NATIONAL AND KAPODISTRIAN UNIVERSITY OF ATHENS

SCHOOL OF PHILOSOPHY
FACULTY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE & LINGUISTICS

Foreign language anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies among Greek university students in an ESP/EAP context

IOANNIS KARRAS

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

ATHENS, April 24th, 2012

In memory of Dimitris Karras, my father

Acknowledgments
I would like to take this opportunity to thank and express my sincere gratitude to my thesis supervisor Professor A. Papaconstantinou, as well as my thesis committee members Professor S. Papaefthymiou-Lytra, and Professor S. Hoidas for their guidance, expertise, understanding, insights, patience and encouragement throughout this long journey. I would also like to extend my gratitude and appreciation to Associate Professor J. A. Spinthourakis for providing me with advice, encouragement and unwavering support whenever I needed it. I would like to thank Assistant Professor N. Sifakis and Dr. V. Rizomilioti for their valuable feedback on parts of the drafts. Moreover, I would like to thank I. Karras, my sister-in-law, for offering valuable editing advice on my thesis. My deepest appreciation also goes to my family, friends and colleagues for their encouragement and support throughout my endeavor. Moreover, I am extremely thankful to all the participants who were willing to provide me with rich data for the study. Finally, I wish to dedicate this thesis to my father, who wholeheartedly believed in the value of education. I wish he had lived longer to witness the completion of this thesis, of which he would have been very proud.

Abstract
This thesis main objective is to examine two important factors of ESP/EAP: foreign language anxiety (FLA) and affective language learning strategies (LLS) and their correlation in a Greek university context. In order to examine the relationship between these two factors, quantitative research methods were used (the FLCAS and SILL questionnaires) in connection to individual differences variables involving 365 first and second year students from three Greek university departments of economics and business administration. Qualitative methods were also employed to ensure more reliable and valid results. More specifically, semi-structured interviews were conducted with a number of ESP/EAP students and teachers. This triangulation approach to the research attempted to extract the levels of language learning anxiety these students experience and the frequency of affective language learning strategies the same students employ by cross tabulating the findings. Finally, statistical correlations were generated among the various factors investigated through cross tabulation. The data gathered from the respondents who participated in the study revealed that they exhibited low (75,3%) to moderate (22,4%) levels of anxiety, a fact that does not correspond with other international studies mentioned in this thesis. Likewise, the respondents frequency of affective language learning strategy use was reported as being low for 69,7% of the respondents and moderate for 28,2% of the respondents. In terms of the relationship of reported FLA, affective LLS use and the individual differences variables, some statistically significant differences and correlates were found. More specifically, the study revealed that there was a statistically significant difference between male and female students in the levels of anxiety reported but not in the frequency of affective LLS used. Similarly, there were differences connected to academic performance -the grade students received in a previous ESP/EAP course appears to have an impact on the level of FLA reported but not on the frequency of affective LLS use. In connection to language learning experience, the results indicated that students who had studied more than one foreign language had lower levels of FLA compared to those who had not studied a second foreign language, but did not use more affective LLS compared to those who had only studied English as a foreign language. Statistically significant correlations were found with regards to the language level the participant had attained and their reported level of FLA, but no statistically important links with affective LLS were evident. Moreover, there were no significant differences among students who came from different academic departments. Likewise, in connection to affective LLS frequency of use, the mean scores for the aforementioned categories were similar. Finally, the year a student was in (first or second) did not reveal any statistically important differences regarding FLA nor did it prove to be a determining factor for affective LLS use. The quantitative findings showed that the statistical correlation of the two elements (language anxiety and affective language learning strategies) was also not significant. Hence, this lack of statistically significant correlation does not lend any credence to the assumption that there may be a substantial connection between the presence of FLA and
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the use of affective LLS or that low language anxiety is attributed to the systematic and effective use of affective LLS. With regards to the qualitative methods, the responses to the interviews supported the quantitative findings and also highlighted issues and concerns directly connected to ESP/EAP in Greece. In essence, it is hoped that this thesis has shed some light on the pervasiveness of foreign language anxiety among students in Greek university ESP/EAP classes -an area that has not been explored. Moreover, it is hoped that the research undertaken herein has contributed new perspectives to the existing body of research which pertains to affective language learning strategies within the abovementioned context. Finally, it is endeavored that this study has explored the terrain of ESP/EAP in Greek tertiary education, while at the same time it has provided several practical and pedagogical implications and has put forward various applicable suggestions as to how the existing situation can be ameliorated.

Contents
Acknowledgments ............................................................................................................. 2 Abstract.............................................................................................................................. 3 Contents ............................................................................................................................. 5 List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... 9 List of Figures.................................................................................................................. 10 List of Abbreviations ...................................................................................................... 11 Chapter 1 Introduction................................................................................................. 12 1.1 Background of the Study.....12 1.2 Background of the Investigation ............................................................................ 16 1.3 Research Questions ................................................................................................ 18 1.4 Significance of the Problem/Justification for the research .................................... 20 1.5 Methodology-Research Design .............................................................................. 23 1.6 Operationalization of the Variables/Definitions .................................................... 24 1.7 Delimitations of Scope of the Study and Key Assumptions .................................. 28 1.8 Thesis Overview .................................................................................................... 29 1.9 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks .............................................. 32 Chapter 2 ESP/EAP and Adult Education ................................................................. 33 2.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 33 2.1 On Defining ESP.................................................................................................... 34 2.2 An analysis of the acronym ESP............................................................................ 38 2.3 A Historical Perspective of ESP: its origins .......................................................... 41 2.4 A Historical Perspective on ESP: its origins in Greece ......................................... 45 2.5 The Current Situation of ESP/EAP in Tertiary Education in Greece .................... 47 2.6 Academic Discourse and Style .............................................................................. 49 2.7 Needs Analysis....................................................................................................... 50 2.8 Concluding Remarks on the Development of ESP ................................................ 58 2.9 Key Notions and Types of ESP ............................................................................. 59 2.9.1 Types of ESP................................................................................................... 59 2.9.2 Characteristics of ESP Courses....................................................................... 61 2.10 The ESP Practitioner ............................................................................................ 66 2.10.1 The Roles of the ESP/EAP Practitioner ........................................................ 69 2.11 Adult Education ................................................................................................... 72 2.12 Orientating the field of Adult Education ............................................................. 73 2.13 ESP/EAP and AE ................................................................................................. 75 2.14 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks ............................................ 76 Chapter 3 Anxiety and other Affective Factors ......................................................... 79 3.0 Introduction ............................................................................................................ 79 3.1 Affect: definitions .................................................................................................. 80 3.2 The Role of Affectivity in Language Learning...................................................... 81 3.3 Affective Factors.................................................................................................... 87 3.3.1 Motivation ....................................................................................................... 88 3.3.2 Self-esteem...................................................................................................... 95
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3.3.3 Inhibition ......................................................................................................... 98 3.4 Language Learning Anxiety ................................................................................ 100 3.5 Defining Anxiety ................................................................................................. 100 3.6 Origins-Development of Language Anxiety........................................................ 102 3.7 Types of Anxiety.................................................................................................. 111 3.8 Language Anxiety and L2 Performance: What Studies have Shown .................. 118 3.9 Language Anxiety and Cultural Context ............................................................. 123 3.10 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks .......................................... 124 Chapter 4 Language Learning Strategies ................................................................. 125 4.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 125 4.1 Cognitive Theory and LLS .................................................................................. 126 4.2 Background of Language Learning Strategies..................................................... 131 4.3 On Defining Language Learning Strategies ........................................................ 132 4.4 A Classification Construct of Language Learning Strategies .............................. 137 4.4.1 Strategies that comprehend, store, retrieve and use information .................. 138 4.4.2 Strategies that manage and direct learning through reflection and planning 139 4.4.3 Strategies that help learners control their emotions ...................................... 140 4.4.4 Strategies that help create opportunities to practice the target language with other people .................................................................................................. 144 4.5 An Overview of Oxfords Taxonomy and Justification for the use of this Paradigm ............................................................................................. 148 4.6 The Revelations of LLS Studies .......................................................................... 153 4.7 Socio-Cultural Influences on Language Learning Strategies .............................. 156 4.8 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks ............................................ 159 Chapter 5 Research Methods and Procedures ......................................................... 161 5.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 161 5.1 Research Design................................................................................................... 162 5.2 Instruments........................................................................................................... 165 5.2.1 Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale ................................................ 166 5.2.2 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning ................................................... 171 5.3 Triangulation ........................................................................................................ 173 5.3.1 Data Triangulation ........................................................................................ 174 5.3.2 Methodological Triangulation ...................................................................... 176 5.4 Setting and Participants........................................................................................ 180 5.5 Phenomenology and Metalanguage ..................................................................... 182 5.6 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks ............................................ 183 Chapter 6 Presentation and Discussion of Results................................................... 185 6.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 185 6.1 Quantitative Results of the FLCAS and SILL ..................................................... 186 6.1.1 The relationship between FLA, Affective LLS and individual differences variables ....................................................................................................... 190 6.1.2 Link between the FLCAS and the use of Affective LLS .............................. 210 6.2 Qualitative Results ............................................................................................... 212
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6.2.1 Students Responses to Interview Questions ................................................ 212 6.2.2 ESP/EAP Instructors Responses to Interview Questions ............................ 222 6.3 Discussion of Results ........................................................................................... 227 6.3.1 Discussion of Quantitative Results ............................................................... 227 6.4 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks ............................................ 242 Chapter 7 Practical - Pedagogical Implications and Teaching Suggestions.......... 244 7.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 244 7.1 FLA: Maintaining Optimal Levels of Facilitative Anxiety ................................ 245 7.2 Alleviating Instances of High Levels of Anxiety ................................................ 246 7.3 LLS: Incorporating the use of LLS in ESP/EAP Teaching ................................. 247 7.3.1 Adopting a Strategies-Based Instruction Approach ...................................... 249 7.4 Implications and Suggestions for ESP/EAP Courses .......................................... 250 7.4.1 ESP/EAP course Profile................................................................................ 250 7.4.2 Syllabus Design ............................................................................................ 255 7.4.3 Needs Analysis.............................................................................................. 259 7.4.4 Task-Based Learning .................................................................................... 264 7.4.5 Content and Language Integrated Learning .................................................. 266 7.4.6 Information and Communications Technologies .......................................... 267 7.5 Implications and Suggestions for the ESP/EAP Student ..................................... 273 7.5.1 ESP/EAP Involves Adults............................................................................. 273 7.5.2 Accounting for ESP/EAP Students Learning Styles ................................... 279 7.5.3 Differentiated Learning ................................................................................. 280 7.5.4 Increasing ESP/EAP Students Self-esteem and Lowering their Inhibition . 281 7.6 Implications and Suggestions for the ESP/EAP Instructor .................................. 282 7.6.1 Coping with Subject-specific Content .......................................................... 283 7.6.2 ESP/EAP Instructors as Trained Professionals ............................................. 285 7.6.3 Keeping Abreast of ESP/EAP Evolving Trends ........................................... 286 7.6.4 Empowering the ESP/EAP Teacher.............................................................. 287 7.6.5 Establishing and Defending an ESP/EAP Niche .......................................... 288 7.6.6 The ESP/EAP Teacher as Facilitator ............................................................ 289 7.7 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks ............................................ 289 Chapter 8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................... 291 8.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 291 8.1 Summary of Key findings Contribution made by results ................................. 291 8.2 Limitations of the study ....................................................................................... 294 8.3 Directions for further research ............................................................................. 296 8.4 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 299 Bibliography .................................................................................................................. 301 Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 333 Appendix 1 Questionnaires ....................................................................................... 334 Questionnaires English Version ........................................................................... 334 Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)...................................... 334 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) ............................................. 336
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FLCAS (Greek Version) ......................................................................................... 338 SILL (Greek Version)............................................................................................ 340 Appendix 2 Extra Statistical Results......................................................................... 343 Appendix 3 Language Teaching Approaches/Methodologies that cater to the Learners Affectivity ............................................................................. 369 Appendix 4 Categorization of the FLCAS items ...................................................... 372 Appendix 5 Categorization of the SILL items .......................................................... 374 Appendix 6 Questions to ESP students..................................................................... 376 Appendix 7 Questions to ESP instructors ................................................................. 378 Appendix 8 Indicative Research on Anxiety ............................................................ 379

List of Tables
Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4 Table 5 Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17 Table 18 Table 19 Table 20 Table 21 Table 22 Table 23 Table 24 Continuum of ELT course types ....................................................................... 63 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS ..................................................................... 186 Descriptive Statistics of SILL ......................................................................... 188 Frequencies and percentages of categorized dimensions of FLCAS .............. 189 Frequencies and percentages of the categorized dimensions of the Affective LLS in SILL ................................................................................................. 190 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by sex.................................................. 191 Descriptive Statistics of Affective LLS split by sex ....................................... 191 Table of frequencies of Year of study ............................................................ 195 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by Year of study ................................. 196 Descriptive Statistics of the SILL split by Year of study ............................... 197 Frequencies of Knowledge of other language ................................................ 199 Descriptive Statistics of the FLCAS split by Knowledge of other language.. 199 Descriptive Statistics of SILL split by Knowledge of other language ........... 201 Table of frequencies of Departments .............................................................. 201 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by departments ................................... 202 Descriptive Statistics of Affective LLS split by department .......................... 203 Table of frequencies for Language Proficiency Level.................................... 204 Descriptive statistics of FLCAS by Language Proficiency Level .................. 205 Descriptive statistics of Affective LLS by Language Proficiency level ......... 207 Table of frequencies of categories of previous grades ................................... 208 Descriptive statistics of FLCAS by previous grades ...................................... 209 Descriptive statistics of SILL by previous grades .......................................... 210 Correlations of all factors of FLCAS and Affective LLS ............................... 211 Reliability coefficients of FLCAS and Affective LLS factors ....................... 211

List of Figures
Figure 1 Branches of ESP .............................................................................................. 65 Figure 2 ESP as a Juggling Act...................................................................................... 71 Figure 3 Relationship between a learners cognitive and affective system. .................. 84 Figure 4 Recursive relations among anxiety, cognition, and behavior ........................ 110 Figure 5 Interrelationships between direct and indirect strategies and among the six strategy groups ............................................................................................. 151 Figure 6 Interrelationships of strategies....................................................................... 152 Figure 7 Puzzle: Interrelationships of strategies .......................................................... 153 Figure 8 Bar graph of FLCAS means .......................................................................... 187 Figure 9 Bar graph of SILL means .............................................................................. 188 Figure 10 Bar graph of FLCAS means split by sex ....................................................... 192 Figure 11 Bar graph of Affective LLS means split by sex ............................................ 192 Figure 12 Bar graph of FLCAS means split by year of study ....................................... 196 Figure 13 Bar graph of SILL means split by year of study ........................................... 198 Figure 14 Means plot of FLCAS by Language level ..................................................... 206 Figure 15 Means plot of Affective LLS by Language Proficiency Level ..................... 207

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List of Abbreviations
AE: CLIL: DI EAP: EFL: EGAP: ELT: EOP: ESP: ESAP: EST: FL: FLA: FLCAS: L1: L2: LLS: LSP: SILL: TBL: Adult Education Content and Language Integrated Learning Differentiated Instruction English for Academic Purposes English as a Foreign Language English for General Academic Purposes English Language Teaching English for Occupational Purposes English for Specific Purposes English for Specific Academic Purposes English for Science and Technology Foreign Language Foreign Language Anxiety Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale First Language Second Language Language Learning Strategies Language for Specific Purposes Strategy Inventory for Language Learning Task Based Learning

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Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background of the Study

English Language Teaching (ELT) as both a profession and as an area of applied research has greatly developed in the last five decades. Developments in all academic fields, including the arts, science and technology, as well as globalization and the rapid developments in information technology, have created an even greater need for many more people around the world to learn English. The economic strength of the countries where English is spoken as a native language, in addition to the trend in using English for international business, are two of the factors that led to the dominance of the English language and its establishment as a world lingua franca1. This surge in the demand for learning the English language has resulted in English holding a prominent position in the curricula of all levels of education worldwide. Consequently, this chain of events has resulted in the upsurge of an offshoot in the field of English language teaching, which in turn has led many areas of ELT to branch out and develop as their own semi-independent scientific disciplines. English for Specific Purposes (ESP) is one such area. In its simplest form, ESP refers to a sphere of English language teaching that focuses on teaching English to students who need it for a particular purpose, such as business English or English for medical students (for a more detailed definition and description of ESP see Chapter 2). Within ELT, the teaching of
According to Firth (1996: 240), English as a lingua franca is a contact language between persons who share neither a common native tongue nor a common (national) culture, and for whom English is the chosen foreign language of communication. 12
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ESP has been seen as a separate and identifiable approach in which the content and methods chosen are prescribed by the learners needs and reasons for learning the English language as opposed to general ELT where the learners specific needs and reasons for learning the language are not necessarily accounted for. Although ESP is one of the newer areas of ELT, it generates challenges as there is some controversy regarding, among other things, conceptualization and definitional issues, methodology and the practitioners role -implicit and explicit- with respect to the teaching of ESP (see Chapter 2 for a discussion on these issues). The teaching and learning of a foreign language, and specifically teaching/learning ESP, do not occur in a vacuum. The cognitive side of learning and the role, approach, and methods used in teaching/learning ESP, as well as the cultural background of the students, have been in the forefront of concern for those involved in this teaching/learning. Consequently, the vast majority of the existing literature on ESP addresses these issues. However, the affective side of learning (e.g. learners motivation, self-esteem, inhibition and anxiety in connection to language learning see Chapter 3) is something that has not been as systematically investigated in ESP. It should be noted from the start that the affective side and the cognitive side are not diametrically opposite. On the contrary, as Arnold and Brown (1999: 1) state, when the cognitive and affective sides are used together, the learning process can be constructed on a firmer foundation. Although affectivity has often been regarded as the Cinderella of mental functions, Oatley and Jenkins (1996: 122) affirm that emotions are not extras. They are the very center of human mental life[They] link what is important for us to the world of people, things and happenings. As such, neglecting the affective side of the learner would be a
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critical impediment since affectivity, as the research indicates, has a pervasive effect on the learning process (see Chapter 3). At the beginning of this 20th century scholars such as Dewey, Montessori and Vygotsky showed an interest in affectivity through their writings (Bernat, 2000). With the development of humanistic psychology2 this interest with respect to the role played by affectivity in education grew. The Confluent Education movement, which grew from humanistic psychology, emphasized educating the whole person by uniting the cognitive and the affective domains (Brown, 1971; Castillo, 1973). In other words, this movement encourages the process of holistic learning, which engages methods of teaching that encompass introspection, intuition, kinesthetics, to name but a few. Some years later, language educationists and theorists such as Moskowitz (1978), Rinvolucri (1984), and Stevick (1990) expressed similar views stressing the importance of the affective dimension in language learning and teaching. They argued that a humanistic approach to language teaching is not an activity that will replace others in the classroom, but that the teaching of content or subject specific material and helping the learner develop as a whole can co-exist (Arnold, 1999). Similarly, there are data which indicate that students themselves place great value on a humanistic approach to language learning. Avilas (1997) study revealed that advanced EFL students is Spain showed a greater preference for texts whose content was concerned

During the 1950s, humanistic psychology began as a reaction to psychoanalysis and behaviorism. Humanistic psychology focused on each individual's potential and stressed the importance of growth and self-actualization. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology was that people are innately good, with mental and social problems resulting from deviations from this natural tendency. (Online, http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/hist_humanistic.htm)

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with personal development. Likewise, Moskowitz (1981) has documented foreign language students favorable response to a humanistic approach to language teaching3 (see Section 3.2). This emphasis on humanistic education has been well documented in Papaconstantinous (1997: 39) work where she argues for the requisites of change: Another quality, that seems essential for change and learning, is an unconditional positive regard for the client/student. This unconditional positive regard provides the non-threatening context, in which the person explores and experiences his inner-self. This empathic understanding, when it is properly communicated, makes the person experience more freely his inward feelings. This is one of the major ways, in which change becomes possible and learning can be really established.

