 7.35-7.45. OTHER ROLES Maintains healthy skin & mental alertness. FACTORS AFFECTING INTAKEENERGY 1000 ml for every 1000 cal. PROTEIN FOODS More consumption increases water intake to throw away the nitrogenous waste products. ALCOHOL 2 ounces of whisky requires 8 ounces extra water. AGE Infants need water @ 110 ml/kg. Adults require @ 40ml/kg only. TEMPERATURE At 22 degree C, 22ml/kg, At 37.82 degee C, 38 ml/kg. WATER BALANCE SOURCES Fluids, solid foods containing 3-96% moisture & metabolic water produced in the body after metabolism of nutrients. LOSSES 97% lost through urine. 250-700 ml through skin depending upon temperature & humidity. Constantly lost through lungs through the exhaled air. 8-10 lit. Water is secreted in 24 hours in the form of digestive juices. Practically all of it is reabsorbed, but some is lost through the faeces. TABLE:WATER BALANCE INTAKE SOURCES Liquid food Solid foods ML/DAY 1100 500-10 0 OUTPUT LOSSES Urine Insensible perspirn. Evap. lungs Faeces Total Fro m ML/DAY 900-1400 500

Metabolic water Total

300-40 0

300-500

1900-2 500

200 1900-2500

DEHYDRATION Common in :summer, old age, diabetes, pregnancy, cholera & dysentery.

MILD Weakness, Loss of appetite, Indistinctive speech, Confusion, Irritability, Dizziness. SEVERE Muscular spasm, Shriveled skin, Swallowing inability, Dim vision, Numb skin, Painful urination, deafness. VERY SEVERE Retention of waste product makes blood concentrated, Convulsive seizures, Kidney failure, Coma & death in extreme cases. EXCESS INTAKE Average 6-8 glasses of water is required. In case of excess intake, kidney responds within 15-20 minutes Gets excreted within 3 hours. PLANNING BALANCED MEALS Meals to provide balanced diets according to specific requirements. Main goals of meal planning To serve appealing & appetizing food. To provide a variety of wholesome foods meeting the nutritional needs. To remain within the available food budget. PSYCHO. ASPECTS Determines success or failure of meals. Food must appeal to appetite Attractive & tempting food gets an individual interested in eating. Promotes demand feeding than forced one. People like & enjoy foods they are accustomed to eat Add unfamiliar & not well liked foods slowly & gradually. Make food appeal to psychology Careful combinations, skillful garnishing make a meal interesting. COLOR Avoid colorless meals OR meals with too much same colors due to monotony. FLAVOR Have only one food with strong or dominating flavor. Avoid repeating similar flavor viz. tomato soup, tomato salad, tomato sauce. If cabbage is used in salad---select some less strongly flavored vegetables TEXTURE Include a contrast in textures. Meal not to have soft textures only. Substitute foods for contrast. RICH FOODS Alternate use of rich foods with use of light foods A rich dessert goes better with a light meal. TEMPERATURE-

 Serve food at right temperature to enhance palatability & flavor. Balance between hot & cold foods. In winter, a major part of meal should be hot, with some cold foods. In summer, include more cold foods with some hot foods. PHYSIOLOGICAL ASPECTS We eat because of hunger. Reasons for overeating: Out of habit, chronic tasters, cannot see the food going waste, Wrong food habits, Pressure of socializing, Affordability, availability of good quantity & quality , Cold weather, Growth period, Greater body mass, Higher level of activity, Ability to detect various tastes, Alcoholism, Sight, smell, texture & flavor, psychological & ecological reasons Age. Meal schedule Depends upon :age, sex, activity & season Meals planned in courses Courses combined. Each meal should provide proper satiety value Meal timings should be regular. Include evening tea snacks either from lunch or dinner. Breakfast Most important meal of the day---due to a gap of about 12 hrs between the last meal of previous day & the breakfast. Should supply 25-30% of the total nutritional requirements. Inadequate breakfast leads to nervousness, irritability, fatigue, hunger, ability to concentrate work & working efficiency. To be balanced, It should contain fruit, cereal, milk & butter. Dinner Main meal, To be planned after breakfast. Should supply :35-40 % of the total nutritional requirements Salad & soup can be served first, followed by protein rich foods, vegetables, cereals, dessert & a beverage. Heaviness & number of preparations used depend upon: food needs of family, likes or dislikes, food chosen for other meal, amount of money be spent & the time available for preparation. Lunch Plan after planning above two meals. Foods not be included in other two meals can be included. Should not be too much like dinner owing to limitation of time & absences of some family members at noon. It may even be packed or working lunch. Lunch should supply remainder of the total nutritional requirements. Economical aspects Cost of meals: of great importance to families Consider food from economical as well as nutritional aspects. Money spent varies with income, so determine food budget.

