1.

PRODUCTION
Production management is concerned with planning and controlling industrial
processes which produce and distribute products and services. Techniques of
production management are also used in service industries here they are called
operations management. During production processes, inputs are converted into
outputs. These processes take many forms from basic agriculture to large-scale
manufacturing. Much manufacturing takes place in factories, where assembly lines
allow a steady flow of raw materials (inputs) and finished products (outputs).
People in production focus on efficiency and effectiveness of processes in order to
maximize productivity. To achieve overall success, it is important to measure,
analyse and evaluate these processes. However, other activities also contribute to
success purchasing, inventory control, quality control, storage, logistics.
Production varies according to the inputs, processes and outputs. Other important
factors are the place of production and the resources. In addition, stock, major cost,
needs to be carefully controlled, and the equipment must be regulary maintained to
remain productive and prevent breakdowns.
A production planning system is essential to ensure that a company is processes,
machinery, equipment, labour skills and material are organized efficiently for better
profitability. There are many factors that need to be considered in the planning
system. For example, a firm may require a large number of different components.
Also demand can very daily in this ever-changing world. New sales orders come in.
Some get cancelled there may be breakdowns in the workshop backlogs build up
there may be late or early delivery from suppliers. It is difficult to keep track of all
these changes manually. To handle these situations, many companies keep safety
stock. However, if a company has an effective production planning system there is
no need to keep high safety stock. The money blocked in the excessive safety stock
can be released. At the same time, opportunity costs due to stock-puts can be
minimized.

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2. Quality

Quality means meeting the minimum set of requirements in a product's

specification and then being delighted that the customer's expectations have been
met and exceeded. Therefore, the goal of a business should be to find out customer
needs and then fine tune the process to ensure that they are met.
Quality improvement concepts have developed over several decades. They began
simply as a method for detecting defective products by inspection at the end of the
production line. In recent years the emphasis has changed from inspection to
prevention. Today sampling methods monitor processes and keep them under
control. The ultimate aim, of course, is zero defects.

In recent years different approaches to quality improvement have been developed.

The overall aim is to prevent defects through:
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Continuous process improvement

Customer focus

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3. Health and safety

The average person finds it difficult to assess risks. For this reason work practices
need to regulated. Examples of dangerous activities are:
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Welding or grinding without goggles

Working on a construction site work without a hard hat

Working in noisy factories, cabs, on airport tarmacs and with outdoor

machinery without ear protection

Working in chemical areas without protective clothing

Smoking near hazardous substances

Without regulation some employees will take risks.

Health and safety is a part of employment (labour) law. It covers general matters
such as
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Occupational health

Accident prevention regulations

Special regulations for hazardous occupations such as mining and building

Provisions for risks such as poisons, dangerous machinery, dust, noise,

vibration, and radiation

The full range of dangers arising from modern industrial processes, for
example the widespread use of chemicals

The key concerns for health and safety are to assess the risks and hazards by
identifying and quantifying the effects so that appropriate protective measures can
be taken.

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4. ENGINEERING

Engineering is based principally on physics, chemistry, and mathematics, and their

extensions into materials science, solid and fluid mechanics, thermodynamics,
transfer and rate processes and systems analysis.

Engineering as a profession involves different tasks. It can refer specifically to the

manufacture or assembly of engines, machine tools and machine parts. It is also
used more generally to describe the creative application of scientific principles to
design, develop, construct and forecast the behaviour of structures, apparatus,
machines, manufacturing processes and works.

The function of scientists is to know, while that of engineers is to do they solve

specific problems.

Different branches of engineering require different equipment and are based on

different processes.

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5. RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

Research and development (R and D) the search for new and improved products
and industrial processes. Both industrial firms and governments carry out t and D.
Innovations in products or processes normally follow a path from laboratory (lab)
idea, through pilot or prototype production and manufacturing start-up, to full-scale
production and market introduction. There are two main types of research. Pure or
basic research aims to clarify scientific principles without a specific end product in
view: applied research uses the findings of pure research in order to achieve a
particular commercial objective. Development describes the improvement of a
product or process by scientists in conjunction with engineers. Industry spend vast
sums to develop new products and the means to produce them cheaply, efficiently,
and safely.

Research is based around a wide range of activities from detailed analysis to

product improvement. Results from research activities need to be scientifically
measured an then reported.