Apart from the increased attention that affectivity has received in the last few decades, language learning strategies (LLS) employed by language learners have also become an area of frequent enquiry among language scholars and teachers alike. The studies of scholars such as Stevick (1976); Wenden and Rubin (1987); Brown (2000); Oxford (1990, 2001); Hancock (2002); Chamot (2004) have confirmed the positive correlation between the use of language learning strategies in general and language proficiency. And as Oxford (1990) argues LLS are oriented towards enhancing communicative competence. Within the Greek educational context, research on general language learning strategies has also been carried out (cf. Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1987a, 2009; PsaltouJoycey, 2003; Griva & Tsakiridou, 2006; Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009b; Gavriilidou & Papanis 2010).

The humanistic approach to language teaching puts emphasis on the innate ability and capacity that all learners are presumed to possess. This approach considers humanism to be the essential element in the process of teaching. Fundamental principles in the humanistic approach include sensitivity towards emotions and feelings and active student participation in the process of learning. 15

1.2 Background of the Investigation

Affective factors such as motivation, inhibition, self-esteem and anxiety and the role they play in education and, more specifically, in second/foreign language learning have been the focus of investigation for language educators, psychologists and applied linguists (cf. Horwitz et al. 1991; Arnold, 1999; Young, 1999; Rossiter, 2003).

The issues pertaining to ESP, including definitional and methodological considerations and approaches, as well as the ESP instructors multiple roles, present challenges for those involved, including material developers, syllabus designers, instructors, as well as the ESP students4). ESP reference books address notions pertaining to a sound theoretical framework of ESP and also account for needs and genre analyses, syllabus designing and material development in addition to assessment tools. While affectivity in connection to EFL learning in general has been studied often and from various angles (cf. Cheng et al., 1999; Bailey et al., 2000 on anxiety and Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Drnyei, 1994, 2001; Gardner, 2001; Cohen & Drnyei, 2002; Usioda, 2003 on motivation are some indicative studies on affective factors) the same cannot be said about affectivity within the ESP realm in an international context, and more so in the Greek context. In ESP, affectivity has not been considered to any great extent. During the last few decades, language teachers have become increasingly cognizant of the fact that a number of EFL/ESP students (see Chapter 3) experience unease and even distress during language classes (Horwitz & Young, 1991). Oxford (1990: 140) posits that the affective side of the

ESP students may range from upper secondary school-age students (the so-called young adults) to mature adults. It will be seen that this thesis main concern is the adult population enrolled in university ESP classes. 16

learner is probably one of the very biggest influences on language learning success or failure. Likewise, one of the main affective factors language anxiety- has become a known factor to influence language learning.

Despite the array of studies that can be found in the literature pertaining to language learning strategies (indicatively, I mention Rubin, 1971; Oxford, 1990; Bernardo & Gonzales, 2009; Psaltou-Joycey and Kantaridou, 2009b) and affectivity (see above), an aspect that has not been dealt with to any great depth or breadth by theorists and EFL scholars is the connection between language learning anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies and especially in connection to ESP students in Greek tertiary-level institutions. This lack of emphasis on the aforementioned areas is somewhat surprising since both affectivity and the use of language learning strategies are vital in the language learning process as they can influence language performance (Khaldieh, 2000). It is exactly this gap that warrants more research. Hence, the research that this thesis has undertaken aims at examining this gap and adding to the growing body of research.

It should also be noted that while other forms of anxiety such as the ones students develop, for instance, towards math and test-writing are well documented, defined and understood this is not the case for language anxiety. Language anxiety is, according to some, a more complex psychological construct and an issue that still poses many questions since only in the last few decades have researchers and language teachers begun to define language anxiety and identify its effects in susceptible individuals (Horwitz & Young, 1991: xiv). However, as Brown (1987) supports, it is impossible to

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describe the affective domain within definable limits. Only recently have researchers provided evidence for the fact that language anxiety is linked to language performance. Horwitz (2000, 2001) contends that anxiety is a multifaceted variable and as such can either lead to or be the product of poor language learning and performance. More specifically, Tths (2010) research indicates that language anxiety has an impact on language performance (primarily speaking). Yet many of those involved in second/foreign language education have not taken this form of anxiety into consideration. These prevailing effects of language anxiety are what create the basis of this thesis.

The focal point of this thesis revolves around, a) the reported levels of language learning anxiety reported by the ESP students sampled (ESP classes at Greek tertiary-level institutions), b) the degree to which affective language learning strategies are utilized and c) the link between reported levels of language anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies among these ESP students. In light of this focus, the research questions put forth for this thesis are presented in the following section.

1.3 Research Questions

This study firstly investigates the extent to which students attending ESP classes at Greek tertiary level institutions: 1) exhibit language learning anxiety and 2) use affective language learning strategy. Lastly, the plausible relationship between the Greek ESP students use of affective language learning strategies and their self-reported levels of language anxiety are explored.

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This thesis investigates the aforementioned areas of ESP and attempts to answer the research questions that guided my inquiry. The questions are as follow:

First research question: How pervasive is foreign language anxiety among students in Greek university ESP classes and to what degree does language learning anxiety manifest itself? The first question seeks to identify the severity and scope of foreign language anxiety as reported by first and second year undergraduate students majoring in Business and Economics in connection to selected individual differences variables such as gender, language proficiency, year of study, university department, field of study, and academic achievement.

Second research question: To what extent do Greek University students in ESP class employ affective language learning strategies? The second question aims to identify the degree of affective strategy use among the above mentioned target group and in connection to the same individual differences variables.

Third research question: What is the correlation between reported levels of language learning anxiety and the use of

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affective language learning strategies among these ESP students? The third question examines the possible relationship between language learning anxiety and the use of affective learning strategies.

1.4 Significance of the Problem/Justification for the research

The body of literature indicates that research conducted has demonstrated the existence of language learning anxiety, still, as Shamas (2006: 14) predicates even without empirical proof, the mere awareness of foreign language anxiety, even on an intuitive level, is testimony enough to its existence and worthy of further investigation. Ohata (2005) asserts that language anxiety is the result of many factors and cannot be defined in a linear manner. As many researchers (cf. Horwitz & Young, 1991; Macintyre & Gardner, 1991; Price, 1991; MacIntryre, 1995a, 1995b, Zhang, 2005; Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006;) have attested, language anxiety is partially accountable for individual differences in foreign language learning. Campbell & Ortiz (1991) argue that about half of all language students experience a significant level of anxiety in a foreign language classroom. Consequently, as MacIntyre (1995a) argues, a cause and effect cycle is formed. The resulting cycle traverses the following course: anxiety leads to reduced performance which leads to further anxiety which results in even poorer performance which leads to even greater anxiety. Language anxiety impairs cognitive function; students who are anxious may perform less efficiently on their language tasks, putting into motion the cycle as the students experience more failure which in turn may generate more anxiety (Cheng, 2001; Horwitz, 2001; Kurt & Atay, 2007).
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Comparably, studies on general language learner strategies such as cognitive, metacognitve, socio-affective, to name a few (cf. Oxford et al., 1993; Thompson & Rubin, 1993; McDonough, 1995; Vidal, 2002; Gregersen, 2003; Takeuchi, 2003; Ewald, 2007; Yan & Horwitz, 2008; Kashefian-Naeeini & Nooreiny, 2010; Liu, 2010) have produced favorable results. More specifically, these studies indicate that the use of language learning strategies leads to higher achievement and/or improved proficiency in the foreign language and also contributes to making the language learner more independent. According to Oxford (2011), the powerful social and affective strategies are not as frequently found in L2 research despite the number of studies that have been conducted in the area of LLS. Oxford (2011) has attributed this lack of focus to the fact that these behaviors are not studied frequently by L2 strategy researchers, and because learners are not familiar with the need to pay attention to their own feelings and social relationships as part of the L2 learning process. It is this lack of focus on the part of the researchers and the fact that students neglect their feelings with regards to L2 learning that this thesis aims to redress.

In other words, this research aims to contribute to an existing knowledge base by reporting on an enquiry undertaken to qualitatively and quantitatively determine: a) the levels of reported foreign language anxiety, b) the frequency of use of affective language learning strategies and, c) any possible interrelations between them. Moreover, this thesis investigates the ESP terrain in Greece. In my review of the research literature, no studies that involve foreign language anxiety within a Greek ESP context in tertiary education

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have been conducted and although language learning strategy use within the cultural and educational context of EFL in Greek education has been investigated (cf PapaefthymiouLytra, 1987a, 2009; Psaltou-Joycey, 2003; Griva & Tsakiridou, 2006; Gavriilidou & Papanis 2010, as well as Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009b for a study involving the specific context of ESP in Greece), the use of affective language learning strategies and their association with foreign language anxiety has not been examined. In other words, the literature has not established any explicit links between FLA and affective LLS within a Greek ethnolinguistic and ESP instructional setting. This study yields the following results: it reports the level of foreign language anxiety exhibited by Greek ESP students; it reveals the frequency of affective LLS use among these students; and finally, it attempts to draw associations between these two factors. It is hoped that the results will add to the research discourse and the paucity of research related to understanding the complexities of these variables, and provide a deeper understanding of the implications of the research questions it sets out to investigate. The findings obtained herein are used to draw conclusions and suggest pedagogical practices intended to help the ESP instructors become conscious of and understand the degree of language anxiety present among their students as well as the extent to which these students may employ the use of affective language learning strategies. It is further hoped that this information will help ESP instructors take action in order to assist those students exhibiting language anxiety alleviate it by systematically guiding these students to explore avenues which may act as anxiety-reducing techniques (for those students who are anxiety-ridden), such as the use of more effective affective language learning strategies. Generally, much effort has been expended in trying to draw the practical and pedagogical implications of this study as

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they emerge from the findings as well provide a rich, contextualized understanding. These efforts, as well as the teaching suggestions made, aspire to provide ESP instructors insightful information about where ESP stands today within the Greek tertiary-education context. All these aims and goals may be met by providing a theoretical integration of the key conceptual frameworks, as well as by creating methodological rigor in measurement so as to synthesize the research findings into comprehensible conceptual frameworks.

1.5 Methodology-Research Design

Most empirical studies on anxiety, and other affective variables for that matter, as well as on language learning strategies, have used quantitative tools. A limited number of studies such as those conducted by McCoy (1979), Bailey (1983), Horwitz et al. (1986) measured language anxiety qualitatively. In a similar fashion, this study firstly utilizes quantitative tools as its main data collection method since the sample investigated is large. Secondly, a qualitative data collection method (sample structured interviews) is also employed with a smaller sample of respondents (ESP students and instructors alike). The use of qualitative tools with the entire body of subjects would yield an extremely large body of data that would not be conducive to the goals of this thesis. In essence, so as to generate more valid and reliable results, the study uses the triangulation approach which is the application and combination of several research methodologies (see Chapter 5 for a detailed account).

In order to gather data, the study sample comprised of tertiary student participants (N= 365) were asked to complete two widely-used questionnaires: 1) the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) and 2) the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning
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(SILL). The FLCAS, developed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), is a wellestablished scale and statistically valid and reliable (Rodriguez, 2003; Elkhafaifi, 2005). It is a thirty-three-item, self-report measure, designed to quantitatively measure levels of language anxiety in a foreign language classroom setting. The second questionnaire distributed to the student participants the SILL- has been devised by Oxford (1990). This questionnaire consists of fifty statements concerning memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, affective, and social strategies. Respondents provide answers by means of a five-point Likert Scale. As in the case of the FLCAS, the SILL5 is a widely used, valid and reliable tool (Oxford & Burry-Stock, 1995) which are the reasons why these tools were used to extract the quantitative results for this study. Both scales were given to each student and were measured against one another, thus providing quantitative results addressing the research questions put forward. Moreover, various variables were cross-tabulated. Finally, qualitative research was carried out with a representative sample of students and ESP/EAP instructors who participated in structured interviews. This triangulation of data enhanced confidence in the ensuing findings.

1.6 Operationalization of the Variables/Definitions

Definitions adopted by researchers are often not uniform, so key and controversial terms are defined in this section to establish positions taken in this thesis. So as to avoid any highly sophisticated and intricate definitions, working definitions of the following key concepts which permeate this study are presented. The key terms defined are a) ESP, b)

The FLCAS and SILL are further explored in Chapter 7. 24

Affect, c) Language Anxiety, d) Language Learning Strategies and e) Affective Language Learning Strategies. It should be made clear that what follows is only a preliminary account of these terms and more detailed attention of them is given in the subsequent chapters (Chapters 3 & 4). TERMS: a) English for Specific Purposes is an umbrella term that refers to English language instructional programs developed in response to specific adult occupational or social needs. Given the specificity of ESP, each ESP class is different as it tries to identify and address the needs and interests of the specific learners (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998). Examples of ESP classes include English for engineers, for business consultants, economists, etc. At this point, a preliminary delineation of the ESP framework is deemed important. Under the umbrella of ESP come other subcomponents such as teaching English for Academic Purposes (EAP). According to Gillett and Wray (2006: 9), EAP is a practical branch of ELT in which "the role of the EAP lecturer is to find out what the students need, what they have to do in their academic courses, and help them to do this better in the time available." In other words, EAP courses are those which are concerned with the teaching of specific language and communication skills that are required of students who have to study in formal academic and educational settings. In the Greek tertiary-level educational context, however, things differ. First of all the ESP/EAP6 situation in Greece is somewhat unclear as it is largely unchartered as

Hereafter, and throughout this thesis, the terms ESP/EAP will be used jointly, despite the fact that the teaching of English in tertiary settings is predominantly teaching EAP, but may have aspects of ESP which is an umbrella term (see Chapter 2 for a comprehensive analysis of ESP). 25

Sifakis (2004: 24) states. In Greek universities, the focus of ESP/EAP classes is on common-core skills [] as well as subject skills (Sifakis, ibid). In other words, teaching in ESP/EAP classes in Greece mainly involves teaching academic writing, presentation skills and lecture note-taking on the one hand, while on the other hand the focus is on teaching language specific to the respective academic field (i.e. terminology). ESP/EAP teaching in Greece also involves preparing the students for post-graduate studies in countries where the medium of instruction is English. Arguably, ESP/EAP is also taught to enhance students future professional qualifications. This thesis has borne in mind the specific characteristics of the Greek context delineated above. b) The affective domain and the emotional factors which bear an influence on language learning have been of interest in the field of L2 teaching for several years. The interest in affect complements a holistic approach to the learning process in the sense that cognition is not the sole factor in L2 learning. Affect is defined by Arnold and Brown (1999) as aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which condition behavior. Affect has to do with our emotional being and our feelings. Within the spectrum of affect and how it pertains to foreign language education, one can consider foreign language anxiety, motivation, inhibition and self-esteem to be among the most important affective variables. c) One of the main affective variables is language anxiety. Language Anxiety is defined as fear or apprehension occurring when a learner is expected to perform in the second or foreign language (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). Conceptualization of foreign language anxiety has been quite problematic in the literature. It is generally agreed, though, that

26

this type of anxiety is not a general performance anxiety (trait anxiety) as it has a direct link to performing in the target language (Horwitz et al., 1986; Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993). Rather, it is a specific anxiety. In MacIntyres (2007) view, language anxiety is connected to reduced willingness to communicate in the L2. d) Language learning strategies refer to ...specific actions, behaviors, steps, or techniques that students (often intentionally) use to improve their progress in developing L2 skills. These strategies can facilitate the internalization, storage, retrieval, or use of the new language. Strategies are tools for the self-directed involvement necessary for developing communicative ability. (Oxford, 1992, 1993: 18). Similarly, Richards and Platt (1992: 209) state that learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information. Both these definitions underscore the fact that strategies are used consciously by students in their effort to improve their language learning. Oxfords definition adds that LLS are tools with which learners can enhance their communicative ability. By doing so, she includes the element of tangibility in the sense that specific LLS can actually be used in various situations to serve specific goals (e.g. internalizing or storing newly acquired information) similarly to how a technician or handyman may choose a specific tool to repair something.

e) Affective language learning strategies are specific strategies learners engage in for anxiety reduction, self-encouragement and self-reward. Good language learners use affective LLS in an effort to control their attitudes and emotions regarding L2 learning

27

and try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language as they understand the impact of negative feelings on their L2 learning.

1.7 Delimitations of Scope of the Study and Key Assumptions

At this point, it is important to put forward some delimitations set by the scope and breadth of this study. More specifically, any results produced by the research refer only to subjects who participated, that is the ESP/EAP students from the specific Greek universities (University of Macedonia, and the University of Patras). To make the boundaries more explicit, it is noted that all students who participated in the research were first and second year undergraduate students of Economics and Business Administration departments who were attending ESP courses. The stance adopted in this thesis is that in most cases the targeted conclusions of a study are more general than the actual results found (Richards, 2010). Hence, any limitations this study may have do not necessarily undermine it as its redeeming findings do provide a rich, contextualized understanding of some aspect of ESP/EAP in the Greek tertiary-level context and the knowledge claims give it justification and merit by drawing broad inferences. More specifically, based on the findings this study yielded, various practical and pedagogical implications are brought forward and discussed and is it hoped that these implications contribute to the advancement of the field of ESP/EAP in Greece.