 Very poor persons spend as much as 80% of the total income on foods, Rich spend 25-30 % of their income on foods Middle class spend 40-45%. of their income on foods Money spent on different food groups Milk & milk products 15-20%, Vegetables & fruits 20-25%, Meat. Fish, eggs, beans etc. 25-30%, Cereals 10-15%, fats & sweets- 15-20%, Misc. 3-5%. Seasonal foods: more economical & better Never equate cost of food: with status. Include cheaper substitutes: when income is limiting. Simplify menus: for economy & saving time & labor cost. Maintain food accounts: to modify & improve expenditure schedule Food habits & choices FAMILY MEAL PATTERN From infancy we like foods the family eats. Familys food patterns reflect those of society or ethnic group of which family is a part. Cultural patterns determined by food availability & family traditions These change as families move, as different foods become available. Change requires efforts & time. . CULTURAL FACTORS Many believe & regard milk, eggs, meat, lentils & brinjals :as hot foods, Yogurt & oranges regarded as: cold foods FOOD AVAILABILITY Based on regional availability & cultivation: people are wheat eaters or rice eaters. People in coastal areas: eat fish, Inland people: eat meat. RELIGION Muslims avoid pork, they prefer halal meat Jains avoid: root vegetables, & onions. Brahmins do not eat meat & observe fasts on many religious days, Hindus avoid beef, prefer jhatka meat. SOCIAL FACTORS Sharing foods has great meanings to cultures---it honors & speaks for love & affluence. Food is included in all celebrations & is richer in general than daily foods. PERSONAL LIKES & DISLIKES People react different to the sensory aspects. Individual differences show up early in the life May be inborn or due to conditioning or both. NUTRITION EDUCATION Begins at home for children. Grown up children & adults need to be convinced to bring desirable change. ADVENTUROUS EATING Some people eat unusual & difficult to obtain foods. MASS MEDIA Advertisements influence food habits. People get tempted to buy packaged, highly processed, refined , snack type, expensive foods. PEERS Children are imitative.

 As they grow----they learn habits from peers, Teenagers known to be different & are influenced by friends. AGE Certain foods associated for grown ups. Tea & coffee are considered adult foods Children crave for these at early age. LIFE STYLE Many require meals away from home. Choices limited when packed. Others eat at restaurants, cafeteria, fast food establishments or street corners ---these are high in fat & calories & limited in variety. PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS Overeat/ under eat/ eat certain types of foods :when psychologically disturbed. In teenage girls: anorexia nervosa an emotional disturbance influences eating habits. Girls voluntarily attempt to lose weight: due to various reasons. GOVT FOOD PROGRAMS & RATIONING Foods get substituted e.g. in case of mid day meal schemes & emergencies. Fads, fallacies, taboos, folklores Odd fancy or misconceptions influence food choices Accordingly certain foods avoided or overemphasized unnecessarily. Fads Fleshy foods & milk are regarded as hot foods, milk & curd as cold foods, Fads to eat :bitter gourd by diabetics, organic foods, honey, molasses & yeast. Fallacies Garlic cures blood pressure, Rice & potatoes increase weight, Desi eggs are more nutritious, Tomatoes clear the brain, cause cancer, Milk is only needed for children, Fish & milk cause Leucoderma, Legumes cannot be digested properly in night, Fish is a brain food, Lemons aid in digestion process, Gelatin gives strength to nails, Bhindi is good for brain, Cooking in aluminum vessels causes cancer, Taboos & folklores People are rigid regarding what they should eat & what they should not. It is difficult to change them. These are accompanied with several restrictions. Pregnant women : Do not eat papaya, meat from underside of animals or pounded yam--due to fear of abortion, Pica---Eating dirt+clay+chalk.---for easy delivery, Eat eggs, puddings & foods prepared from colostrums of the animals, Lactating women are given more garlic---- for more production of milk, Children are asked to eat goats tongue----to make them more talkative, Brain is not consumed ----fear of baldness & graying. NUTRITIONAL ASPECTS