Research is important in many disciplines and there are different types of research
with different research professionals. The type of research reflects the environment
the objectives. In addition, many research words have entered the general
language.

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6. CHEMICAL

The chemical industry covers the business that uses chemical reactions to turn raw
materials, such as coal, oil, and salt, into different products. Technological advances
in the chemical industry have dramatically altered the world's economy. Chemical
processes have created pesticides and fertilizers for farmers, pharmaceuticals for
the health care industry, synthetic dyes and fibres for the textile industry, soaps and
beauty aids for the cosmetics industry, sweeteners and flavours for the food
industry, plastics for the packaging industry, chemicals and celluloid for the motion
picture industry, and artificial rubber for the automotive ind chemical industry. The
chemical includes makers of more than 70.000 different chemicals, with global sales
worth more than 1 trillion.
Chemicals can be broken down into>
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Basic and intermediate chemicals

Petrochemicals

Paint and coating

Agricultural chemicals

Plastics and fibres

Specialty chemicals

7. NUCLEAR PLANTS

The world's nuclear plants have accumulated vast stocks of highly radioactive
waste. Worldwide, high-level waste is currently stored above ground, and no
government has a clear policy on its eventual disposal. While most experts believe
that burying the waste is the safest bet in the long term, the problem is finding sites
that everyone can agree are geologically stable. Decaying radioactive isotopes
release heat. As a result, high-level waste must be constantly cooled> otherwise, it
becomes dangerously not. This is why many experts want to store waste above
ground until it has decayed and is cool enough to be stored safely in sealed
repositories several hundreds of metres below ground. According to one recent
theory, however, waste should be lowered down boreholes drilled to 4 kilometres.
The trick is to exploit heat generated by the waste to fuse the surrounding rock and
contain any leaking radioactivity.

8. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY
Information
information
allows very
from and to

systems collect, organize, store, process, retrieve and display

in different formats *text, video and voice(. Information technology
fast, automated manipulation of digital data and their transformation
analogue.

Two basic technologies have been responsible for the development of the necessary
hardware> integrated circuits and digital communications. Parallel advances have
been made in software, particularly easy-to-use software products lo create,
maintain, manipulate, and query files and records. Many of these software programs
are designed for use both by computer professionals and enthusiastic amateurs.
Another important factor is the development of computer network.

As technology develops, new models and types of computer appear. At the heart of
all computers is the hardware. However, without software, computers are just dumb
boxes, unable to perform any calculations or operations.

9. NETWORK

A network includes
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Techniques

Physical connections

Computer programs used to link two or more computers

Network users can

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Share files, printers and other resources

Send electronic messages

Run programs on other computers

Each network operates according to a set of computer programs called network

protocols for computers to talk to one another. Computer networks can now be
interconnected efficiently through gateways. The biggest network is the World Wide
Web. It consists of a large number of smaller interconnected networks called
internets. These internets may connect tens, hundreds of thousands of computers.
They can share information with each other, such as databases of information. The
internet allows people all over the world to communicate with each other effectively
and inexpensively.
Before a network can operate, it needs physical connections so that signals can be
transmitted. After the network has been connected, it is ready for operation.

10. ELECTRONICS
Electronics is a branch of engineering and physics. It deals with the emission,
behavior, and effects of electrons for the generation, transmissions, reception, and
storage of information. This information can be audio signals in a radio, images
(video signals) on a television screen, or numbers and other data in a computer.
Electronic systems are importantant in communication, entertainment, and control
systems.

The electronics industry creates, designs, produces, and sells devices such as
radios, televisions, stereos, video games, and computers, and components such as
semiconductors, transistors, and integrated circuits. In the second half of the 20 th
century, this industry had two major influences. Firstly it transformed our lives in
factories, offices, and homes, secondly it emerged as a key economic sector.
Specific advances include
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The development of space technology and satellite communications

The revolution in the computer industry that led to the personal computer

The introduction of computer-guided robois in factories

Systems for storing and transmitting data electronically

Radio systems to automobiles, ship and other vehicles

Navigation aids for aircraft, automatic pilots, altimeters, and radar for traffic
control

The applications of electronic engineering cover almost every aspect of modern life,
the industry involves a wide range of tasks.