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1.8 Thesis Overview

A synopsis of the layout of the present study follows so as to provide an overall framework. Chapter One serves as the introduction to this thesis followed by Chapters Two to Four which put forward a conceptual framework as they present the state of the art and lay the foundations for the empirical study. Chapter Five presents the quantitative and qualitative research design and Chapter Six presents the results of the research as well as a discussion based on these results. Chapter Seven discusses the practical and pedagogical implications that arise from the research of this thesis. Finally, Chapter Eight summarizes the thesis and provides concluding remarks. Below, I present a brief description of the content of each chapter. Chapter One is devoted to presenting a general introduction, outlining key concepts and creating a framework which sets the boundaries of this thesis and states the problem by providing an overview of the background, the significance of the problem, the purpose of the study, and the research questions posed and delimitations of scope. The remainder of the study is comprised of seven more chapters, each with a specific focus. Chapter Two addresses the ESP domain in terms of definitional considerations and provides an overall orientation of the ESP framework. It attempts to chart the ESP situation in Greek tertiary-level education and takes a closer look at the role of the ESP teacher in such educational contexts. However, when one refers to the teaching of ESP/EAP, he/she must bear in mind that it mainly concerns the adult population. In other words, teaching ESP/EAP is teaching adults and thus it was deemed necessary to recount the specific characteristics of adult learners in this chapter. Hence, Chapter Two also
29

looks at the adult as a learner taking into account salient features such as language learning anxiety and affective LLS. An overview on teaching adults in general and how this teaching relates to ESP/EAP is provided. Overall, this chapter reviews the relevant literature and provides a conceptual platform that gives the dimension of ESP/EAP in this thesis. Chapter Three aims to provide conceptual scaffolding for language anxiety. First of all, it considers various affective factors, as anxiety does not occur in isolation. The cardinal affective factors such as motivation, self-esteem and inhibition are the ones discussed. This background knowledge of the affective factors lends impetus to the practical and pedagogical implications addressed in this thesis. With regards to language anxiety, a comprehensive definition of this type of anxiety is provided and different types of such anxiety are investigated. How anxiety develops in students, how it manifests itself, and the effects anxiety has on the language learner are also explored. Chapter Four examines the notion of language learning strategies (LLS). It ought to be noted that affective strategies are the key focus of this thesis; however, it was deemed important to give a synopsis of other strategies (i.e. memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive, social) so as to provide the framework of which affective strategies are a part. Each LLS should not be seen as independent from one another but as tools that are interrelated as they interact with one another. More specifically, Chapter Four provides the theoretical framework of language learning strategies in that it provides various definitions of language learning strategies while placing emphasis on affective LLS. Moreover, Chapter Four puts forward a classification of language learning strategies in

30

an attempt to initially construct a notional framework and then to discern their interrelation and interaction, which will in turn serve as a foundation on which to base the findings of this research. Finally, their significance in relation to foreign language learning is discussed. A detailed account of the research design is provided in Chapter Five. The rationale for the methodology used is given followed by the description of the participants and setting, and the two instruments used which account for the quantitative part of the study. Justification is then provided for the use of interviews with ESP/EAP students and teachers which serve as a qualitative data collection tool followed by an argument on methodological triangulation Additionally, the data collection procedures used and the data analysis methods employed are discussed. Finally, some limitations and other considerations are argued for in this section. Chapter Six reports the findings of both the quantitative and qualitative research. More precisely, it provides the descriptive statistics from the data generated by the administration of the two questionnaires including frequencies, standard deviations, factor descriptive, and various correlations. It provides the participants (ESP/EAP instructors and students alike) responses to the interview questions. The final section of this chapter provides an interpretation and comprehensive discussion of both the quantitative and qualitative findings this study yields.

Chapter Seven of the thesis considers the practical and pedagogical implications arising from my research findings in the area of ESP/EAP in Greek state universities. In

31

particular, it aspires to put forward teaching suggestions that may help improve ESP/EAP instruction in the Greek tertiary-level context.

The final chapter Chapter Eight- provides a summary of the thesis and restates the key findings and contributions that may be attributed to these findings and draws conclusions that emanate from the research. Additionally, this chapter considers the limitations of the study and provides suggestions for further research.

1.9 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

This chapter presented the foundations for the thesis. More specifically, it introduced the research problem and stated the research questions. The rationale for this study was presented and an argumentation for its implementation was provided. Moreover, key term definitions were provided followed by a description and justification of the research design. This chapter also drew the thesis outline. Finally, the delimitations set by the scope and breadth of this study were given. On these foundations, the thesis can proceed with the state of the art and a detailed description of the research.

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Chapter 2 ESP/EAP and Adult Education

2.0 Introduction
This chapter addresses the first key issue of this thesis which is ESP. First of all, a notional framework will be constructed so as to define and distinguish the field of ESP from other ELT fields as well as create the context within which this thesis lies. This notional framework is followed by an analysis of the ESP acronym. Then, a historical perspective on ESP will be provided so as to give the framework of language learning within a specific context. Having established the ESP framework and what falls under its purview, I will examine the development of ESP and survey its current situation within a Greek context so as to provide an orientation. This will in turn allow for the exploration of this area of EFL within the Greek context through a critical perspective. Then, a case for the importance of conducting a needs analysis will be put forward followed by a discussion and an analysis of the various ESP types. Moreover, the ESP/EAP practitioners pivotal role will be considered before addressing the learner, as he/she is the orchestrator of classroom interaction and is able to contribute to the creation of a positive and engaging atmosphere. Finally, the last section (2.11) of this chapter addresses the learner, which is the main focus of this thesis, and examines notions of adult education and specific adult attributes characterizing the adult learner, as ESP/EAP is primarily concerned with this target group. It should be noted again (as in Chapter 1) that ESP is an all-encompassing term and is used to show that these courses in the Greek tertiary context have a dual focus: 1) to enhance university students academic skills in
33

English (EAP) and 2) to help these students become exposed to the special field-related language and discourse (ESP) of their respective academic area. This dual focus will become obvious from the delineation of the ESP framework. Nevertheless, the acronyms ESP/EAP will be used together throughout this thesis as they more closely reflect the milieu studied herein, except in limited cases, where not using them in tandem is intentional due to definitional purposes.

2.1 On Defining ESP

The first issue that needs to be addressed is what exactly ESP is. This seemingly easy and straightforward question has actually brought about much discussion and, at the same time, much disagreement about precise definitions. Below the most common definitions along with a brief discussion of each definition is reviewed. A common operational definition of ESP is the one given by Johnson & Johnson (1998: 105). They define ESP as language programs designed for groups or individuals who are learning with an identifiable purpose and clearly specified needs. The definition itself reveals that there are a number of issues to consider. Firstly, the purpose and the needs of ESP students clearly mark the boundaries of each ESP course at hand. Another major point that arises involves critical examination of the content of ESP. Specifically defining the content of an ESP course provides a framework for its breadth and it is one of the elements that delineates it from a wider EFL teaching and learning framework. Despite the importance of content, no explicit reference to it is made in this definition. It should be noted that the content of an ESP course is determined by the specified needs of the students which emanate from a needs analysis (discussed later in this Chapter).
34

Strevens (1988) definition of ESP encompasses it in a way that is widely accepted by scholars in this area. More specifically, Strevens (1988) looked at ESP by identifying its absolute and variable7 characteristics. To begin with the absolute characteristics, Strevens (1988) sees ESP as consisting of English language teaching which is: a) designed to meet specified needs of the learner; b) related in content (i.e. in its themes and topics) to particular disciplines, occupations and activities; c) centered on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics, etc., and analysis of this discourse; d) in contrast with General English. As far as the variable characteristics are concerned, Strevens (1988: 1-2) claims that ESP may be, but is not necessarily: a) restricted to the language skills to be learned (e.g. reading only); and b) not taught according to any pre-ordained methodology. Perhaps a more general and inclusive definition of ESP is the one provided by DudleyEvans and St John (1998) who, like Strevens (1988), use absolute and variable characteristics, but place these characteristics on a different level (see below). This division of ESP into absolute and variable characteristics is very useful in resolving arguments regarding what is and is not ESP. When referring to the absolute characteristics, Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 4-5) postulate that: a) ESP is defined to meet specific needs of the learner; b) ESP makes use of the underlying methodology and activities of the discipline it serves8; c) ESP is
Absolute characteristics are those that are consistent and not qualified in every ESP context; whereas variable characteristics are ones not consistent and may not have a fixed pattern in every ESP context. 8 Dudley-Evans and St. Johns second point suggests that ESP has a different methodology compared to those methodologies general purpose English teaching uses. In other words, ESP draws on teaching from other disciplines, for example, using case studies in a business English class. 35
7

centered on the language (grammar, lexis, register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities. With regard to the variable characteristics Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 5) claim that: a) ESP may be related to or designed for specific disciplines; b) ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a different methodology from that of general English; c) ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation (it could, however, be for learners at upper-secondary school level e.g. technical/vocational high schools); d) ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced students; and e) most ESP courses assume some basic knowledge of the language system, but can be used with beginners. As one can notice, Dudley-Evans and St. John have removed the absolute characteristic that ESP has, in contrast with General English, and added more variable characteristics. They suggest that ESP is not necessarily related to a specific discipline. Furthermore, they say ESP is likely to be used with adult learners, although it could be used with learners in an upper-secondary school setting. The final variable characteristic refers to previous knowledge of the English language, which is desired, but not necessary. In other words, ESP does not necessitate the existence of a high level of English proficiency, but its presence does help. In defining ESP, Robinson (1991) accepts the primacy of needs analysis. Her definition embodies two main criteria: a) that ESP is normally goal-directed, and b) that the ESP courses are the product of needs analysis. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 19), however, provide a broader definition of ESP. Their definitions main constituent is methodology. In particular, they theorize that "ESP is an approach to language teaching in which all decisions as to content and method are based on the learner's reason for learning".

36

Moreover, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) claim that ESP methodology is not necessarily different from English for General Purposes (EGP) methodology thus drawing one shared element of ESP and EGP that of methodology. By contrast, Anthony (1997) states that it is not clear where ESP courses end and general English courses begin and Gatehouse (2001: 4) contends that numerous non-specialist EFL instructors use an ESP approach in that their syllabi are based on an analysis of learner needs and their own personal specialist knowledge of using English for real communication. In essence, certain elements of ESP and general EFL may overlap as they may adopt a similar approach, for example, apart from a shared methodology, they may both incorporate a needs analysis (see sections 2.7 and 7.1.2). Needs are also stressed by Belcher (2009) in that ESP instruction must be tailored to accommodate these needs9. One could claim with ease that all the definitions highlight learners needs and purposes. Nonetheless, it is made clear from the various aforementioned definitions that there are still some issues relating to the exact boundaries of ESP. The debate surrounding the definitional framework of ESP is easily spotted throughout the literature on ESP. To this effect, Anthony (1997) notes that despite the fact that ESP has been an area of EFL practice for over three decades, there has been recent debate about what ESP means. A further point to be made regarding the definitions of ESP is that none make an overt reference to ESP as an area involving the processes of teaching and learning that encompass the field with the exception of Hutchinson and Waters (1987) definition, which mentions methods. This lack in qualifying facets of this actual process of teaching and learning is what provides fertile ground for investigation. Again, another
9

The notion of needs is surveyed in section 2.7. 37

conclusion to be then drawn is that the content and boundaries of ESP have been defined to a somewhat satisfactory yet problematic degree in the literature (cf. Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Strevens 1988); yet the teaching and learning aspect of ESP appear to be an area in which further research should be focused on.

2.2 An analysis of the acronym ESP

ESP encompasses a great number of issues and factors which have a heavy theoretical underpinning. Below, each letter of the acronym will be viewed from various angles and discussed so as to composite the entire framework of ESP. To begin with E obviously stands for English and refers to the need to analyze language in different ways, depending on what the focus is (Sifakis, 2004: 18). The various analytical models and approaches that have permeated the way the English language has been viewed throughout the various stages of the historical development of language analysis are: register analysis10, rhetoric analysis11, discourse analysis12 and genre analysis13. It is noteworthy that the way the English language has been dealt with within an ESP context reflected the historical phase of language analysis that was prevalent at the time. An

Register analysis focuses more on analyzing language at the sentence level. Therefore, the emphasis is more on the actual language (grammar and vocabulary) rather than the methodology employed to teach this language. Statistical analyses of, for example, vocabulary or tense frequencies to provide grammar registers and lexicons for different academic fields were common practices in the past (see Halliday, McIntosh and Strevens, 1966). 11 Discourse analysis is concerned with describing the language and its structure that is used in speech or text that is longer than the sentence, e.g. conversations, paragraphs, complete texts. It examines the communicative contexts that affect language use, for example, in social transactions, the relationship between the discourse and the speakers and listeners (Jordan, 1997: 229). 12 Rhetorical analysis looks into the form-function relationship in EST. Rhetorical analysis endeavored to delve into the actual function of a sentence and the textual elements which underlie it (see Lachstrom, Selinker & Trimble 1972). 13 Swales (1990: 58) provides the following definition on genre analysis: A genre comprises a class of communicative events, the members of which share some set of communicative purposes. These purposes are recognized by the expert members of the parent discourse community, and thereby constitute the rationale for the genre.

10

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example would be the emphasis placed on the statistical analyses of grammar and vocabulary during the register analysis era.

From a methodological stance or a teaching point of view, English has to do with the text type that is chosen to serve its teaching purpose. The use of authentic texts is encouraged rather than the use of specially-devised or artificial texts which have been constructed to serve the purpose of a specific lesson depending on the language level at hand. Apart from text authenticity, task authenticity (what a student does with the text and whether real communication takes place14) is of great importance. This value of being motivated and having a genuine purpose has been put forward by many scholars including Guariento & Morley (2001). Likewise, it is crucial, as Skehan (1998) points out, to create the appropriate cognitive loads and performance conditions for the students competence and performance levels.

The letter S in the ESP acronym lends itself to an interesting analysis. To begin with, the most obvious point one could make is that specificity is the ingredient that differentiates ESP from general English teaching or TENOR (Teaching English for no Obvious Reason), a situation described by Abbott and Wingard (1981). This notion of specificity has also been used to refer to the continuum devised by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998: 8) on which all EFL teaching/learning situations are placed (this continuum is provided and discussed in section 2.8.2).

14

For a more comprehensive analysis on authenticity of text and task see Guariento & Morley (2001) article Text and task authenticity in the EFL classroom

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Furthermore, the clarification of S involves a definitional concern, mainly that of special language and specialized aim which are two entirely different notions. Perren (1974) was the first to account for the confusion that arises over these two concepts. Mackay and Mountford (1978: 4) state: The only practical way in which we can understand the notion of special language is as a restricted repertoire of words and expressions selected from the whole language because that restricted repertoire covers every requirement within a well-defined context, task or vocation. On the other hand, a specialized aim refers to the purpose for which learners learn a language, not the nature of the language they learn (Mackay & Mountford, 1978). Consequently, the focus of the word 'special' in ESP ought to be on the reason for which learners learn, and not on the specialized or technical vocabulary or registers they learn.

Finally, the P refers to the purpose of the learning. The term purpose, naturally, can be interpreted in various ways. The first interpretation that I would like to bring forward has to do with knowing about the students at hand. In essence, knowing about the student means and presupposes the identification of his/her needs (needs analysis), learning styles and language learning strategies (discussed in Chapter 4). ESP can pride itself on being on the forefront of the so-called learner-centered curriculum. According to Sifakis, (2004), purpose, then, can also mean purposeful teaching, which means being able to cope with other factors, such as being aware of the various approaches involved in adult education (see section 2.11). Furthermore, being able to tackle the various elements of teaching in an ESP environment, for example, small or extremely large numbers of

40

students, time constraints, curriculum design and implementation that must be in line with the directives of the respective institution are all very important matters. Finally, in categorizing ESP there are many purposes15. ESP can be divided into two broad categories: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). The subdivisions of EAP and EOP are many. So, an example of EAP can be studying English for Science and Technology at a tertiary education institution, or studying English for Business and Economics (as is the case of the target group of this thesis). EOP can be subdivided into English for practicing medical staff or Engineers (a more extensive account of this categorization is in section 2.8.1). In the end, it should be highlighted that ESP courses are created around the needs of the students who will attend them. Most of the references to ESP in the literature stem around learners needs, which are usually the result of a needs analysis, and linguistic descriptions regarding specialist discourse. Both these needs and the discourse as they relate to ESP are discussed in subsequent sections (2.6 and 2.6.5).

2.3 A Historical Perspective of ESP: its origins

In this section, I wish to briefly trace the developments of ESP. A concise historical overview is important as it sets the framework which facilitates understanding of the context of ESP. ESP cannot pride itself on being a leader in the study of languages for specific purposes (LSP). The study of languages for specific purposes has had a long and interesting history going back, some would say, as far as the Roman and Greek
15

It could be argued that the reference to purpose here could be subsumed under the analysis of E as the language being used e.g. in EAP or EOP is different; however, the focus is on purpose rather than the type English being used. 41

Empires (DudleyEvans & St John, 1998:1). Similarly, Howatt (1984) also talks about the fact that language for specific purposes is not current. More specifically, he contends that the need for commercial English for incoming Protestant refugees to England in the 16th century led to a focus on Business English in early ELT and that materials on commercial English and business letter writing were a feature of ELT as early as the 19th century. In addition, general movements in the world economy in the 1950s and 1960s also fired radical developments in ESP. Interestingly, the first ESP textbooks that were written are likely to be those for servicemen during the Second World War. One of the first uses of the term English for special purpose was in English for Airmen: An English Course for Air Personnel by A. R. Moon (London: Sir Isaac Pitman, 1942). The focus of this book was vocabulary and technical terms and certain writing skills (see Jordan, 1997). In reference to the title of the book above, it should be noted that the word special was used instead of specific a term subsequently replacing the S in ESP. Special was the preferred term until the mid/end of the 1970s when Holden (1977) and Mackay & Mountford (1978) published books on ESP (see. Sifakis, 2008) and substituted the term special for specific, which subsequently became the preferred term. During the 1970s, ESP notably experienced a tremendous growth in courses being offered and material (mostly in the form of textbooks) being produced, but mainly in connection to the sciences as it could be argued that Allen and Widdowsons (1974) work assumes that scientific English is the surface manifestations of universal procedures (Corbett, 2003: 69).

Hutchinson & Waters, (1987) give a more detailed account of the development of ESP. According to these scholars, there are three main reasons that led to the emergence of

42

ESP: the demands of a Brave New World, a revolution in linguistics, and a focus on the learner.