All nutrients be present to required extent. Right amount of carbohydrates & fats to give required energy. Carbohydrates can contribute up to 70% of total energy. Fats & oils to supply not more than 15-20% of the total calories. Carbohydrates & lipids neither be excessive nor inadequate Protein to be optimum & of good quality. Animal proteins superior in biological value. Admixture of plant origin foods can be given. Cereal to pulse protein to be 4:1 to 5:1. Infants, children, adolescents, pregnant & nursing women be supplied 25 % of total protein from animal foods. Include all minerals needed with a special emphasis on calcium & iron---as their deficiencies are more common 50% pulses can be substituted with one egg or 30 grams of meat or fish with additional 5 grams of fat or oil. 100% of pulses can be substituted with two eggs or 50 grams of meat or fish or one egg+ 30 grams of meat or fish & 10 grams of additional fat or oil. All vitamins be present in adequate amounts. Do not rely entirely on sunshine for obtaining vitamin D esply for the children. Infants Gain around 25 cms height & 6.5 kg body weight Milk substitutes : Soy milk[4.2 % protein], Peanut milk & its curd[3 % protein], Toned vegetable milk[3.5 % protein, made using buffalo milk, liquid glucose & peanut protein isolate] & vegetable milk [using soya beans :peanut: melon seeds in 4:3:1 ratio & variations] are good after weaning. Infant food mixes rich in proteins :peanut protein isolate + skimmed milk powder [26% protein], peanut protein isolate + Soybean [26.4 % protein], peanut flour + skimmed milk powder [26.5% protein], based on soybean[26.8% protein] & based on buffalo milk[ 26.2% protein] PRESCHOOL AGE [ 1-5 years] Gain around 34.2 cms height & 8.5 kg body weight, Period of fast growth. Take care to prevent P.C.M. & deficiencies of vitamins & minerals. PROTEIN ENRICHED CEREAL FOOD MIXES BALANCED MALT FOOD 40% malt+ 40% peanut flour+ 20% chickpea flour=28% Protein If skimmed milk powder, CaCo3 & vitamins are added, it supplies 31.9% protein] PROTEIN ENRICHED CEREAL FOOD MIXES BAL AHAR 70% whole wheat flour+20% cottonseed & soy flour+10% chickpea flour & added CaCo3 & vitamins = 22.5% protein I.M.F.[INDIAN MULTI PURPOSE FOOD] 3:1 peanut flour: chickpea flour=41.9% protein Peanut flour+ chickpea flour +skimmed milk powder= 40.6% protein N.I.N. FORMULA 30% wheat+20% green gram+8% peanut+20% sugar/ jaggery= 12.5% protein A.H.S.W. FOOD MIX 30% maize+20% green gram+10% peanut+20% jaggery =14.4% protein NUTROBISCUITS Wheat flour+ peanut+ added CaCo3 & vitamins = 16.5% protein NUTRO MACARONI Wheat flour+ peanut flour + added CaCo3 & vitamins = 19.3% protein ENRICHED MACARONI Chickpea flour & cassava root added to above mix= 18% protein.

OTHER MIXES 1 coconut meal: 1 chickpea: 2 peanut= 36.5 % protein 1 fish flour: 2 chickpea: 1 peanut= 51.6 % protein SCHOOL AGE [UP TO 14 YEARS] Boys gain around 4-7.7 cms height & 2.2-6.6 kg body weight Girls gain around 4.9-7.2 cms height & 2.3-5.2 kg body weight Suggestions Give all types of foods except highly spicy, fried food, strong tea & coffee. Restrict empty calorie foods. To eat proper breakfast & lunch. Can eat 4-5 times in a day. MID DAY MEAL SCHEME 75 g cereals+30g pulses + 30g leafy vegetables+ 30g non leafy vegetables+ 8g fat per day per child. Can be supplemented with 15g fish or 120 ml skimmed milk or 15 g I.M.F. mix. ADOLESCENTS Boys mature during 13-15 years age. Girls mature during 11-13 years age. Need sufficient proteins, vitamins & minerals. Girls need more protein & iron, to be stored for future use. To maintain proper weight as per height. Girls no unscientific ways of dieting. Hostelites not to economize on foods or depend on fast foods only. ADULTS growth is complete, nutrients required for maintenance & normal reproduction only. Not to have restricted food pattern, should try & like new foods. Include 1/3rd-1/4th nutrients through breakfast. Not to skip breakfast, it may actually lead to overeating. Lunch- To contribute 1/3rd nutrients, to be improved if taken in the canteen, include more fruits & vegetables if it is a packed lunch. Dinner- To be balanced with additional items viz. salad, vegetables, add dessert or sweet, if necessary. Snacks- Cut down deep fried preparations. PREGNANT WOMEN Additional allowances required due to vomiting, loss of appetite & for development of foetus which weighs around 3.2 kg at birth. Extra 300 cal/day during second half . Extra 14g proteins per day as 910 g gets deposi ted in the in mothers body & in embryo. Minerals- Extra 600 mg per day Ca during last 6 months as 30g gets deposited in embryo/ 10-15g extra iron per day as 540g gets deposited/additional intake of iodine required to prevent cretinism. Vitamins- additional 25-30 micrograms retinol per day as 5400-5700 micro grams gets deposited/50-200 micro grams Folic acid/day / 50 mg vitamin C/day /extra 5 micro grams vitamin B12/day required. LACTATING MOTHERS Assumed milk output: 600ml/day. Additional 700cal/day required as 60% gets converted to milk calories. Additional 14g proteins/day required with 50% N.P.U. MINERALS- Ca: Extra 500-600 mg/day required as there is only 30% reduction/ No extra allowance of iron is required. VITAMINS: Vitamin A-extra 400 mg retinol/day/Extra 50 micrograms folic acid/day & extra 0.5 micrograms Vitamin B12/day are required. INDUSTRIAL WORKERS

Intake of nutrients depends upon : climatic conditions & work pattern i.e. whether working under direct sun or inside factory. CALORIES- 2900 for men & 3000 for women. PROTEINS- To be increased by 50% esply. in cold climate. B1,B2 &B3-To be increased proportionate with the energy requirement. Ca & Fe- requirement remains same. However, iron deficiency should be corrected as it directly affects the output. DIET To be normally adequate in protective foods. Include cereals, pulses, low cost root vegetables, millets, oil seeds., locally grown fruits & vegetables liberally. Include meat, eggs & milk to a minimum. NOTE For non vegetarians, pulses 55 & 50g respectively, 1egg for both & 30g meat/fish can be included. OLD AGE CALORIES-Reduce by around 25%, Man-2100, woman 1700cal/day. PROTEINS-@ 1.5g/kg body weight due to poor digestion & absorption, to be cooked by steaming & boiling, to be easily digestible. Calcium- .8-1.0g/day, IRON-30-40 MG/DAY One multivitamin tablet/day. DIET To avoid saturated foods. Include max. 40-50 oil/day Include roughage to prevent constipation For non vegetarians, milk-400 g for both, pulses 55 & 45g respectively, 1egg for both & 30g meat/fish can be included. General rules of meal planning Use whole day as a unit. Make breakfast relatively standardized then plan dinner & then lunch at the end to supplement the other two meals. Use some food from each food group daily & in each meal usually. Plan at least one food with staying quality, at least one that requires chewing, one that contains roughage & some hot food or drink---in every meal. Combine bland foods with more pronounced flavor foods. Combine soft foods with crisp texture foods. Have variety in color, form & arrangement of foods. Combine bland foods with more pronounced flavor foods. Combine soft foods with crisp texture foods. Have variety in color, form & arrangement of foods. When more foods are served in one meal----decrease the portion size & use a fewer rich foods + when simple meal is desired, use a few nutritious, easily digestible foods & serve large portions. DONTS OF MENU PLANNING Avoid using same food twice in a day without varying form except the staple foods. Do not use same food twice in same meal, even in different forms. Avoid monotony of color, texture in any one meal or in daily diet. Low budget diets cheaper substitutes are to be known. broad guidelines: Include seasonal & locally available fruits & vegetables---being cheaper than cold stored or processed foods. Judge a good buy on the basis of nutritive value, not cost----skim milk is cheaper than whole milk, it only differs in the fat content & vitamin A. --- fat may be obtained by the fat used in cooking &

vitamin A by including carotene sources viz. greens, pumpkin & papaya. Pumpkin is better than gourds. Broad guidelines Plan meals in advance by a week or a day. Some foods can be suitably altered with more nutritive foods viz. sprouted & fermented foods. Include leftovers from previous meal suitably in next meal. Mix cereals with curd or pulses. Get soybeans or black gram milled with atta. Prefer whole fruits to their juices. Green leafy vegetables are not only cheap, they are rich in minerals & vitamins ----these can be grown in kitchen gardens, wherever practical. Include cheaper & nutritious foods viz. cabbage, carrots & tomatoes. Peanuts : cheaper substitutes to almonds & cashew nuts. Tops of root vegetables :more nutritious than roots---should be consumed. Jaggery :cheaper & more nutritious than sugar, due to iron & B complex vitamins. Planning controls impulsive buying & helps in economy----desirable foods can be included at same cost than using a single food. E.g. potatoes can be mixed with greens or carrots.