Regarding the first reason, Hutchinson & Waters (1987: 6) note that two key historical periods led to the explosion of ESP. First, with the end of the Second World War, which brought about an age of enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific, technical, and economic activity on an international scale [] most notable the economic power of the United States in the post-war world, the role [of international language] fell to English. Second, the Oil Crisis of the early 1970s resulted in Western money and knowledge flowing into the oil-rich countries, which in turn led to English becoming the lingua franca between these two worlds. Consequently, all this development exerted pressure on the language teaching profession to adapt to the new situation. Whereas English had previously decided its own destiny, it now became subject to the wishes, needs and demands of people other than language teachers (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987:7) The second determinant factor in the emergence of ESP was a revolution in linguistics and subsequently language teaching methodologies. Whereas traditional linguists set out to describe the features of language, revolutionary pioneers in linguistics began to look at language in context or the ways in which language is used in real communication Gatehouse (2001). Widdowson (1978) has been one of the most influential scholars in language education and has put much emphasis on acquiring the language as an ability to communicate and not merely as acquiring the knowledge of the grammatical rules. Additionally, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) point out that one significant discovery was
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in the ways that spoken and written English vary. In other words, given the particular context in which English is used, the variant of English will change. This idea was taken one step further. If language in different situations varies, then tailoring language instruction to meet the needs of learners in specific contexts is also possible. Hence, in the late 1960s and the early 1970s there were many attempts to describe English for Science and Technology (EST). Hutchinson and Waters (1987), as cited in Gatehouse (2001), identify Ewer and Latorre, Swales, Selinker and Trimble as a few of the prominent descriptive EST pioneers. The final reason Hutchinson and Waters (1987) provide as having led to the development of ESP has more to do with psychology and less to do with linguistics. More specifically, rather than simply focus on the method of language delivery, more attention was given to the ways in which learners acquire language and the differences in the ways language is acquired. More attention was paid to the learners and the learning strategies they employed, their different skills, and learning schemata16. Moreover, learning styles were beginning to be identified and valued. Ausubel (1968) identified a list of 18 different styles and Hills (1972) works refer to approximately 29 different factors that make up the cognitive style map of a learner. Finally, motivation and its impact on learning were appreciated as a determining factor. Therefore, focus on the learners' needs became equally paramount as the methods employed to disseminate linguistic knowledge. Naturally, the focus became meeting

16

Schema theory was developed by Anderson (1977) according to whom this learning theory views organized knowledge as an elaborate network of abstract mental structures which represent one's understanding of the world.

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these needs -a stance which began to permeate the field of ESP. Apart from the linguistic content of the ESP course, ESP teachers had to take into account the various multidimensional aspects of learner psychology and pedagogy. This meeting- the-needs trend had previously surfaced in the more general field of EFL. In Europe, the creation of Language for Specific programs (LSP) is partially the result of the creation and subsequent growth of the European Union (EU). Common educational policies among European countries and student exchange programs (e.g. Erasmus) further contributed to the need of developing and implementing LSP programs at European universities. Solly (2008: 200) mentions three key reasons that have attributed to the growing need of LSP courses: transnational academic-exchange programs and employment possibilities, an influx of immigrants from within and outside the EU and a growing realization of the potential intellectual and financial benefits of

internationalization of higher education. In conclusion, the evolutionary flow of ESP demarcates its presence as vital in the broader EFL milieu.
17

2.4 A Historical Perspective on ESP: its origins in Greece

Since the focus of this thesis is ESP within a Greek context, it is important to consider the evolution of ESP in Greece over the past years to understand how it has led to its present state. In Greece, the origins of ESP are not so clear. There are various speculations that place ESP in different educational contexts and at different times. The most likely scenario is the one that places the origins of ESP in Greece in the early 1900s. At that time, schools of trade and commerce ( - Emporikes Scholes)
17

The information in this section has been obtained from Malivitsi (2004, cited in Sifakis, 2008). 45

were established. For the first time, reference was being made to the teaching of Special English. According to the curriculum, the English to be taught in the latter years of these schools had to be connected to commerce and trade and mostly connected to commercial correspondence. Some emphasis was also placed on the use of authentic texts (the notion of which is discussed later in this chapter section 2.9.2) as newspapers clips were used for purposes of reading and translation. In other words, the primary approach used was the Grammar-Translation method18, which, at the time, still had many proponents advocating its use across all areas of EFL. As these were secondary vocational schools with a focus on commerce and trade, their curriculum included three compulsory foreign languages including French, German and English. Later, in 1976, legislation is passed (Law 309/76) and English becomes a compulsory language in all technical-vocational secondary schools in Greece, where students are taught rudimentary elements of special language pertaining to each respective field (i.e. English for Electricians or English for automobile mechanics etc). Today ESP is taught at all Technical and Vocational secondary schools. In higher education (Universities, Technological Universities and Institutes of Technology), the origins of ESP are a bit equivocal, and it is not clear when ESP was introduced. Nonetheless, one of the first attempts to teach foreign languages (not necessarily ESP per se) was made at the Foreign Language Center ( Didaskaleio Xenon Glosson) of the National and Kapodistrian University of Athens which was established in 1931 (Law 5147/31) where English, French, and German were
18

A method whose main principle is translation of whole texts word for word and memorization of numerous grammatical rules and exceptions as well as enormous vocabulary lists. The original goal of this method was to be able to read and translate literary masterpieces and classics.

46

taught. In the case of the Technological Educational Institutes (TEI -which apart from universities form part of tertiary education in Greece), foreign languages were introduced as Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) often referred to as terminology courses and were more broadly established after the conversion of the Centers for Higher Technical and Professional Education (KATEE) into TEIs with the enactment of the Greek law (1404/83). Apart from the more formal educational settings, ESP courses are often taught to employees in-house contemporaneously with work at various companies and organizations. In addition, companies out-source ESP courses to language schools, where employees attend after work. In Greece, there are several examples of ESP courses being taught at various companies and organizations. Examples of such companies include Bank of Greece, National Bank of Greece, Amstel/Heineken Brewery, Rio Bridge S.A., to name a few.
19

2.5 The Current Situation of ESP/EAP Greece

in Tertiary Education in

Since the context of ESP explored herein is that of tertiary education in Greece, it is important to consider the current situation of this specific context of ESP. In Greece, English is the priority foreign language (Crystal, 2003 cited in Sifakis, 2004: 23). The implications of this status of English is that ESP/EAP learners learn English so as to simply fulfill a university requirement (ESP/EAP courses required for degree completion)

19

The joint term ESP/EAP is henceforth used instead of ESP as it closer reflects the context addressed herein. When referring to the entire field of ESP then the umbrella term ESP is used. 47

or to prepare for post-graduate studies in English speaking countries or English-medium universities (e.g. universities in the Netherlands or Scandinavia) or to prepare for a short term of study abroad as an Erasmus student or finally and less frequently to prepare for and attend a seminar or conference. Thus Sifakis (2004) mentions the fact that English is only an auxiliary language in Greece. This designated status of English does bear implications on the teaching of ESP/EAP, which are addressed in Chapter Seven. At present, ESP/EAP is offered as a required or as an elective course in most tertiary-level institute departments. These courses may be offered by the department itself or outsourced to a separate part of the university (the so-called Foreign Language Centers seen above). The ESP/EAP courses in different faculties/departments may range from a single course to a number of courses offered during the entire program of studies and their levels may range from introductory and intermediate to advanced courses. Whether these courses are compulsory or elective, or whether they may carry a grade that is calculated in the general point average (GPA) of a students degree and is credit-bearing is irrelevant (see Chapter 7 for the implications of these points). Nonetheless, ESP/EAP courses are usually required for the completion of ones degree. The profile of an ESP/EAP teacher in Greece is also quite speculative. There has not been adequate documentation as to who teaches ESP/EAP in Greece (in terms of qualifications and credentials). What could be said with certainty is that those ESP/EAP teachers involved in the public sector are all university graduates (a requirement stated by Greek legislation -Law 309/76). These teachers have graduated from Greek or foreign universities with a degree in English studies, but without necessarily having received any specialized training in ESP/EAP and consequently are unequipped to deal with all the
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matters ESP/EAP teaching entails mainly analyzing needs, investigating the specific discourse, designing the syllabus and adopting an approach/methodology to effectively implement. Some teachers have had training in the area of ESP/EAP in the form of workshops or seminars, while others have pursued a post-graduate degree with a focus on Applied Linguistics, TEFL or ESP which, as Sifakis (2008: 113) states, means that they are becoming more and more up to date with current concerns in EAP and ESP teaching. In essence, the ESP/EAP teachers background is truly diverse, however, more and more teachers involved in ESP/EAP are enhancing their credentials as there is a constantly emerging need for academic English in Greece (Sifakis, 2008). Consequently, it becomes apparent from the aforementioned points that ESP/EAP within the Greek context is still in its infancy in terms of organization, structure and status. The Greek State, as the lack of policies indicates, has not made provisions to account for this emerging trend nor has it explicitly stated the need for any ESP/EAP qualifications to teach in the area of ESP/EAP in both public technical/vocational upper-secondary and tertiary education sectors.

2.6 Academic Discourse and Style

So far it has been shown that the development of ESP did not only involve external factors. Changes that took place with regards to subject specific language and the way it was analyzed definitely played a leading role in shaping what ESP/EAP has evolved into today. Subject-specific language, and its organization, has been subjected to various types of analyses spreading over a long period of time. The first type of analysis was that of register followed by rhetoric and discourse analyses and more recently genre analysis.

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Although a further account of these analyses is beyond the breadth and scope of this thesis, it ought to be underscored that the specific academic and professional discourse (genre) that is associated with each academic discipline is of great value to ESP/EAP students as they are exposed to the specific rules and conventions of the specialist discourse. Apart from analyses that are connected to discourse and style, there is another type of analysis -needs analysis- whose objective is to investigate the needs of the learners as discussed in the following section (2.7).

2.7 Needs Analysis

One important stage that Hutchinson and Waters (1987) distinguish in the development of ESP is needs analysis. In her account of ESP, Robinson (1991) accepts the primacy of needs analysis in defining ESP. Her definition embodies two main criteria: a) that ESP is normally goal-directed and b) that the ESP courses are the product of needs analysis. This primacy is also adamantly supported by Basturkmen (2006: 1) who claims that needs analysis is a fundamental feature of ESP as courses are based on a careful analysis of the needs of the students. In broad terms, needs analysis can be described as the process through which the language teacher attempts to determine the needs for which a learner or group of learners is learning a foreign language and prioritizes these needs accordingly. One way of conceptualizing needs analysis is to categorize them into subjective and objective needs (Richterich, 1980). Objective needs are derivable from different kinds of factual information about learners, their use of language in real-life communication situations as well as their current language proficiency and language difficulties whereas subjective needs are

50

the cognitive and affective needs of the learner in the learning situation derivable from information about affective and cognitive factors such as personality, confidence, attitudes, learners wants and expectations with regard to the learning of English and their individual cognitive style and learning strategies (Brindley 1989: 70).

I would claim that a more comprehensive definition of needs analysis is that of Basturkmen (2009: 3) who views needs analysis as a process of course development embodying various types of analyses, which are presented and discussed below: Target situation analysis: Identification of tasks, activities and skills what the learners should ideally know and be able to do. Discourse analysis: Descriptions of the language used in the above. Present situation analysis: Identification of what the learners can or cannot do in relation to the demands of the target situation. Learner factor analysis: Identification of learner factors, such as their motivation, how they learn and their perceptions of needs and wants. Teaching context analysis: Identification of factors related to the environment in which the course will run and what the ESP course and teacher can realistically offer. When one compares Basturkmens (2009) different types of analyses embodied in needs analysis frameworks, it become obvious that they are broader compared to Dudley-Evans and St Johns (1998) Target Situation Analysis and Present Situation Analysis (see below). Basturkmens, unlike Dudley-Evans and St Johns, account of needs analysis incorporates a description of the language used, places emphasis on motivation and other important learner factors (see Chapter 3) and finally considers another important element
51

of the ESP course the educational context in which the course will take place and what the ESP course and teacher can provide on a realistic and pragmatic basis. It is clear that a needs analysis is the task of the course developer, which in many cases (as is the case in the Greek ESP/EAP context) is the ESP/EAP teacher since more often than not, ESP/EAP courses are designed and implemented by the ESP/EAP teacher him/herself. After the needs are identified, the course is designed bearing these needs in mind. These needs actually become the driving force in designing the course. The needs may be identified prior to the commencement of the ESP/EAP course and then modified as the needs change during the course. In other cases, ESP/EAP learners needs may actually be identified once the course has begun. When needs are identified irrespective of the educational context, then there is little value in them. Basturkmen (2009) states that needs ought to be identified and considered in relation to the present state of knowledge of the learners, their perceptions of their needs and various practical possibilities and constraints put forth by the teaching context each time. Finally, this information should be used to make refined decisions about the ESP/EAP course. Like Basturkmen (2009), Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 57) also stress the importance of context and point out the approach to needs analysis depends on the situation and context. Similarly, Pilbeam (1979), when referring to the teaching of Business English, looks at needs analysis being concerned with establishing both a target profile of language skills which prescribes all the tasks and activities to be carried out in the ESP/EAP course and is known as Target Situation Analysis. On the other hand a profile of personal ability in which the participants proficiency in these activities is evaluated

52

(Dudley-Evans and St John 1998: 58) is known as Present Situation Analysis. A learning situation analysis (LSA) includes subjective, felt and process-oriented needs. Holliday & Cooke (1982) suggest yet another important type of analysis. They refer to means analysis as the environment in which a given course will take place. More specifically, a means analysis takes into account both the classroom culture and the wider learning environment the ESP/EAP course will take place in (for a further discussion see Chapter 7). Needs analysis can be seen as a great step forward in the general context of English language teaching and more so in ESP/EAP as it marks the distancing of a philosophy of language teaching that was very language-centered. With the advent of needs analysis, the focal point became the learners and their needs as perceived by the learners and the language instructors, without of course neglecting the fact that there were some drawbacks in this phase. One such drawback is that needs do not have of themselves an objective reality (Brindley, 1989: 65). Moreover, needs analyses are commonly conducted by needs analysts (often ESP/EAP teachers); therefore, the outcomes will project and will be influenced by the ideological preconceptions of the analysts (Robinson, 1991: 7). The notion of metalanguage (see also Chapters 5 and 7) arises here. The language used to decode the needs that arise from the needs analysis are subject to the analyst and may vary from one analyst to the other. Consequently, it is highly likely that two different analysts, with different views and perceptions on teaching and learning aiming at identifying the needs of the same target group, will generate a different set of needs. Likewise, when needs are expressed by the learners, their metalanguage may be insufficient and as Basturkmen (2009) contends, asking learners about their language
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needs may pose a problem as learners are often not in a position to interpret these needs or make sound decisions about their needs in any meaningful way. Also the notion of whose interpretation of needs must be examined. The perceptions of needs may differ between the learners and the needs analysts. Jasso-Aguilar (1999) as well as Bacha and Bahous (2008) studies are examples of diverging perceptions of needs. Another relavent point to be made is that apart from the learners insufficient metalanguage discussed earlier in this section, learners are often not able to identify their true needs, as is the case often with university students who may not be familiar with the expectations of their future job (Long, 2005). On closely examining the word needs itself, we can notice that it has led to many definitions. Berwick (1989) says that the definition of needs is to be built within the context in which the analysis is carried out, since the conception may vary according to the beliefs of the people involved in the process. Hutchinson & Waters (1984) distinguish needs from wants saying that needs are related to what the learner needs to do with the language in the target situation, i.e. reading reports, doing presentations etc, while wants refer to what the learner wants to know, even if the content proposed is not directly related to the usage of the language in the target situation. Theses needs diverge as the stakeholders will have different views. Therefore, it is important to consider Brindleys (1989: 39) claim that what is finally established as a need is a matter of agreement and judgment not discovery.

A further point to be seriously examined is the different types of needs that exist. This examination is deemed crucial as an ESP/EAP teacher has to make an informed decision

54

as to what kind of needs he/she is seeking to identify in any given educational context so as to adequately prepare material and choose the methodology he/she will use to address these specific needs. When the needs refer to the students academic or future employment requirements, this is a goal-oriented definition of needs (Widdowson, 1981: 2). Berwick (1989: 57) refers to these needs as objectives. Another type of needs refers to what the leaner needs to do to actually acquire the language. This is a process-oriented definition of needs and relates to transitional behavior, the means of learning (Widdowson, 1981: 2). Needs can mean what the userinstitution or society at large regards as necessary or desirable to be learnt from a program of language instruction (Ibid.: 27). One may also refer to the students personal needs; in other words, what students would like to gain from the course. Berwick (1989: 55) notes that such personal needs may be (and often are) devalued [as they are viewed as] wants or desires. Finally, one may interpret needs as lacks, that is, what the students do not know or cannot do in English (Robinson, 1991: 8). In conducting a needs analysis, the ESP/EAP practitioner ought to have a clearly defined notion of needs, and seek the needs that will better assist him/her in making decisions about the course (e.g. syllabus design and material selection). When I look at needs in the context of this thesis, I adopt a goaloriented definition and consider needs in terms of ESP/EAP learners present academic or future employment requirements and try to establish a balance between these two broad ranges of needs. This approach to needs analysis is more pragmatic and realistic within the Greek ESP/EAP context, as large classes cannot cater to, for instance, personal needs

55

or address the process of learning (what the learner needs to do to acquire the language). The importance of combining all the abovementioned types of needs should not be undermined, however, contextual restrictions often dictate how the ESP/EAP teacher will approach a needs analysis. An additional consideration to be made is the fact that a needs analysis is the tool to quantify, as such, the derived needs of the learners in a given educational context. Moreover, it is necessary to keep abreast other considerations when conducting a needs analysis such as social, political, and methodological and thus it is not merely a neutral tool of gathering information on learners. In her work, Basturkmen (2006) raises these issues and draws the readers attention to them. It would be of interest to examine some of these issues that have not already been put forward. One of the issues is the fact that institutional interests have to be catered to, which are often not in line with those of the learner. This may be the case for employees attending an ESP course rather than university students (at least in the Greek context) where the university has no interests to be served. On a more practical level, certain constraints regarding needs analysis may occur in any given ESP context. Firstly, the worth of a needs analysis is questioned when the learner needs that do occur often cannot be met as certain constraints may exist. In the Greek educational context, and perhaps in many similar contexts, the ESP/EAP lecturer is often not provided with ample time (literally last minute assignments of ESP/EAP teachers to courses) for needs analysis, materials searching and development to take place; hence the needs that may have been identified are not met adequately.

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Other practical constraints may include the number of students that are enrolled in an ESP/EAP course, which in my context and those of the ESP/EAP teachers interviewed, well exceeds that of a hundred and fifty. With such large numbers, it is almost impossible to synthesize the divergent needs of the learners. A final practical point to be brought up is that access to books and other ICT aids (computers, internet access, interactive whiteboards) may often be difficult limiting thus the opportunities for teaching that will effectively address these needs. Lastly, methodological issues may come into play with regards to needs analysis. Traditionally, needs analysis often takes the form of questionnaires and surveys, so one could say it has a quantitative element to it. However, more recently other methods of conducting a needs analysis have been favored over the simple quantitative approach. One method involves the use of a task-based needs analysis (cf. Long, 2005; Cowling, 2007) whereby the needs analyst concentrates on actual tasks the learners need at present or in the future in their target situation. Other methods include an ethnographic and qualitative account of needs or the use of triangulation in data analysis (cf. Gilbert, 2005; Long 2005) which may include interviews or observations.20 In summation, what is certain is that needs analysis has brought about the use of tools to measure and establish these needs. This organization and quantification of needs helped ESP move one step away from the margins of the academic world. Having measurable variables gave ESP a more formal status in the academic realm. It ought to be noted that

20

Chapter 7 provides more insight on these methods.

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needs analysis is further discussed in Chapter Seven, where a case is made for its practical and pedagogical implications.

2.8 Concluding Remarks on the Development of ESP

Although the developments of ESP were presented hitherto in a somewhat orderly fashion, Swales (1985) claims that the boundaries between the prehistory and history of ESP are unclear and the beginning of ESPs history was a somewhat arbitrary choice. Undoubtedly, however, one can say in retrospect that this specialized field of English teaching was only the beginning, and signaled a great need to establish a domain which would on the one hand generate teachers with specialist knowledge of the content area, and on the other hand generate teachers with the capacity to use special methodological approaches in teaching their ESP/EAP learners. Overall, one can see much truth in what Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 58) state: [looking at the development of ESP] involves looking closely at the interaction between Applied Linguistics, ELT and ESP, the relationship between theory and practice in ESP, and the teaching materials that have been developed [ESP had also been influenced] by developments in education, business and computer technology. ESP has become a strong trend in L2 teaching today. It is considered an entity of its own, and as such it has attracted much attention which has helped raise its profile within the EFL field and beyond as specialized language practitioners are now heavily involved in this field and contribute to the proliferation of ESP into a field of scientific inquiry.

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2.9 Key Notions and Types of ESP

In this section, the various types of ESP will be considered so as to give a more global understanding of the boundaries that encompass ESP as there is a considerable amount of analytical detail that delineates its entire spectrum. The mapping of the ESP domain will help in understanding the otherwise complex terrain of ESP and what it entails. A general description of ESP is first made and then the ESP courses referred to in this study are placed in a category within the prescribed continuum referred to below.

2.9.1 Types of ESP

The first classification to be considered is that of Carver (1983) who identifies three types of ESP. The first type is English as a restricted language. The second type of ESP is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes, and the final type is English for Specific Topics. With regards to English as a restricted language, examples include the language used by air traffic controllers or by waiters. Mackay and Mountford (1978: 4-5) clearly illustrate the difference between the use of restricted language and that of general language use with this statement: the language of international air-traffic control could be regarded as 'special', in the sense that the repertoire required by the controller is strictly limited and can be accurately determined situationally, as might be the linguistic needs of a dining-room waiter or air-hostess. However, such restricted repertoires are not languages, just as a tourist phrase book is not grammar. Knowing a restricted 'language' would not allow the speaker to communicate effectively in novel situations, or in contexts outside the vocational environment. As mentioned, the second type of ESP identified by Carver (1983) is English for Academic and Occupational Purposes. In the 'Tree of ELT' (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987), ESP is broken down into three branches: a) English for Science and Technology (EST);
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b) English for Business and Economics (EBE); and c) English for Social Studies (ESS). Each of these subject areas is further divided into two branches: English for Academic Purposes (EAP) and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP). An example of EOP for the EST branch is 'English for Technicians' whereas an example of EAP for the EST branch is 'English for Medical Studies'. Hutchinson and Waters (1987: 16) do note that there is not a clear-cut distinction between EAP and EOP: "People can work and study simultaneously; it is also likely that in many cases the language learnt for immediate use in a study environment will be used later when the student takes up, or returns to, a job". This may explain Carver's rationale for categorizing EAP and EOP under the same type of ESP. It appears that he is implying that the end purpose of both EAP and EOP is common: employment. However, despite the end purpose of EAP and EOP being identical (i.e. employment), according to Carver, the approach taken to achieve the end is very different indeed, which I believe lends further support to the fact that although EAP and EOP may share some common elements, they do differ. Their main difference stems from the fact that their degree of specificity is different. With regards to EAP, the emphasis is placed on building more general academic skills in the target language (e.g. developing academic writing skills, enhancing reading comprehension on subject-specific topics, etc). An EOP course, on the other hand, places more weight on developing specific language and discourse necessary to tackle job-related tasks (e.g. English for nurses or engineers). Referring to the third and final type of ESP, English with specific topics, Carver (1983) posits that it is here where there is an emphasis on shift from purpose to topic. Gatehouse

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(2001: 5) similarly supports Carvers view by commenting that this type of ESP is uniquely concerned with anticipated future English needs of, for example, scientists requiring English for postgraduate reading studies, attending conferences or working in foreign institutions. To these needs, I may add the need to develop language for socializing both in peoples personal life, but also in their professional settings (i.e. socializing at work or engaging in small talk, for example, with other delegates at a conference).

2.9.2 Characteristics of ESP Courses

In this section, I will explore the determining characteristics of ESP courses. Some of these characteristics, as identified by Carver (1983) and Dudley-Evans & St John. (1998), are discussed here to create the theoretical underpinning and also to form a basis to compare with the Greek context, which will be used in Chapter Seven so as to make a case for the practical and pedagogical implications put forward in the aforementioned chapter. Carver (1983) states that there are three features common to ESP courses: a) authentic material; b) purpose-related orientation; and c) self-direction. Firstly, depending on the level of the ESP course, use of authentic learning materials should be encouraged as authenticity is the link between the class and the real world. To this end, Arnold (1991: 237) argues that the more authentically the classroom mirrors the real world, the more real the rehearsal will be and the better the learning and transfer will be. The key, however, lies in how to use authentic materials correctly in class (see also Chapter 7) since the use of authentic materials related to the students target situation does not necessarily warrant the acquisition of the competence that this context demands (Hutchinson & Waters, 1984). Secondly, purpose-related orientation refers to the
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simulation of communicative tasks required of the target setting. Carter (1983) suggests student simulation of a conference, involving the preparation of papers, reading, notetaking, and writing. Finally, self-direction is a characteristic of ESP courses as ESP is concerned with turning learners into users" (Carver, 1983: 134). In order for selfdirection to occur, the learners must have a certain degree of freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. Carver (1983) also adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn. This learning process involves teaching students about language learning strategies and how to use them in facilitating their learning (See Chapter 4 on language learning strategies).

Although the general consensus is that there is a sense of fluidity encompassing the various types of ESP, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 8-9) provide an analytical continuum (Table 1) that runs from clearly definable General English Courses on the one end of the spectrum to ESP located on the other side of the spectrum. Therefore, the courses that fall under the first three categories are roughly those of English for General Purposes (EGP). However, ESP courses run by tertiary-level institutions in Greece would fit somewhere between positions 4 and 5 (see Table 1below). Classification 4 is used to describe courses for broad disciplinary or professional areas for example Medical English or Legal English. The language teaching approach at position 4 is very specific in terms of the skills taught, but the groups themselves are not homogeneous groups from one discipline or profession (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998: 8). Consequently, specific skills and contexts used to teach them are not very specific and may not cater to every individuals needs. It is only at position 5 where the course can be geared towards the

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specific needs of the target situation and the individuals concerned. Those familiar with the Greek context of ESP/EAP would agree that the ESP/EAP teaching situations in universities in Greece do not conform to the other basic criteria set by Category 5 where teaching is flexible and tailored to individual or group needs as they arise. Instead, Greek university ESP/EAP courses contain elements from positions 4 in that these courses are often for broad disciplinary or professional areas. Continuum of ELT course types General
Position 1 English for beginners Position 2 Intermediate to advanced EGP courses with a focus on particular skills Position 3 EGAP/EGBP courses based on common-core language and skills not related to specific disciplines or professions Position 4 Courses for broad disciplinary or professional areas, for example Report Writing for Scientists and Engineers, Medical English, Legal English, Negotiation/Meeting Skills for Business People

Specific
Position 5 1) An academic support course related to a particular academic course. 2) One-to-one work with business people

Table 1 Continuum of ELT course types

A more narrow classification of the course would include categorizing the course as English for Academic Purposes (EAP) which further leads to the English for Specific Academic Purposes (ESAP the teaching of a specific set of skills and development of specific language competencies in connection to one discipline) or to the English for General Academic Purposes (EGAP the teaching of a more general set of skills and development of general language competencies applicable to a wide range of disciplines such as teaching the principles of technical writing for engineering and sciences) dichotomy (see Figure 1). According to Gillett and Wray (2006), EAP is a practical

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branch of ELT in which the EAP tutor aims to find out what the non-native students require with reference to the English language, what they have to do in their academic courses and help them to do this as well as possible in the allotted timeframe. It could be claimed that EAP accounts for a considerable part of the ESP activity the world over as it has been said that it is a mainstream current rather than a peripheral flow in the sense that it is not an isolated or minor activity within the realm of ESP, but rather it comprises a significant part of it.

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ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP)

ENGLISH FOR OCCUPATIONAL PURPOSES (EOP)

ENGLISH FOR ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EAP)

ENGLISH FOR PROFESSIONAL PURPOSES (EPP) ENGLISH FOR VOCATIONAL PURPOSES (EVP) ENGLISH FOR GENERAL ACADEMIC PURPOSES (EGAP) ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC ACADEMIC PURPOSES (ESAP)

Figure 1 Branches of ESP

The ESP courses in Greek tertiary-level institutions could again be placed somewhere in between ESAP and EGAP, which is also the case of the courses considered for the research of this thesis. The former course type focuses more on the actual tasks students have to carry out, for example, a working environment, whereas the latter focuses on more general contexts, for example, teaching students how to write a research paper. Widdowson (1983) sees EGAP as education (the development of a general capacity to cope with various needs and not necessarily occupation-specific needs) and ESAP as training (development of specific skills which are immediately applicable to a working situation). Nevertheless, this researcher partially assents to Dudley-Evans & St John (1998) who disagree with this classification and see ESAP as being training as well as education and vice versa. More specifically, both education and training in the context of

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ESAP are facets of learning. With regards to ESAP as being a form of training, it is implied that the aim is to teach a specific language repertoire and skills that will be used for a particular purpose. In order for this purpose to be met, predetermined language and skills, according to the needs specified, are set. ESAP is also considered education as it is concerned with developing the overall language skills and enhancing ones intellect and mind. My stance towards ESAP education and training is that education should precede training and not vice versa as stated by Dudley-Evans & St John (1998). I would argue that education is an ongoing process and could be seen as a superordinate and as such training takes place under education. Simply training the learner in ESAP may provide him/her with some basic skills, but will not give him/her a deeper understanding of the discourse and language at hand. In any case, the ESP/EAP teacher, as Sifakis (2004: 26) contends, should see themselves primarily as educators [] and not merely as trainers, which bears important implications (discussed extensively in Chapter 7) for the role (see section 2.10 below) of the ESP/EAP teacher.

2.10 The ESP Practitioner

Having addressed the characteristics and types of ESP/EAP, it is important to examine the profile of the ESP/EAP practitioner and the role he/she plays in ESP/EAP teaching. It is apparent that the leading roles in any learning environment are played by the learner and the teacher who share a responsibility regarding the outcome of learning, which is a substantial principle of a learner-centered approach (Tudor, 1996). Cohen (1998: 51)

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refers to this shift and notes that: One potentially beneficial shift in teacher roles is from that of being exclusively the manager, controller and instructor to that of being a change agent a facilitator of learning, whose role is to help their students to become more independent and more responsible for their own learning. In these roles the teacher becomes partners in the learning process. By the same token, in ESP/EAP both the instructor21 and the learner play the central roles without neglecting the importance of other constituents such as administrators, institutions and curriculum developers which naturally form the ESP/EAP milieu. Ideally, negotiations among all the parties in question must be carried out and consensus reached and the common denominator should be the student at all times. Traditionally, this is termed a learner-centered approach. A learner-centered approach implies that the learner is the main focus of the learning process. The aim of such an approach, in the context of ESP/EAP, is for the teacher to allow the learner to play a fuller more active role in his/her study. Tudor (1996) notes that this enhanced involvement of learners in their language study should be encouraged steadily and is an on going process, which puts emphasis on the teachers role as he/she sets the scene within which teaching and learning take place. Figuratively put, he/she is an orchestrator of learning and as such has the leading role to play in facilitating learning. In other words, he/she tries to create those conditions (explored later in this chapter section 2.10.1.1) that will help the student more effectively learn. Foreign language education, and all education for that matter, must undoubtedly have the learner as its focal point. For instance, learner participation in the learning process is important, but the decision, depending on the teachers teaching and learning philosophy, to provide students opportunities to participate actively in this

21

It is noted that the terms ESP/EAP teacher, instructor, tutor, lecturer and practitioner are used interchangeably throughout this thesis. 67

process is made by the language teacher, thus an emphasis on the teacher does by no means undermine a student-centered approach; on the contrary, it reinforces it.

The notion of empowerment associated with the ESP/EAP teacher is another significant issue discussed in this chapter and its implications are further discussed in Chapter Seven. In the view of Sifakis (2009), practitioner empowerment is not something commonly associated with teaching ESP/EAP. This lack of empowerment often felt by ESP/EAP practitioners (also confirmed by the teacher participants of this study) does take its toll as the professional self-esteem of these instructors is often affected. The notion of empowerment may appear quite contradictory in the Greek ESP/EAP context. The ESP/EAP teachers usually have the flexibility to design their syllabus, select material and employ a methodology that best serves their purpose so by definition power or authority has been assigned to them, since they are the sole decision-makers of the aforementioned aspects. However, Sifakis (2009: 471) says characteristically that the teacher is helpless and frequently does not know what to do with this [power and authority]. ESP/EAP teachers are usually not provided with sufficient time to prepare their course as they may switch from one department to another at short notice every semester depending on their institutions needs. This lack of preparation time, in conjunction with the lack of formal training that many teachers have in ESP/EAP, creates a situation where power and authority do not actually exist.

The lack of empowerment is also brought about with the advent of technology and its application to ESP/EAP teaching. As is seen in Chapter Seven, the use of information and

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communications technology can play a critical role in improving teaching and enhancing learners motivation. Many ESP/EAP teachers feel unconfident (Sifakis, 2009) to integrate educational technology into their teaching practice rendering them powerless to tackle the current demands and trends of education that requires the use of even the simplest forms of technology in the classroom (i.e. the use of PowerPoint to lecture).

2.10.1 The Roles of the ESP/EAP Practitioner

In examining the role of the ESP/EAP practitioner, Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles. These roles are primarily: a) Teacher (the person who actually delivers the lesson and concentrates on the methodology to be employed); b) Course Designer and materials provider (the person who systematically designs the course and chooses and/or constructs the material to be used during teaching)22; c) Collaborator (the person who needs to collaborate with the students, content experts, administrators etc for a more effective outcome); d) Researcher (the person who looks into the content to be taught and who explores various possibilities to maximize his efficiency e.g. conducts a case study to investigate an aspect that he/she considers significant; and e) Evaluator (the person who evaluates and assess the course the syllabus and the students). Some of these roles were sought after in addressing some structured questions during the interview with the ESP/EAP instructors and students (see Chapters 5-6). The roles will be further explored when looking at the practical and pedagogical implications (see Chapter 7) they have on the teaching of ESP/EAP in the Greek tertiary education context.
Given that ESP/EAP is an approach and not a subject to be taught, syllabus materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed and others designed specially to meet the needs of ones target group. Resources may include authentic materials, general EFL materials, ESP/EAP materials, and teachergenerated materials.
22

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In summation, Bruntons (2009) diagram (

Figure 2) below, which gives the analogy of ESP to that of a juggling act, clearly and comprehensively illustrates that the designing and implementation of a successful ESP program is a very complex task. The diagram shows all the challenges that need to be taken into account before and during the teaching of such a course. These challenges incorporate the learner, the instructor, and other stakeholders. Through a needs analysis the learners language level is assessed and their wants, goals and desired outcomes are identified. The ESP/EAP teacher needs to make decisions regarding the focus of the course as being broad (covering a wide range of objectives and material) or narrow (having a very specific focus) in addition to selecting and incorporating effective assessment and evaluation tools in his/her course. Moreover, the ESP/EAP teacher is faced with the arduous task of making decisions connected to common core language and skills that will be addressed. In other words, which conventions and communication skills will be followed by all disciplines. Finally, objective constraints such as available time and money are addressed. Brunton (2009: 9) characteristically mentions that [ESP] is a juggling act with the ESP practitioner forced to make several choices along the way from start to finish of their act. There are so many variables to contend with it is not surprising that ESP courses can end up being very different from the original perceived design.

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Target Situations Wants Learners Broad Or Narrow Focus Stakeholders Outcomes & Goals Common Core

Needs Analysis

Empowerment Syllabus Materials Textbooks Course Design Negotiated Curriculum Assessment & Evaluation

Time & Money Instructors

Methodology

Figure 2 ESP as a Juggling Act. (Source: Brunton, 2009)

All these variables, therefore, create a plethora of challenges that the ESP/EAP teacher has to surmount almost simultaneously. Apart from these challenges, the ESP/EAP teacher needs to bear in mind that ESP/EAP mostly involves the teaching of adults, which in itself poses new challenges as the teaching of adults is quite distinct from teaching young learners (e.g. primary school). The sections that follow address the issue of adult education by providing an orientation to this field and looking at ESP/EAP in the light of adult education.

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2.11 Adult Education

So far, I have addressed the ESP/EAP domain in terms of definitional considerations and have provided an overall orientation of the ESP/EAP framework. The focus has been the ESP/EAP practitioner and his/her crucial role in creating an atmosphere conducive to effective learning. The focus of this section now switches to the learner, who has the leading role in any educational context. When one refers to the teaching of ESP/EAP he/she often neglects the fact that it mainly concerns adult learners. In other words, teaching ESP/EAP is teaching adults, as the vast majority of these courses are designed for tertiary-level students23 or pre-experience/experienced professionals. Therefore, by definition, ESP/EAP practitioners are teachers of adults, hence adult education does not fall outside the periphery of ESP. Sifakis (2003: 202) characteristically posits that ESP is a story about grown-ups, which means that it is a predominantly adult-focused approach. It becomes apparent that the framework within which ESP/EAP practitioners teach differs compared to that of a general EFL teacher who most often teaches school-age students and thus a specific set of characteristics that identify the ESP/EAP learner within the general adult learning framework arises. This framework comprises the characteristics specific to adult learners and the adulthood-oriented ESP curriculum, which fall under a two-tier construct: ESP and Adult Education (AE)24 (Sifakis, 2000). In essence, and for the remaining of this chapter, I will look at the profile of the adult ESP/EAP learner with particular attention drawn on his/her characteristics so as to create
23

ESP may also be taught to students of upper secondary technical/vocation schools. This group of learners will not be addressed as it is beyond the scope and breadth of this thesis. 24 One should not misinterpret the term Adult Education to mean Continuing Education. Continuing Education, albeit changing its original meaning since its emergence in the 1960s, has come to mean education which is planned for adults who are returning to the formal educational system of schools and colleges (Davies, 1995). 72

a theoretical basis to go by when looking at the implications the theoretical construct of AE may have on ESP/EAP learning, teaching, and curriculum design (discussed in Chapter 7).