QUANTITY COOKING & NUTRI. VALUE Nutrients depend on cooking & processing practices Some nutrient loss inevitable. Food prepared in large quantity more prone to loss if adequate care is not taken Pre preparation begins hours in advance. Extra care required, Certain essential pre preparation steps result in great nutritional losses Mechanical peelers: remove the vitamins & minerals that are more concentrated just under the peels. Long time taken for :peeling, cutting or extraction of juice & such processes destroys certain vitamins due to oxidation. More water-soluble vitamins lost as time taken for bulk washing of rice is longer/cooking water is drained Prolonged exposure of fats & oils to air causes oxidative losses to a larger extent. Open pan cooking for longer time causes greater nutritional losses EFFECT ON NUTRIENTS No significant losses of minerals, until cooking water is discarded. Some losses during washing of grains & vegetables. Vitamins lost to largest extent Vitamin A---due to :oxidation, more lost in shallow frying than in deep frying, sun drying, & wilting of vegetables. B1 & B2 during wet & dry methods of cooking + more losses in presence of air & alkali. However, acid medium & deep fat frying reduce their losses. Vitamin C is highly susceptible to: heat, air & alkali. WAYS OF LOSSES MECHANICAL Milling of grains, Removal of whey or fat from milk, Trimming or peeling of fruits & vegetables, Juicing of fruits & vegetables cause losses. Whole meal contains all nutrients present . Milling: 70% of the B complex vitamins, minerals & dietary fibers in whole grain lost Polished rice loses 75% vitamin B1, Parboiling retains the same. LEACHING Water soluble vitamins & minerals leach out into the washing, soaking, & cooking water. Losses can be minimized by :washing uncut fruit or vegetable & not soaking cut vegetables in water. Soaking grains & pulses is beneficial as it increases digestibility & reduces cooking time. ENZYMIC ACTION In frozen fruits & vegetables. OXIDATION Exposure of finely divided foods to oxygen reduces vitamin C content by oxidation. When fruits & vegetables are cut- enzyme ascorbic oxidase released can be inactivated by blanching or storing cut fruits & vegetables at refrigerated temperatures or by adding acids.

 HEAT

Vitamin A destroyed :on exposure to air. B complex vitamins are also affected. Losses increase by: action of heat & light.

Beneficial on carbohydrates: for gelatinization & favorable browning reactions. Inactivates enzymes :that cause browning or oxidation of vitamin C. Oils undergo :hydrolysis, oxidation & polymerization during frying. Repeated use causes thermal destruction of vitamins. EFFECT OF ACIDS Helps to preserve water soluble vitamins Retards enzymatic browning Vegetables & pulses take longer cooking time in acidic medium as acids precipitate pectin & harden vegetable. ACTION OF ALKALIES B complex vitamins & vitamin C destroyed in an alkaline medium. Use of alkali to hasten cooking process of vegetables be discouraged. Excess cooking in alkaline medium not only destroys vitamins, but it makes texture mushy & gives soapy taste to product. SPROUTING & FERMENTATION In sprouted grains vitamins C, B1,B2, & B3 are synthesized. Partial breaking down of nutrients viz. carbohydrates, proteins & lipids increases digestibility of foods. Bio availability of Ca & Fe increases. ACTION OF OTHER CHEMICALS Oxalates, phytates, enzyme inhibitors. REMOVAL OF MOISTURE PURCHASING FRUITS & VEGETABLES Prefer fresh fruits & vegetables, followed by frozen, dried & canned fruits & vegetables at the end. Use covering liquid in the cans. Winter ripened tomatoes are more nutritious than the summer ripened tomatoes. FOOD STORAGE Proper storage retains freshness & nutrients . Storage time & temperatures are crucial. Fresh & freshly cooked foods be stored in a cold place. Most fruits & vegetables need moist storage to retain freshness & nutrients. Onions & potatoes need a cool dry storage. Canned & dehydrated foods need a cool, dry & dark place. Frozen foods be wrapped in waterproof & vapor proof materials & stored at 0 degrees C or lower. Note Use stored foods within their optimum keeping time Longer they are kept, lower are nutrient levels. Avoid warm temperatures Store properly & immediately upon receiving. Follow FIFO system in use of stored foods. PREPARATION Major losses of nutrients through---mechanical separation, leaching in liquids, oxidation & too much use of heat or for a long time or both. Wash fruits & vegetables before peeling, & if required before cutting as the surface area for leaching is least. Use S.S. knife with sharp enough blade to disrupt minimum number of cells & preserve nutrients against oxidation Rusted iron blade knives catalyze these losses.