2.12 Orientating the field of Adult Education

As stated, an inherent trait in ESP is AE. AE, for the purposes of this thesis, refers to the teaching of a particular course, i.e. ESP/EAP, to adult students taught in a formal setting25. This clarification is made so it is not confused with a modified piece of labeling. At this point, it is of value to define and delineate the terms adult and adult education to create a conceptual framework that will underpin the arguments presented below. First, let us see what is meant by the term adult. A seemingly straightforward term like adult has evoked a plethora of analyses and controversy. In any case, in terms of age, an adult is a person who is at the statutory age of 18 and above, which is the age when most students enter tertiary-level education. This definition sees adult as a stage in an individuals life cycle. Other notional constructs of adult are based on status in the sense that an individual is more fully integrated into the community. The definition of adult is also connected to the term adulthood which further includes a set of ideals and values. A. Rogers (2002: 41-42) states that the specific cultural construct of adulthood are: maturity, perspective and autonomy. Sifakis (2008) sees adulthood on a continuum within which a learners profile can be drawn as the various features of ideals, values,

25

According to A. Rogers (1996), a formal educational setting refers to courses and classes run by schools, colleges and universities and other statutory and non-statutory agencies making up the educational system. This sector of adult education, that is universities, is what this thesis specifically addresses. Formal educational settings are contrasted with extra-formal and non-formal settings. The former sector refers to courses and classes which are not run by the agencies of the educational system. The latter sector includes educational activities provided by voluntary agencies and informal groups. Naturally, there may be some overlap among these sectors. 73

perspective, maturity and autonomy are in constant development. As I see it, taking these characteristics into account creates implications for the designing and implementation of the ESP/EAP course as they are characteristics that carry profound weight and have implications when trying to establish the courses aims as well as curriculum design.

Moving on to AE, one could notice that it is a term that has been defined in many ways (OECD 1977, UNESCO 1975a:4, UNESCO 1976, NIACE 1970:10). The broadest of all the definitions is perhaps that of the National Institute of Adult Education, England and Wales (Cited in A. Rogers, 1996: 31). They define adult education as: any kind of education for people who are old enough to work, vote, fight and marry and who have completed the cycle of continuous education commenced in childhoodthey may not even go to classes; they may find what they want from books or broadcasts or take guidance by post from a tutor they may never meet For the purposes of this thesis and within an ESP/EAP context, I favor the term adulthood as it includes the aforementioned characteristics and mainly the following: there is an age reference (18 and above); there is a perspective and he/she is able to make judgments about decisions regarding his/her learning; he/she is an individual who seeks autonomy, is motivated to learn and has a certain degree of involvement in his/her ESP/EAP learning (see Chapters 3 and 7 for a further exploration of the concepts of learner motivation and autonomy). Therefore, the term adulthood is preferred over the term adult in this thesis as it has a broader scope since it is not limited to the confines of age, status etc.

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2.13 ESP/EAP and AE

There has been a lot of discussion in the field of adult education since the 1970s when Knowles introduced his new concept that school-age learners and adult learners do not learn in the same way as there are significant, identifiable differences between them. Primarily, the differences, according to Knowles, lie in the fact that an adult learner is more self-directing, is internally motivated (intrinsic motivation) and usually has a richer repertoire of experiences. Subsequently, Knowles et al. (2005) introduced six core principles of adult learners that are requisites to effective learning. Although these principles concern general adult education, I have adopted them and used them in connection to the framework of ESP/EAP and have presented some practical implications for ESP/EAP teaching/learning in Chapter Seven. Knowles et al. (2005) adapted principles are stated below:

1. The need to know. Adult learners need to know the reason they are learning and the benefits of learning before the learning process is activated.

2. The learners self-concept. Adults have the need to be looked upon as being responsible and capable of self-direction. Becoming an adult means that one is moving from dependency to self-directness.

3. The role of the learners experience. Adults come to class with accumulated previous knowledge and a multitude of experiences to draw upon.

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4. Readiness to learn. Another characteristic of adult learners is that they usually decide to start learning on their own accord and when they feel the need to improve skills or qualifications or to acquire new knowledge to be able to cope more effectively with real life situations.

5. Orientation to learning. Adult learners are task-centered or problem-focused. The adult has a need to see the applications of what he/she is learning in real-life situations.

6. Motivation. As seen in Chapter 3, adults may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Both types of motivation are detrimental to the learning process.

In light of the educational profile of an adult sketched above, it should be noted that he/she is not bound by all the aforementioned characteristics since the cultural and social milieu of each person as well as various personality traits determine to what extent these characteristics apply to each adult learner. These determinants are not static since each person evolves over time as he/she gathers experiences.

2.14 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

Chapter Two provided an overview of ESP so as to delineate the framework within which this thesis lies and set the basis for pedagogical and practical implications to emerge and subsequently discuss in Chapter Seven. More specifically, it defined ESP before proceeding to an exploration of its various developments from its origins to its current state. The ESP/EAP situation in the Greek tertiary-level educational context was looked into. Moreover, key notions and types of ESP were discussed. Also the characteristics
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pertaining to ESP courses and the role of the ESP practitioner were explored. The last part of this chapter has been dedicated to the learner, the essential unit of this study. It discusses adult learners within the general context of adult education, which is an integral part of ESP/EAP teaching. In summation, when teaching adults, one must bear in mind that they are developed psychosocially and cognitively, have developed critical thinking abilities, and are usually autonomous learners. Adults choices regarding education are usually voluntary and thus are expected to take their studies seriously and want to be taken seriously. These points regarding adult learners are, for the most part, applicable to the students who make up the ESP/EAP student body at tertiary-level education. Overall, ESP/EAP is a multifaceted area of language teaching and often struggles to find its place on the EFL continuum. It is true that many general principles of EFL apply to ESP; nonetheless, ESP/EAP has strictly defined parameters that make it quite distinct. Likewise, the ESP/EAP practitioner has a very challenging task to perform in relation to other EFL practitioners in that he/she has to be flexible with content knowledge (teaches ESP/EAP courses to a variety of disciplines), often has to design the course before implementing it and at times in a very hasty way due to time restrictions. An ESP/EAP teacher needs to be reflective in his/her teaching approach and at the same time cater to the inner needs of his/her students who, as adults, often have fixed approaches to learning (fossilized learning strategies) and are more self-conscious about their learning. Finally, the ESP/EAP teacher has to bear in mind the core principles of adult learners raised in this chapter when teaching this particular target group

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The other two important components of ESP/EAP learning and teaching that were not explored in any great length so far are those of affectivity/language anxiety and language learning strategies. In the following chapter (Chapter 3) the notion of affectivity with an emphasis on language learning anxiety is investigated followed by Chapter Four which elaborates on language learning strategies.

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Chapter 3 Anxiety and other Affective Factors

3.0 Introduction
As seen in the previous chapter (Chapter 2), ESP/EAP courses are predominantly designed for adult learners. All learners, including adult ESP/EAP learners learning processes, are influenced by emotional factors and the affective domain. This chapter defines affectivity and explores its role in language learning, particularly in an ESP/EAP context. To this end, Chapter Three provides a broader context of affective variables and considers some basic ones such as motivation, self-esteem and inhibition, as seen in Chapter One. Furthermore, anxiety in particular, as one of the main components of this thesis, is discussed extensively. In particular, the origins and the antecedents of anxiety, the different anxiety types that exist, and how anxiety manifests itself as well as the effects it has on different aspects of the language learning process are examined.

The importance of affect in EFL teaching has been made explicit through numerous references to it when the humanistic approach to language teaching first emerged in the early 1970s. Terms such as confluent (see Section 1.1), personal, affective, facilitative, psychological, futuristic, and humanistic education were often used as a signifier of some EFL academics and practitioners towards a humanistic approach. All these varieties are based on movements in psychotherapy, such as values clarification and sensitivity training, in which the affective development of the individual is the first concern (Hadley, 2001: 123). Throughout the literature, one can find a plethora of studies (Scovel, 1978; Underhill, 1989; Strevick, 1990; Schumann 1997; Arnold, 1998) and various
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accounts made to the paramount role affective factors play in the learning of a foreign language. According to these studies, the affective side of the learner is probably one of the biggest influences on language learning success or failure (Oxford 1996). Apart from motivation, self-esteem and inhibition, which have been dealt with extensively in the literature and their significance to L2 learning has been documented, foreign language anxiety, in particular, has also been deemed important due to its effects on L2 learning.

3.1 Affect: definitions

Affect has been defined in various ways. The term affect has been used extensively in the older psychological literature instead of feeling or emotion. A narrow definition of affect is the one provided by Stern (1983: 383) to include three elements: attitudes, motivation and personality. However, Oatley & Jenkins (1996: 124) have offered a much broader definition of affect to imply an even wider range of phenomena that have anything to do with emotions, moods, dispositions, and preferences. Along these lines is Stevicks (1999: 55) definition: [O]ne's 'affect' towards a particular thing or action or situation or experience is how that thing or that action or that situation or that experience fits in with one's needs or purposes, and its resulting effect on one's emotions [...] affect is a term that refers to the purposive and emotional sides of a person's reactions to what is going on. Finally, Arnold (1999) defines affect in terms of aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude. We can discern that the definition of affect has broadened since Sterns (1983) account to include beliefs, anxiety, learning styles (personality) and the learning environment.

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3.2 The Role of Affectivity26 in Language Learning

A general belief in education is that good language learners are often those who know how to control their emotions and attitudes about learning (Naiman, Frohlich & Todesco, 1975; Wenden 1986b). In talking about the humanistic/psychological or whole engagement approach, Roberts (1982) supports the view that affective and cognitive aspects of language learning are equally important and thus the language learner should be treated as a whole person and not as a linguistic object. Additionally, she claims language learning problems may result from psychology (issues with feelings related to foreign language learning) rather than linguistics (issues related to the foreign language itself). One of the prevalent figures in the area of L2, Stephen Krashen (1981 & 1985), exerted influence with his theory of language acquisition, which he formulated and called The Monitor Model. Krashen claims that a low affective filter is necessary for acquisition to take place. The affective filter is a mental block, caused by affective factors: high anxiety, low self-esteem, low motivation. Within the premises of Krashens (1981) Monitor Model lies the affective filter hypothesis which maintains that the learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input necessary to language acquisition. Therefore, language acquisition takes place when affective conditions are optimal. Conscious learning operates only as a monitor that checks and when necessary repairs the output of what has been acquired. The application of this model in language teaching is intended to create low anxiety, a good degree of self-image, enhance

26

It is noted that the terms affect affective and affectivity are used interchangeably. 81

motivation and increase self-confidence on the part of the student. When these criteria are met, the language learning process is much more effective. Furthermore, it is attested in the literature that negative feelings can stunt progress, even for the rare learner who may fully understand all the technical aspects of how to learn a new language. On the other hand, positive emotions and attitudes can make language learning far more effective and enjoyable as argued by Kimura (1999). The interest in affective variables in language learning is reflected in some teaching stances aimed at reducing anxiety and inhibitions and enhancing the learner's motivation and self-esteem. The field of humanistic education embraces these approaches. In her book, Caring and Sharing in the Foreign Language Classroom, Gertrude Moskovitz (1978), as cited in Stevick (1996: 24-25), states that: Humanistic education is related to a concern for personal development, self-acceptance, and acceptance by others, in other words making students be more human. Humanistic education takes into consideration that learning is affected by how students feel about themselves. It is concerned with educating the whole person the intellectual and the emotional dimensions. Examples of these innovative humanistic approaches to language teaching are: Curran's Community Language Learning (Curran, 1976); Gattegno's Silent Way (Gattegno, 1972); and Lozanov's Suggestopedia (1979)27.

Learning involves more than just cognitive processing. In the early 1960s, Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia (1964) offered a comprehensive definition of two domains of learning: the cognitive and the affective. Brown (1994: 135) defined the affective domain as the
27

For more information on these teaching methods see Appendix 3. 82

emotional side of human behavior. By analogy the cognitive domain could be defined as the mental side of human behavior (Andres, 2003, online). Although these seemingly clear-cut definitions might suggest a division between cognition and affection, one ought to see them in association with each other and not just as independent processes. The importance of the emotional factor is easily seen if we consider the relationship between the cognitive and affective aspects of the learner. One of the main principles of cognitive theory is that learners learn best when they actively think about what they are learning. Yet, this cognitive factor presupposes the affective factor of motivation, for example. The emotional reaction to the learning experience is the essential foundation for the initiation of the cognitive process. How the learning is perceived by the learner will affect what learning takes place (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). Therefore, there is a cognitive/affective interplay.

The way I see this interplay between cognition and affect is shown in the following diagram (Figure 3). As the diagram illustrates, a learner may respond to his language learning by using one of the two systems independently either cognitive or affective- or in tandem. For example, a learner may respond to a situation/task in the ESP/EAP lesson by showing uneasiness or apprehension (affective system) without proceeding to interpret it through the cognitive system, or he/she may respond to the stimulus (i.e. a feeling of apprehension or uneasiness) by interpreting these emotions (e.g. I know why I feel this way) and making a decision as to how to deal with them.

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Language Learning Environment

Cognitive system (responses: understanding, knowledge, planning, deciding, thinking)

Affective system (responses: emotions, mood, feelings)

Figure 3 Relationship between a learners cognitive and affective system. (Source: original)

By implication, this interplay has also been argued by Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009) when she talks about cognitive and affective language learning strategies (the tools employed by learners to deal with cognition and affect respectively). The connection lies in the fact that affective strategies are in the interface between cognitive and metacognitve strategies (see Chapter 4). In addition, Stern (1983: 386) claims that the affective component contributes at least as much and often more to language learning than the cognitive skills. I consider Sterns statement not to be exaggerated since it has been subsequently supported by a large body of recent cross-disciplinary research showing that the role of affective variables is paramount in language achievement and out of this emphasis on affectivity grew an entire philosophy regarding second/foreign language teaching (cf. Gattegno, 1972; Curran, 1976; Lozanov's 1979; Kimura, 2000; Andres, 2003).

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This shift in the philosophy of language education brought about quite innovative for their time- teaching approaches or methodologies of foreign language teaching or designer methods, as Nunan (1989: 97) characteristically referred to them as they capitalized on the perceived importance of not only cognitive but also affective factors. As seen above, some of these methods include: Currans Community Language Learning, Gattegnos Silent Way and Lozanovs Suggestopedia (for more on these methods refer to appendix 3). Despite the fact that all these methodologies incurred a significant amount of criticism regarding the lack of use of authentic and culturally based materials, and an apparent lack of structure and so forth, their development shows a conscious concern for the affective development of the individual. In addition, these methodologies strived to provide meaningful instruction that respond not only to the learners academic and cognitive needs, but also their emotional and affective.

Admittedly, there is mounting interest in the affective domain, despite the prevailing belief that the cognitive domain must be the one catered to in language education. In his work, Goleman (1995) notes that Western civilization has overemphasized the importance of the rational function of the mind to the detriment of the non-rational function: intuition, emotions, feelings. Goleman espouses Carl Rogers (1983) viewpoint who has stated that the extreme attention paid to the cognitive side has led us to limit ourselves, thus education becomes a futile attempt to learn material that has no personal meaning. Such learning involves the mind only; it is learning that takes place from the neck up. It does not involve feeling or personal meanings; it has no relevance for the whole person (C. Rogers, 1983: 19).

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Similarly, other researchers and scholars in the area of foreign/second language education (Scovel, 1978; Shumman, 1975, 1998; Krashen, 1985; and MacIntyre and Gardner. 1991, 1992, & 1994) have stressed the innate value of affect and have dealt with affective variables and their role in the aforementioned areas. All the research has shown that affective factors have an impact on the language students.

As it is widely claimed, learning and teaching should be aimed at establishing meaningful communication in the classroom, and the first requirement towards this end is an affective affirmation of the student (Kimura, 2000). Andres (2003) makes it clear that if students are to develop their inherent potential to learn, the affective variables such as anxiety, motivation, self-esteem and inhibition can no longer be denied and the inner needs of the learners can no longer be neglected.

With the shift of more traditional educational approaches, especially in language teaching, towards the direction of a humanistic approach, more emphasis was geared towards the student as a human being and not as an entity or a tank waiting to be filled with knowledge by language teachers. This change in direction gave language teachers yet another task "that of an orchestra conductor, who tends to fly into higher spheres, and has a tendency to fly and pull himself and the others above every days problems towards a more creative reality" (Papaconstantinou, 1991: 65).

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3.3 Affective Factors

To provide an organizational and conceptual framework of affect, the sections that follow will focus on a few individual affective factors and not the entire breadth of affectivity which involves, on the one hand, the perspective which is concerned with the language learner as an individual and, on the other, that which focuses on the learner as a participant in the socio-cultural situation (Arnold & Brown, 1999). Hence, the emphasis will be primarily on motivation, self-esteem, and inhibition before moving onto language learning anxiety so as to allow for a thorough analysis of these affective variables that, in turn, will be seen in light of affective language learning strategies (see Chapter 4). It should be noted that these abovementioned affective variable are considered, among others, as potential predictors of FLA (Cheng, 2002; MacIntyre, 2002; Drnyei, 2005), although with regard to motivation, its functiaonal relationhip with language anxiety has not been entirely understood (MacIntyre, 2002; Drnyei, 2005). Moreover, with regards to inhibition and self-esteem, H. D. Brown, (1973) supported the notion that the construct of anxiety was intricately intertwined with the aforementioned affective factors. This choice does not imply that other individual factors (extroversion-introversion, learning styles) or relational factors (empathy, cultural processes) are of less value. On the contrary, these individual and relational factors play a role in language learning and a large body of literature has dealt with them extensively. The more detailed reference to motivation, self-esteem, and inhibition is mainly due to this thesis limitations in scope and breadth.

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3.3.1 Motivation
The first affective variable to consider is motivation. Some empirical studies (cf. Ehrman, 1996; Liu & Hu, 2009) have confirmed that motivation has a direct effect on anxiety, even though studies on language anxiety and motivation simultaneously in a language learning context seem to be relatively scant so far (Liu & Huang, 2011). Despite the fact that the correlation between motivation and FLA is unclear, research has shown that there is a negative correlation between these two variables (Gardner & MacIntyre, 1993b). Therefore, these findings suggest that the more FLA a learner has the less motivated he tends to be. On the contrary, scholars such as Horwitz (1996) and Jackson (2002) acknowledge that it is often the case that highly motivated learners are those who exhibit high levels of FLA perhaps due to their desire to excel. In any case, research seems to suggest that there is a reciprocal relation between motivation and FLA. In summation, both motivation and anxiety contribute to language learning outcomes, as they are closely related to each other in second and foreign language learning. Consequently, it is deemed important to take a closer look at motivation as an affective variable.

Although the importance of motivation is widely recognized, its meaning is elusive. Motivation has been defined in various ways. Broadly speaking, it could be seen as an inner drive, impulse emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action (Brown, 1994: 152). Keller (1983) defined motivation in more technical terms by saying [motivation has to do with] the choices people make as to what experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the degree of effort they will exert in that respect. Yet another definition is offered by Drnyei (1998: 119) who sees motivation as a process

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whereby a certain amount of instigation force arises, initiated action, and persists as long as no other force comes into play to weaken it and thereby terminate action, or until the planned outcome has been reached. Some psychologists, nevertheless, define motivation in terms of needs or drives. In his famous Pyramid of Needs, Maslow (1970) presented his theory of motivation as a hierarchy of needs, which stem from basic physiological needs (air, food, shelter) to higher needs of safety, belonging, self-esteem, and the need for self-actualization. Maslow posed that the last need placed at the top of his Pyramid can only be achieved if all other needs are met.

Gardner (1985) postulates that the motivated individual is one who sets and wants to achieve a specific goal, devotes considerable effort in his/her attempt to achieve this goal, and gains great satisfaction through the process of and as a result of achieving this goal. Therefore, and as Gardner argues, motivation is defined by three components: desire to achieve a goal, effort geared towards this direction, and satisfaction with the task. Although these attributes are naturally often correlated, there are cases when they are not. An example of such a lack of correlation is when a student shows considerable effort due to classroom circumstances (e.g. a strict teacher) but does not necessarily have any desire to learn or get any satisfaction from this outcome.

In summation, trying to conceptualize the notion of motivation within limited confines is not easy as the above definitions clearly demonstrate that the concept of motivation is complicated and thus difficult to conceptualize. Manolopoulou-Sergi (2004) attributes

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this complexity to two main reasons: the first being that motivation has been defined in numerous ways and the second one that there is a plethora of motivation theories.

Motivation and its implications on the ESP/EAP student in the Greek tertiary context are discussed in Chapter Seven. Hence, apart from considering definitions, providing a theoretical scaffolding is deemed necessary. To begin with, numerous studies have shown that motivation is an essential ingredient to learning (cf. Crookes and Schmidt, 1991; Drnyei, 1994, 2001; Gardner, 2001; Cohen & Drnyei, 2002; Usioda, 2003). Many researchers and language practitioners would agree that motivation is a very important if not the most important factor in language leaning as adamantly supported by Van Lier (1996: 98). Research has also substantiated that motivation contributes to learning and enhances the learning outcome. It is a crucial factor influencing the rate and success of second/foreign language learning (cf. Drnyei 1994; 1998; Tremblay & Gardner 1995; Oxford & Shearin 1996; Williams & Burden, 1997), often compensating for deficiencies in language aptitude and learning (Tremblay & Gardner 1995). It could be said that all other factors involved in L2 acquisition presuppose motivation to some extent. J. Rogers (1989) states in a very simple way: unless you are motivated, you will not and cannot learn. J. Rogers (ibid: 27) continues by placing the emphasis on the teacher by saying that as a tutor you must tap into and keep refreshing the motivation of your students otherwise the class will collapse. In her statement the obvious role of the teacher in enhancing the learners motivation is stressed. As Madrid (2002) also elucidates, a

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students motivation can source within whether intrinsic or extrinsic, but it can also be influenced by the teacher, an aspect which further highlights his/her active role28.

As seen in Chapter Three, adults may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Both types of motivation are detrimental to the learning process. The ESP/EAP teacher can play a role in helping the learners increase their motivation. Motivation should be seen in connection to autonomy. Borrowing Noels et al. (1999) view of autonomy as an antecedent to intrinsic motivation, I would claim that this indicates that autonomy can predict L2 intrinsic motivation. Moreover, Deci and Ryan (1985) showed the connection between motivation and autonomy through self-determination theory, according to which having choices and being able to make use of these choices freely are imperative to motivation. On the contrary, Cotterall (1999) supported the notion that autonomous learning is the descendant of motivation. Along the same lines is Littlewoods (1996) claim that autonomy does not lead to motivation, but the opposite -in other words, that motivation leads to autonomy. To this end, Spratt et als (2002) study revealed that lack of motivation impeded learner autonomy. 3.3.1.1 Types of Motivation Perhaps the most well-known study on motivation was conducted by Gardner & Lambert (1972) who distinguished between two basic types of motivation: instrumental and integrative motivation. The former refers to motivation to acquire a language as a means of attaining instrumental goals: employment prospects, receiving language certification,
28

The pedagogical implications of the role of the Greek ESP/EAP teacher in connection to motivation and based on the findings of the present research are discussed in Chapter Nine.

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accessing information and so forth. The latter form of motivation refers to the learners desire to integrate him/herself within the second language culture he/she lives in so as to identify with and become a part of that culture. With regards to this classification of motivation, I could safely claim that tertiary-level ESP/EAP students should, by definition, have high levels of instrumental motivation as they are future employees and prospective employers and agencies (mainly in the public sector) ask for proof of language proficiency which is commonly documented in the form of language certificates awarded by various independent examination boards29. As such, most students in a general EFL context would try to earn some kind of certification so by implication they should have higher levels of instrumental motivation. ESP/EAP certification, however, in Greece is not common and to make matters worse, universities cannot provide their students with any form of ESP/EAP certification upon the completion of their required ESP/EAP courses (the implications of this lack of provision are addressed in Chapter Seven).

The lack of formal certification aside, when talking about motivation in relation to ESP/EAP, one can, nonetheless, claim that by definition ESP/EAP courses are more motivating. This is the case because, as Strevens (1988) points out, an ESP/EAP course focuses on the learners needs, it is relevant to the learner and it is successful in imparting learning. ESP/EAP classes have -or ought to have- these requisites which thus render them more motivating compared to general English classes. In turn general English

29

University of Cambridge ESOL Examinations, University of Michigan Institute of Testing and Certification Division for English, Greek State Certificate of Language Proficiency-KPG etc. 92

classes often appear not to focus on students specific needs and the knowledge gained may not be relevant to each individual student.

However, compared to the teaching of ESP/EAP within an English-English context, and the teaching of ESP/EAP when the context is English-as-a-Foreign-Language, motivation may decrease (Dudley-Evans, 1998). Crofts (1977) makes a valid point by saying that when students are familiar with a topic or subject content, which is commonly the case with ESP/EAP as they have some knowledge of the subject area, they will be bored with any treatment of this as something not familiar. For example, if during a reading comprehension activity the learner is presented with a topic which is too elementary he/she will become demotivated as it will present no challenge. It is the case (as revealed from the interviews in Chapter 6) that the material used in the ESP/EAP classes of this study is often familiar (from a content and not necessarily linguistic point of view) to the learners and thus interest is lost. Nevertheless, the opposite holds true and to this effect, Crofts (1977) warns against the fact that treatment of topics that are assumed to be known to the learner, but are not, is problematic as students may be unable to cope with the tasks connected to the topic. This is a situation that can also lead to a demotivating environment for the learners. I argue that a partial solution of dealing with demotivation is that the material taught in an ESP/EAP class should be parallel to the main subject course, but not actually part of it. If, for instance, students are required to do an oral presentation for a course, they may be taught how to do one in their ESP/EAP class and then both their subject-specific class and their ESP/EAP class can have a complementing effect. Similarly, if in a business studies class students are being taught the importance of

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the cultural context of business, the ESP/EAP instructor may choose to do a module on the importance of intercultural/cross-cultural communication by not simply overlapping, but by extending the focus to cultures in general or by narrowing it to English-speaking cultures. By doing so, there will be an increased element of interest which in turn should be the precept of a motivating environment30. This conclusion is also based on my own ESP/EAP students informal evaluations of the ESP/EAP courses I teach.

Another element to consider, in relation to motivation, is the makeup of the group. In other words, is the group homogeneous or heterogeneous? Dudley-Evans (1998) makes a point of this and emphasizes the motivational benefits when the group is homogeneous. Homogeneity is a multi-level concept. One can look at homogeneity in terms of age of students, their background knowledge in the area of specialization, same disciplines etc. However, this thesis focus is ESP/EAP within the Greek tertiary context so some of the aforementioned factors do not come into play. More specifically, the students taking an ESP/EAP course belong to the same department as each department offers its own ESP/EAP courses. Therefore, the students are of similar backgrounds academically, as they are approximately in the same year of studies, and have taken common courses in their respective area of concentration. However, student homogeneity ceases to exist with regards to the students background of general English. Students general English language abilities may range from false beginners and extend all the way to advanced level, in spite of the fact that the vast majority have had the same language education

Reference to the implications of the material taught in their ESP/EAP classes is made in a subsequent section (Chapters 7) when the students who were interviewed discussed this matter. 94

30

during their school years (at least in the public school system31); nevertheless, it should be made clear that many students have received various amounts of tuition through private tutoring. This imbalance in language proficiency inevitably creates implications in that the learning environment is heterogeneous and thus is not conducive to promoting motivation among the ESP/EAP learners (see Chapter 7 for implications regarding heterogeneity).

Motivation is closely linked to needs and interests as learners motivation to learn depends on these needs (Liuolien & Metinien, 2006). If the needs of the students are met, then a motivating environment is created. The difficult task then on the part of the ESP/EAP practitioner is to determine his/her students real needs. Determining students needs must be done in a systematic and methodical way if one is to extract valuable information that will help the ESP/EAP practitioner establish a course of action that will lead him/her to the creation of a motivating environment. This course of action primarily involves devising a needs analysis tool. As seen in Chapter Two (section 2.7), a wellconstructed needs analysis can determine quite accurately the needs of the students at hand.

3.3.2 Self-esteem
In addition to motivation, self-esteem is an affective variable that has also received considerable attention, both as an affective variable concerning personality and its effects on it, but also the effects it may potentially have on a students academic performance in

31

It should be noted that the vast majority of students have had private tuition through private tutoring or through private language schools which partially accounts for the overall discrepancy in learners language background. 95

particular. Brown (1994: 136) says characteristically that self-esteem is probably the most pervasive aspect of any human behavior. Purkey (1970) and Gurney (1987) discuss the strong link between self-esteem and academic achievement. But what is self-esteem? A well accepted definition is the one stated by Coopersmith (1967:4-5): By self-esteem we refer to the evaluation which the individual makes and customarily maintains with regard to himself; it expresses an attitude of approval or disapproval, and indicates the extent to which an individual believes himself to be capable, significant, successful and worthy. In short, self-esteem is a personal judgment of worthiness that is expressed in the attitudes that the individual holds towards himself. It is a subjective experience which the individual conveys to others by verbal reports and other overt expressive behaviors. Similarly, Kimura (1999: 2) defines self-esteem as self-judgment of worth or value, based on a feeling of efficacy -a sense of interacting effectively with ones own environment. It is obvious that in both definitions the notion of judgment and evaluation of ones self prevails. 3.3.2.1 Types of self-esteem Self-esteem, like other affective factors, has been divided into various typologies. General or global self-esteem, as it is often referred to, is an element that is wellestablished in adulthood and therefore does not alter easily over time nor does it change according to the situation. For Brown, (1994) there are three types of self-esteem. 1) The first type is the abovementioned global which refers to someones general self-esteem in that it evolves in parallel with the persons development. 2) Situational or specific selfesteem refers to ones appraisals in specific situations such as social interaction, home, communicative ability etc. The level or degree of situational self-esteem varies from situation to situation. 3) The final level, task self-esteem, is the most specific type of self-

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esteem as it relates to very specific situations. Therefore, task self-esteem is more specific and concrete compared to situational self-esteem. Increasing the learners task selfesteem can become the concern of the ESP/EAP teacher, as already stated. Tasks that are challenging, yet not difficult to do, will give the students a sense of empowerment, an essential ingredient to boosting self-esteem. In referring to the combination of a learners low-self esteem and task achievement, Strong (2009: 27) claims that it makes it hard to be fully on task, as energy is split between the task and an excessive concern with a belief about one's lack of ability or worth. It creates a doubly disadvantaged learning situation: there is less energy for the task at hand and the negative feelings generated make the learning experience unpleasant Other prominent figures of psychology such as Maslow and C. Rogers pointed out the importance of satisfying biological, social and affective needs. Self-esteem holds an important position in this hierarchy of needs. The need to increase self-esteem is crucial during the childrens developmental years, but it is important to maintain in adulthood.

This point regarding the maintenance of self-esteem in adulthood is of great value to language teachers and particularly to ESP/EAP instructors who focus on the teaching of adults. The way learners experience the classroom and the emotions they develop during their learning are tightly linked to their language learning. Most research focuses on school-aged students. There is, however, suspicion that adults are equally affected and to this end, Tesser and Campbell (1982) espouse the view that adult learners with high selfesteem maintain positive evaluations of themselves. The significance of adult language learners developing self-esteem is also argued by Williams & Burden (1996) and Stong (2009).

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Moreover, research has shown that a student who feels good about himself is more likely to succeed. Holly (1987) compiled a summary of many studies and pointed out that selfesteem is the result rather than the cause of academic achievement. On the other hand, Covington (1989) supports that self-esteem can be modified through direct instruction and that such instruction can lead to achievement gains. His claim emanates from the extensive review of the research he carried out on the relationship between self-esteem and achievement. This statement is consistent with the experience reported by Andres (1993, 1996), as cited in Andres (2003: 3), who has conducted two research projects in the area of self-esteem, and the findings have led her to conclude that self-esteem can be modified and enhanced in the foreign language classroom, and that significant gains can be observed in the area of EFL/ESL learning. The implications of these findings may be applicable to the ESP/EAP context. Therefore, an ESP/EAP instructor is in a position to exert an influence both on the performance and well-being of his/her students especially in the area of task self-esteem, as mentioned above. These practical and pedagogical implications are further discussed in Chapter Seven.

3.3.3 Inhibition
The next affective factor addressed herein is inhibition. Inhibition is not independent of self-esteem. To this effect, Brown (1994: 138) asserts that in some cases subsumed under the notion of self-esteem is inhibition. Adult students often employ ego defense mechanisms (A. Rogers, 1996) and come to the ESP/EAP classroom with great defenses due to their need to protect there self-image. Ehrman (1993) suggests that students with thick, perfectionist boundaries find language learning more difficult than those learners

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with thin boundaries who favor attitudes of openness and the tolerance of ambiguity32. As Brown (1994) posits, language learning implies a great deal of self-exposure as it necessarily involves making mistakes. Once again, this notion becomes particularly important when dealing with the ESP/EAP students as the majority are adults. The mistakes mentioned above, can be experienced as threats to the self. As adult learners have developed these defenses throughout their previous experience with language learning, many may argue that little can be done to alleviate them. The role of the ESP/EAP instructor becomes paramount as classroom experience shows that the instructor's attitude towards mistakes can reinforce these barriers creating, in the long run, learning blocks, or the self-fulfilling prophecy: I can't do it. I'm not good at it (Andres, 2003). This attitude becomes a vicious circle as the learner internalizes it. In short, this produces in the learner a deep-seated fear of inadequacy and deficiency, which in turn may contribute to increased levels of anxiety. As noted earlier (see Section 3.3), H. D. Brown (1973) believed that the construct of anxiety is intricately intertwined with inhibition.

Further support of the role of the teacher in the development and manifestation of inhibition is provided by some studies investigating the effects of inhibition-reducing substances where it was observed that the person who was actually administering the test made more of a difference than the relaxants themselves (Guiora, Beit-Hallami, Brannon, Dull & Covel, 1972; Guiora, Acton, Erard & Strickland, 1980, as cited in Arnold, 1999). One can hypothesize that human factors, rather than administered chemical substances,
32

Tolerance of ambiguity is a style dimension of language learning. Learning a language is often an ambiguous endeavor, and students who can more readily tolerate ambiguity may show increased language learning performance (see Chapelle & Roberts, 1986; Oxford, 1990; Reid, 1995). 99

can be more effective in lowering the levels of inhibition. To this effect, Dufeu (1994: 89-90) says: [establishing an adequate affective framework is important for learners as they] feel comfortable as they take their first public steps in the strange world of a foreign language. To achieve this, one has to create a climate of acceptance that will stimulate self-confidence, and encourage participants to experiment and to discover the target language, allowing themselves to take risk without feeling embarrassed. As in the case of motivation and self-esteem, the role of the ESP/EAP teacher is crucial in the learners development and expression of inhibition. Again, these implications are explored in Chapter Seven.

3.4 Language Learning Anxiety

So far, I have addressed some affective factors that have an impact on anxiety and subsequently language learning. Anxiety, another important affective factor, becomes the key focus of the remaining of Chapter Three. Language learning anxiety along with affective language learning strategies (see Chapter 4) within a Greek adult ESP/EAP context (see Chapters 2) are the pillars on which this thesis is based. As such, the remaining of this chapter extensively investigates anxiety and its influence on language learning. More specifically, various definitions of anxiety are provided followed by an account of its origins and development. Moreover, I look at various types of anxiety and then focus on its impact on foreign language learning.

3.5 Defining Anxiety

First and foremost, it is important to define the term anxiety. Defining anxiety is not a simple task. Casado and Dereshiwisky (2001) say characteristically that defining anxiety

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is difficult and complex as it can range from an amalgam of overt behavioral characteristics that can be studied scientifically to introspective feelings that are epistemonologically inaccessible. According to the Oxford English On-line dictionary, anxiety refers to the quality or the state of being anxious, feeling uneasy or troubled about some event or concern. As noted in Haskins et al. (2003: 33) work, ''Sellers (2000) defines anxiety in its simplest form as feelings of uneasiness, frustration, selfdoubt, insecurity, or apprehension and is intricately intertwined with self-esteem issues and natural ego-preserving fears''. Scovel (1978: 134) defines anxiety as a state of apprehension, a vague fear []. As humans, we tend to experience anxiety when confronted with an uneasy and complex task. By definition, language learning is one such task (MacIntyre and Gardener 1991c). In subsequent work, Gardner and MacIntyre (1993a: 5) define foreign language classroom anxiety as the apprehension experienced when a situation requires the use of a second language with which the individual is not fully proficient, and add that this type of anxiety is characterized by derogatory selfrelated cognitions [], feelings of apprehension, and psychological responses such as increased heart rate. McIntyre (1999: 27) defines foreign language anxiety as the worry and negative emotional reaction aroused when learning or using a second language.