Do trimming & paring sparingly, discarding as little as possible, Boil potatoes with skins. Cutting vegetables into large pieces, not fine. Try & offer with no cooking or with little cooking only. Chop, slice, grate, shred, puree & extract juices close to the serving time Keep covered & cold ahead of time. Use Vitamin C as an antioxidant. Use peels or slightly spoilt fruits & vegetables for making soups & sauces. Green tops of root vegetables are more nutritious than roots---do not discard them. COOKING, HOLDING, SERVING Use batch method for cooking. Avoid soaking in water or other liquids that will not be consumed Use small to moderate amount of water to boil vegetables than cooking in very large or tiny amounts of water. Cook fresh & frozen vegetables as quickly & as little possible, Do not defrost frozen vegetables, start cooking vegetables in boiling water, allow water to boil for one minute or more to drive off oxygen. Close pan cooking speeds up cooking & improves retention of vitamin C by 10-20%, Cook vegetables just until crisp & tender, overcooked vegetables have less nutrients. Consider losses of nutrients in cooking water Finer the cutting, more the surface area for leaching of nutrients in the cooking water. Faster cooking causes fewer losses of nutrients. Steam or stir fry vegetables, instead of boiling to reduce leaching losses esply when cut into small & thin pieces. Use cooking water, as it is rich in nutrients. Avoid holding cooked foods esply vegetables at warm temperatures for long periods Chill & reheat quickly when it is time to serve. Avoid use of soda for faster cooking of pulses & improving green color of vegetables Soda causes loss of B complex vitamins Pre soak pulses in sufficient water & then cook them for similar reasons. CEREALS & MILLETS Nutrients lost due to milling, leaching, oxidation, use of alkali in baking process, baking at very high temperatures, exposure of more surface area during cooking. Steaming is best method for cooking rice. Cook rice in just the amount of water, maximum two times the rice that will be absorbed---no nutrient rich water to pour off. Use whole-wheat flour instead of refined flour, Wherever possible it should not be sifted as bran is rich in fibers & B complex vitamins. PULSES, OILSEEDS,NUTS Light roasting causes some nutrient losses. Wash thoroughly Never use soda for faster cooking. Sprouting increases B complex vitamins & vitamin C. Soybeans :richest in proteins, superior to chana dal, having supplementary value & are good for diabetics as only 20% of its 11 % starch can be used.

 MILK EGGS

By combining 3/4th groundnut & 1/4th milk protein a complete protein can be obtained. Combine whole black gram, soy flour & groundnut flour with wheat flour for mutual supplementation. & MILK PRODUCTS Deficit in iron, vitamin C. vitamin A & D decrease in winter season. Storing in opaque containers saves vitamin B12. Some proteins form scum at the surface, some get heat coagulated. Some minerals viz. Ca, P & Mg get precipitated.

Avidin, [biotin inhibitor] destroyed easily upon cooking. Ducks egg contains trypsin-inhibitors. Digestion time varies between 2-3 hours for different eggs & cooked forms. Fe, P & U.F.A. get digested & absorbed easily. FATS & OILS Avid overheating fats when frying. Limit reuse of oils for frying. MEAT, POULTRY, FISH Consume after passing of rigor mortis. Prefer meat of young animals. Vitamin B1 lost to a maximum extent, Other B complex vitamins remain after cooking also. Maximum losses during :braising or stewing along with leaching losses, oxidation, drip losses, during thawing & reheating. More losses in frozen poultry than in case of beef or lamb. Cook directly after partial thawing to minimize drip losses. Pan-broiling preserves more nutrients than oven broiling. Use slow & longer methods to cook meat. Pressure pan cooking retains more vitamins; Oven cooking retains more vitamin B12. While roasting meats & poultry, use a moderate oven temperature of 325 degree F, as higher temperature causes more losses of nutrients.

NEWER TRENDS ABOUT NUTRITION INTRODUCTION. Eating out has become a way of life. Food handlers have little or no knowledge about nutrients, nutrition, health & disease. Restaurants are serving mostly deep fried snacks & highly spicy foods. Moist foods are fried in fat without coating. Reuse of oil repeatedly for deep fat frying. Indian gravies are rich in fats apart from the cooking medium viz. cashew paste, coconut milk/paste, poppy seeds, til seeds. Cream & butter used to finish products. Trans fatty acids used for better texture in bakery products. Indiscriminate use of preservatives, Ajinomotto & non permitted food colors. Hygienic practices: ignored. Sufficient investment not made: in proper storage & cooking equipment. Correct cooking practices not followed: to prevent losses of nutrients. Water soluble nutrients: often get discarded. Fresh & intact commodities at proper stage of maturity not selected. Food standards must: are not checked. Calorie, cholesterol, ajinomotto & saturated fat content of a restaurant meal is very high. All such practices lead to diseases & malnutrition. Both chef & the consumer have to be alert & make wise choices from the menu options. Cooking method also influences calorie content. Necessary to emphasize upon-quality, freshness, use of fresh fruits & vegetables, poultry products, whole cereal grain products etc. & to include nutritious foods viz. rich in Ca, fibers & complex carbohydrates To restrict foods rich in saturated fats, cholesterol, salt, sugar, additives & calories. Due to nutrition education & awareness, people have become more particular about what they eat & where they eat. They have become more health conscious Youngsters falling prey to the lifestyle diseases viz. heart diseases, hypertension, diabetes, overweight & obesity. Customers are seeking for :product substitution, alternative cooking methods, access to health related qualities of foods etc. Advantages It can help to be competitive, preserve & expand market share, exploit market opportunity, enhance menu breadth, be more responsive, create a positive We care image, be able to serve health related contracts, needs & requirements, answer & serve health foods, increase profitability, average check cover, repeat customer visits & net profits SPLTY. RESTAURANTS

CHINESE RESTAURANTS Avoid/restrict- Fried foods, Soy sauce, M.S.G., Sweet & sour dishes Prefer/include- Steamed dishes, Brown rice, Stir fried items. FRENCH RESTAURANTS Avoid/restrict- Au gratin dishes, Rich sauces viz. Bechamel/Bernaise Prefer/include- Sea foods, Chicken, Lean beef etc. ITALIAN RESTAURANTS Avoid- Cream, Butter, Cheese, Eggs, Heavy sauces. Prefer/include- Pasta, vegetables, Tomatoes, Red clam sauces FAMILY RESTAURANTS Pay attention to :the items for children & adolescents. Have :varied & flexible menus. FAST FOOD & JUNK FOOD Fast food industry is growing rapidly all over the world. Products modified by MNCs to suit Indian palate & respect religious sentiments. Modern commercial fast food is often highly processed & prepared in an industrial fashion. Additives & processing reduce nutritive value. Not a completely balanced meal High in Sodium & fats Low in Vitamin A,C, Folic acid, dietary fibers & trace elements. FAST FOOD & JUNK FOOD Many popular items are unhealthy, To be eaten occasionally only, Chances of obesity & deficiency diseases if consumed for longer periods, Consumption not advisable for overweight persons. Underweight person can consume once/twice in a week. Adversely affect eating habits & health of children who prefer them to a traditional hot meal at the table. Local cuisines dying a slow death People forgetting richer, more varied & nourishing tastes of freshly harvested seasonal foods. Fermented south Indian snack food combinations are more nutritious. They blend cereals & pulses Non oily, easy to digest & safe to eat. FOR BALANCING & IMPROVINGSome healthy alternatives are: Introducing :salads, salad bars, cheese sandwiches, soups, lettuce on burgers, tomatoes & onions with French fries. Minimizing :use of fats. Including :milk shakes for cola drinks/coffee. Changing cooking methods: e.g. from frying to charbroiling. NEWLY LAUNCHED CONVENIENCE PRODUCTS There are basic products viz. shelled green peas, ready to cook frozen peas, ready to use instant soup powders, pre cooked prepared dishes viz. paneer makhanwala & table ready potato chips s Prepared industrially under strict control & regulation. Nutritive value & overall quality can be affected grossly due to improper storage temperature during retailing. High calorie content due to high % of fats & carbohydrates. Trans fats & saturated hydrogenated fats used for better organoleptic qualities. Sodium content is high. Salt in imported products is not iodized. As vegetable content is low- they are deficient in most vitamins, minerals, proteins & fibers.

Most do not provide a full meal Lacking in :vitamin A,C,E, & B complex, & essential minerals & fibers. Contain artificial preservatives, colors & taste enhancers that may cause allergic reactions in some individuals. Often very expensive as compared to the fresh, wholesome & nutritious preparations. Packaging, storage, & damage to container during transport may affect quality adversely. Many make misleading health claims. Meeting days nutritional needs should be checked on label before purchasing -as convenience is not the main criterion. Check fat, sodium & adequacy of protein contents before selecting. Add fresh or processed fruits, vegetables & low fat milk or yoghurt to supplement & for nutritional adequacy. Some products viz. soy proteins, flax seeds, carotene, & vitamin E rich oils have distinct benefits Other products viz. non dairy creams have both advantages because of no cholesterol & disadvantages because of the fatty acid composition of the used vegetable oils. Emphasize on a low or zero cholesterol content. TRANS FATTY ACIDS Present in bakery shortenings Harmful to human health. Geometric isomers of unsaturated fatty acids that assume a saturated fatty acid like configuration. These commercially introduced agents Created by partial hydrogenation of essential fatty acids thereby reducing their content in fat. Use eliminated from retail fats & spreads, Still used in baked goods & deep fried fast foods. More atherogenic than the saturated fatty acids. They increase LDL, Affect ratio of LDL to HDL Increasing the risk of coronary diseases. Apart from industrially hardened oils, dairy & meat fats are also their sources. PHYTOCHEMICALS Biologically active non nutritional natural phytochemicals viz. flavonoids, carotenoids, anthocyanin, lycopene, indoles, terpenes, sulfides & phytoestrogens in their composition . Provide additional nutritional benefits Reduce the risk of cancer & chronic diseases viz. heart diseases, stroke, cataract, Parkinson,s disease etc. because of their hormonal influence & enzymatic processes. Exact mechanism yet unknown. Distributed widely in fruits & vegetables viz. parsley, broccoli, alfalfa, watercress seeds, spinach, carrots, acerola cherries, soy beans, turmeric, yellow corn, tomatoes, cranberries, blue berries, onion, garlic, flax seeds, walnut etc. A generous intake is a better option instead of consuming them in the form of nutrient supplements or added in multivitamin pills. NUTRITIONAL LABELLING Consumer to be aware of the nutritive value & the % of RDA received by consuming the product esply for people on a weight reduction diet, diabetic diet, hypertensive diet or an atherosclerosis diet.

Convenience foods are often high in fat, trans fats, salts, & refined carbohydrates. People sensitive or allergic to certain foods or additives must study the labels very carefully. Health conscious consumer will focus on the special information provided on the label. Nutrition facts & health claims closely regulated for the convenience foods to be exported to US. For meaningful sources of calories or nutrition, nutritional labeling is necessary. All nutrients viz. B complex vitamin need not be mentioned. Nutrition facts are required for those foods which supply 2% or more of the RDA per serving viz. vitamin A, C, Fe or Ca OR if it supplies > 40 cal per serving or > 0.4 cal per gram. Format is fixed for nutrition facts Any other health claim should be mentioned on any other parts of the label. Nutrition information is mandatory for any health claim. All nutrients are expressed in their prescribed & as a % of the RDA for a diet providing 2000 & 2500 cal. In US, serving size is fixed by FDA ,no longer at the discretion of manufacturers. Any declaration that is not according to law is deemed as misbranding.

TABLE-SOME HEALTH CLAIMS If a product is commonly combined with other ingredients viz. a biryani masala mix & directions for preparation & addition of other ingredients are mentioned then nutritional facts may be mentioned on the basis of the product alone OR on the basis of the final product Additional ingredients & cooking methods be clearly specified in recipe. Some declarations are voluntary: such as K, soluble & insoluble fibers, stearic acid, sugar, alcohol & other carbohydrates & B complex vitamins For the nutrients present in small quantities Nutritional facts can be mentioned as 1] Not a significant source- < 2% of RDA for Ca, vitamin A & C. 2] Fiber, carbohydrate, sugar, protein if > 0.5 g = to be mentioned as zero & if > 1 g = to be mentioned as less than 1 gram. A product labeled as fresh means: not been frozen, heat processed or preserved in any way otherwise. SOME SUGGESTIONS ABOUT RESTAURANT FOODS Printing calorific values of various items on the menu cards. Using some special dietary symbols for various items on the menu cards to indicate foods as shown below: SOME SPECIAL DIETARY SYMBOLS Good for heart : < 10 g fat/servg Low in sodium: < 140 mg /servg. Low in cholesterol : < 60 mg/servg. Rich in fibers: 2g or more/servg.