McIntyre and Gardner (1989, 1991b) found that language anxiety was a distinct form of anxiety. Therefore, the term (foreign) language anxiety is often used as one which more precisely encompasses the notions of foreign language and anxiety. Ganschow (1991) also states that language anxiety is not necessarily linked to other forms of learning anxiety. In other words, learners experiencing language anxiety do not by definition

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experience anxiety in mathematics or other academic disciplines33. All the abovementioned definitions have a common core, mainly that anxiety is a feeling of apprehension and uneasiness when confronted with something unpleasant.

3.6 Origins-Development of Language Anxiety

Similar to the inherent difficulty in defining anxiety, the origins of anxiety are also difficult to trace since little has been done in terms of empirical research pertaining to the origins of language anxiety development. However, it is crucial to comprehend how foreign language anxiety develops and manifests itself as it will shed light on the findings presented in this thesis. Researchers (cf. Horwitz et al., 1986, Young, 1992) have postulated as to the origins of language anxiety based on their own assumptions, experience, and interviews with language anxiety sufferers. McIntyre and Gardner (1989) have indicated how FLA potentially develops. They claim that when a language learner experiences some difficulties with learning i.e. grammar, vocabulary, comprehension and becomes anxious each time and consequently uneasy about producing related mistakes, then state anxiety (anxiety stemming from a certain situation see section 3.7) occurs. An association between language learning and anxiety is made when the learner encounters this anxiety frequently, thus we have the onset of language anxiety. This theory put forward by McIntyre and Gardner is plausible since it is consistent with psychological theories that have to do with other well-studied emotions. The theories put forth below may help us further understand the notion of FLA which in turn will help us understand the reasons why the majority of participants in this study reported low levels of anxiety
33

Ganschow (1991) further claims that the opposite is also likely to occur. A student performing well in other areas and who experiences no anxiety related to academic performance may experience language anxiety because of problems with language-encoding, a problem that may be compensated for in the first language, but not easily dealt with in the foreign language. 102

(discussed in Chapter 7). It should be noted that these theories are all connected to language anxiety that develops and manifests itself during L2 learning.

The first theory to be presented is Dalys (1991) who provides five possible explanations for the existence of communication apprehensions (as will be stated in section 3.7, communication apprehension is one of the constructs of foreign language anxiety). These explanations are: 1) genetics, 2) personal history, 3) learned helplessness, 4) adaptation of first communication skills, and 5) acquired models of communication. These explanations, with the exception of the genetic explanation, are linked to the learners environment. The traits and characteristics he/she develops over time regarding communication are maintained and are often carried over into adulthood. Therefore, according to these explanations, language anxiety among adults is deeply rooted in their childhood. This anxiety may have been developed due to ones environment or it may be the result of a genetic cause.

The genetic explanation, like many other personality characteristics and behavioral traits, attributes the cause of language anxiety to inheritance. Consequently, environmental influences are of minor importance. In essence, a person is born with the predisposition to become anxious in various situations including any learning process let alone second language/foreign language learning, which in itself is an anxiety arousing process, an attribution also stressed by MacIntyre and Gardener (1991c) and Andres (2003).

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Ones personal history is the second explanation provided by Daly (1991). This explanation relates to the reinforcements and punishments one has received in his/her attempts and efforts to communicate in a foreign language. If a person, especially during childhood, received ample praise and encouragement when communicating in a foreign language, he/she is likely to have developed a positive attitude towards employing the foreign language which is carried over into adulthood. Conversely, if this same person experienced contempt and received negative feedback, then he/she is likely to have developed language anxiety which again is experienced in adulthood.

The third explanation has to do with what is termed learned helplessness. This term is borrowed from the fields of human and animal psychology and refers to the condition wherein a human being or animal has learned to behave helplessly in many situations, regardless of whether the opportunity has been restored for it to help him/her/itself. These humans and animals will avoid a vexatious or dangerous circumstance to which they have been previously subjected. In regards to language communication, Argaman & AbuRabia (2002: 144) stated that in the absence of an ordinary reinforcing pattern for verbal communication behaviors the child may develop behavioral regression in the verbal field. In his/her attempt to speak, the child has a perceived absence of control over the outcome of the communication and does not know what to expect, and therefore instead of communication, apprehension may occur.

Fourthly, adaptation of first communication skills by children can provide an explanation for the development of language anxiety. This explanation refers to the way a child is

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expected to verbally react towards his/her environment using the mother tongue. The chances of developing communication apprehension are decreased if the child starts communicating without being pressured to do so; in other words, when the child begins to communicate in a natural sequence and pattern. These skills are then utilized as adults. The final explanation is the acquired models of communication. According to this explanation, children who grow up in an environment where they receive normal and healthy communication patterns are unlikely to develop communication apprehension in adulthood.

Dalys (1991) theory about the origins of anxiety is not shared by all. Young, (1991) states that there is much speculation that the origins of foreign language learning anxiety stem from mainly the learner him/herself, the teacher, and the instructional practices. A learners outlook on life, his/her personal problems, his/her character traits (low selfesteem, over competitiveness, introversion, identity problems) as well as the learners beliefs about language learning (the pace and effectiveness at which one can successfully acquire language) are all factors that determine the type and intensity of anxiety the student will experience in the L2 classroom. Similarly, Young presents the language instructor as a source of anxiety for the learner depending on the attitude he/she adopts in his/her teaching. An example of such anxiety stemming from the ESP/EAP instructor is feedback. Certain types of feedback (usually non-constructive or negative) may provoke anxiety. Finally, various instructional practices which are concerned, for instance, with assessment and evaluation may bring about anxiety. Therefore, one of the interesting points added by Young is the role the teacher may have in a students development of

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anxiety. A question that may arise, however, is how the impact of this role changes depending on whether the teacher is a native or non-native speaker of the target language. Unlike Young (1991) who does not discuss whether a native or non-native teacher may contribute differently to a learners anxiety, Neuliep & McCroskey (1997) talk about a foreign teacher causing more anxiety to the learner, as their research involving a large number of undergraduate students revealed. In essence, Youngs theory is of value as it explicitly places emphasis on the foreign language teacher and the instructional practices he/she chooses to engage in. The implication, therefore, of the instructor is significant and the issue of what his/her role is in creating a non-anxiety provoking classroom atmosphere is worthy of discussion. The present thesis looks at this issue in Chapter Seven.

Learning a foreign language has much to do with putting in an effort to experiment with new language forms. Albeit attempting to use new language forms is a central tenet of foreign language learning, many learners are unwilling to make this effort, thus debilitating their progress. Dayhoff (2000: 27) has coined the phrase anxiety feedback loop to refer to this unwillingness. More specifically, anxiety is sparked by concern over being scrutinized and evaluated by others in a performance situation (Burden, 2004: 6). In turn, this can lead to a fear of being exposed and humiliated in the language classroom and thus create a vicious circle of anxiety provoking situations.

A further explanation is provided by Gregersen and Horwitz (2002) who make a connection between anxiety and a students tendency for perfectionism. Their study

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showed that some students who exhibit language anxiety have common manifestations as those who are perfectionists and these common elements may lead to unpleasant language learning experiences. Anxious students were less easily satisfied with their language accomplishments as they had idealized rather than realistic expectations of the language learning process and appeared to be more concerned over their language errors compared to their non-anxious counterparts. During an interaction, whether that be in a social setting or the language classroom, errors can be a source of anxiety as they attract attention and increase the persons/learners fear of negative attention (a form of anxiety that is presented in section 3.7).

In line with perfectionism, competitiveness, as a personal trait, has also been considered a possible cause of language anxiety. Bailey (1983) looked at this correlation and hypothesized that competitive learners experience increased levels of anxiety when they feel less competent than, for example, their classmates and are unable to compete. These students have a constant competitive edge in relation to their classmates and are preoccupied with academically surpassing them.

Socio-cultural factors may also play a crucial role in the development of language anxiety. For instance, social relationships can influence conversational interaction. Wolfsan (1989: 131) states that social inequality or distance disfavor attempts at negotiation. In a social/professional setting, this inequality may be found in a bossemployee relationship. In the language classroom (EFL or ESP/EAP), there tends to be unequal status between the teacher and the students which may be potentially anxiety

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provoking and may lead to a breakdown in successful second language comprehension, production, and ultimately acquisition (Pica, 1987: 4). As does Young (1991), Wolfsan (1989) also stresses the teacher factor and the importance of the beliefs he/she has about his/her role in the classroom as well as issues with classroom management and control. For instance, a teacher who believes in a teacher-centered classroom, who does most of the talking, and who does not give students the opportunity for participation or selfexpression may contribute to anxiety.

Andres (2003) argues that any task that involves a certain degree of difficulty and challenge can expose the language learner to feelings of self-doubt, fear, and uneasiness. Learning a foreign language is one such task as it is a highly demanding and complicated process. Hence, this language learning experience can raise levels of anxiety beyond what is considered normal (Arnold 1999). What became apparent from some studies (cf. Price 1991; Aida 1994; Young, 1994) is that the interpersonal aspects of language learning, namely speaking and listening, seem to be the greatest source of anxiety among students. This point is made particularly strong by Horwitz et al. (1986).

Another source of anxiety is completely external and depends on the learners educational setting or future endeavors. There is evidence of existence of language anxiety in tertiary-level education as the result of language policies for matriculation and/or future job qualifications criteria. Chengs (2008) study showed that Chinese English language learners exhibited high levels of language anxiety in preparing for language exams required by their universities (for example, high scores on the Test of

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English as a Foreign Language- TOEFL). The pressure students feel to learn English, for instance in China, as a necessary skill for future use also leads to increased levels of language anxiety (Liu, 2006). This source of anxiety may not be extrapolated to all similar contexts. Compared to the Greek context, for instance, where English is also considered a necessary skill for future employment, the present research indicates that overall levels of anxiety are low. One possible explanation for this discrepancy may simply be a matter of cultural background of the learners (see sections 3.8 and 3.9 for more on the influence of culture). Another possible explanation may well be the difference in how future employers may perceive language studied in ESP/EAP classes (not connected to any certification) and EFL certification received outside university (e.g. certificates obtained by recognized examination boards). In other countries, it is possible that university ESP/EAP courses suffice to prove language competence (the pedagogical implications of this disparity are discussed in Chapter 7).

So far, the origins and development of anxiety were treated in isolation. Nonetheless, anxiety should not be seen as something detached from other elements that characterize humans, for example, cognition and behavior. MacIntyre (1995) explains that anxiety, cognition, and behavior are tightly connected as there is a recursive or cyclical relationship which is illustrated below (Figure 4). MacIntrye (1995: 93) provides an example which explains this relationship: a demand to answer a question in a second language class may cause a student to become anxious; anxiety leads to worry and rumination. Cognition performance is diminished because of the divide attention and therefore performance suffers, leading to negative self-evaluation and more self deprecating cognition which further impair performance, and so on.
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Figure 4 Recursive relations among anxiety, cognition, and behavior

Similarly, Sparks, et al. (2000) question the general construct of foreign language anxiety as being the direct result of a foreign language learners experience. In particular, they posit that foreign language learning is not a factor that causes anxiety reactions in some students. On the contrary, Sparks et al., as cited in Horwitz (2000), argue that these anxiety reactions are not the direct cause of the foreign language learning experience but are a result of difficulties that students have when processing input and producing output in language classes due to subtle cognitive processing and first language disabilities. In other words, they attribute anxiety to innate cognitive factors and not the experience of language learning itself.

Borrowing Tobias (1986) model of the effects of anxiety on the learner, MacIntyre and Gardner (1994) also hypothesized the stages of FLA during cognitive processing. More specifically, their position holds that FLA occurs at each of the following three stages of the L2 acquisition process: input, processing, and output. At the input stage, anxiety may

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cause attention deficits and thus inadequate initial processing of the received information may occur. During the output stage, anxiety may interfere with the ability of the learner to retrieve information previously learnt.

The explanations put forth so far as to the origins and the development of language anxiety do not provide a sufficient answer to the prototypical question asked about the interpretation of correlations. In essence, does language anxiety cause poor performance or does poor performance cause language anxiety? In later studies, MacIntyre (1995a, 1995b, 1999) and, more recently, Horwitz (2000, 2001) contend that anxiety is a multifaceted variable and as such can either lead to or be the product of poor language learning and performance. More specifically, Horwitz (2000: 256) espouses that the potential of anxiety to interfere with learning and performance is one of the most accepted phenomena in psychology and education. This balanced argument put forward of anxiety being both a cause and a consequence appears to have offered a reasonable answer to this long debate which asserts FLA as inconclusive and unresolved. A similar debate prevails over the types of foreign language anxiety that exist. These various types of anxiety are addressed in the following section so as to differentiate them from other forms of anxiety and also to provide a conceptual framework of the types of anxiety addressed in this thesis.

3.7 Types of Anxiety

Having examined the notion of anxiety in terms of its origins and development, it is important to provide a map of the terrain of the various types of anxiety as classified by numerous scholars. The classification proposed by Horwitz et al. (1986) is the one used
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in the present study (see below) since it is the FLCAS devised by Horwitz et al. (1986) that is used as one of the main quantitative tools to measure reported levels of FLA. Also Gardners (1985) use of the terms state and trait anxiety are frequently referred to in this study. A brief account of the following classifications is provided: 1) Alpert and Haber, 2) Spielbergers, 3) Gardners, 4) Aidas, and 5) Horwitzs et al. As stated above, this theoretical account of the various classifications will help delineate the different types of anxiety and will provide the theoretical basis from which research focused directly
on anxiety could proceed. As will be shown, there is a certain level of convergence among

these classifications.

1) Alpert and Habers Classification of Anxiety

Alpert and Haber (1960), as cited in Scovel (1978), saw anxiety in terms of its function and made the distinction between debilitative and facilitative anxiety34. As the term implies, debilitative anxiety is the type of anxiety which hinders performance, or in the case of language learning, it hinders comprehension and production and thus renders the language learning experience a failure. On the contrary, facilitative anxiety, as the semantics of the term implies, is the type of anxiety that actually creates an emotional environment that is conducive to learning. When a learner faces facilitative anxiety he/she may feel moderate nervousness, some apprehension and uneasiness. These feelings may actually provide the learner with enough poise to accommodate the challenges of language learning. Baileys (1983) study of competitiveness and anxiety showed that facilitative anxiety was indeed recorded as a positive element as it creates a
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Debilitative anxiety is often termed debilitating or harmful anxiety' whereas facilitating or helpful anxiety are used instead of facilitative in the literature. 112

drive for more effort and thus leads to better performance. Marcos-Llins and Garau (2009) argued that foreign language anxiety keeps learners motivation high to perform well. Throughout his work, C. Rogers (1969, 1983) also supports the beneficial effects of low anxiety while Horwitz (1990) claims that anxiety is only helpful in coping with simple language tasks. What we can conclude is that anxiety stretches over a continuum. If an ESP/EAP practitioner adopts the theory in favor of facilitative anxiety, then he/she should create the conditions for the learners to find and maintain an optimal level of anxiety along this continuum in an attempt to experience facilitative anxiety. Some classroom implications of promoting facilitative anxiety are addressed in Chapter Seven. Having said this, we must keep in mind the fact that the jury is still out on the actual existence of facilitative anxiety.

2) Spielbergers Classification of Anxiety

Spielberger (1966) was the first to distinguish situational from characteristic anxiety. According to this dichotomy, situational anxiety is a temporary emotional situation. It is the form of anxiety triggered within a certain context. Characteristic anxiety is a general form of anxiety that is part of ones personality and is not the result of or linked to any specific situations. The level of situational anxiety depends on how the individual perceives a certain situation as a potential threat. Situational and characteristic anxiety can somewhat be connected in that situational anxiety is influenced by someones overall characteristic anxiety.

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3) Gardners Classification of Anxiety

Similar to the delineation of Spielbergers classification of anxiety, Gardner (1985) fervently investigated the distinction between trait and state anxiety. In essence, trait anxiety, like characteristic anxiety, is ones predisposition to be anxious. It is a trait that is part of ones character. In other words, anxiousness is an inherent aspect of the personality and refers to the persons high probability of becoming anxious in any situation which makes this person anxiety prone. Trait anxiety is predictable as these people tend to be anxious about many things. Goldberg (1993) goes as far as stating that people who experience trait anxiety lack emotional stability. On the contrary, state anxiety or situation-specific anxiety, as it is often referred to in the relevant literature, involves specific situations. In other words, an individual becomes anxious when experiencing a certain event.

As Brown (1994) suggests, it is important for a teacher to determine the type of anxiety the learner is experiencing. Diagnosing what type of anxiety (state or trait) the student may be experiencing is important since some researchers, for example MacIntyre and Gardener (1991c: 89) have supported that trait anxiety because of its global and ambiguous nature is not useful in predicting second language achievement so it is of no direct concern to the language practitioner. The type of anxiety learners experience in a language learning context is linked to situational/state anxiety.

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4) Aidas Classification of Anxiety

A similar and in some cases overlapping classification, when compared to Horwitzs et al (1986) classification, of anxiety is proposed by Aida (1994). In studying students leaning Japanese as a foreign language, Aida looked at factor analysis35 which revealed that several types of anxiety existed: Speech Anxiety (apprehension in speaking in class); Fear of Negative Evaluation (nervousness about being embarrassed by making errors); Fear of Failing the Class (fear of being left behind in class or failing the class); Comfortableness (the level of comfort felt) in Speaking with people of the mother tongue i.e. Australians, Canadians etc; Negative Attitudes Toward the English Class; and Test Anxiety (worry about inadequate performance in an evaluative situation). Aida suggests that test anxiety, which is considered to be a component of foreign language anxiety by Horwitz et al. (1986), might be a general type of anxiety observed in other classes, such as mathematics. This generalization is in direct contrast to Ganschows (1991) claim which states that language anxiety is not necessarily linked to other forms of learning anxiety.

5) Horwitzs et al Classification of Anxiety

Apart from the types of anxiety dealt with hitherto, we will discuss the classification of Horwitz et al. who provide one similar to that of Aidas. In looking at anxiety, they examine three dimensions: Communication Apprehension (CA), Test Anxiety, Fear of Negative Evaluation. CA as defined by Horwitz et al (1986: 128) is a type of shyness
35

Factor analysis, a term used in statistics, is a collection of methods used to describe variability among observed variables in terms of a potentially lower number of unobserved variables called factors. In other words, it is possible, for example, that variations in three or four observed variables mainly reflect the variations in a single unobserved variable, or in a reduced number of unobserved variables. (Adapted from Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/factoranalysis.

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characterized by fear or anxiety about communicating with people. Likewise, McCroskey (1997), as cited in Apaibanditkul (2006: 3), sees CA as an individuals level of fear or anxiety associated with either real or anticipated communication with another person or persons. This apprehension may create an inability on the part of the learner to convey thoughts and ideas in a mature and comprehensible way. Language learning is also language performance. Communicatively apprehensive students will find it difficult to cope with classroom interpersonal interactions or perform in any type of task which requires oral participation.

The concept of fear of negative social evaluation is quite close to that of communicative apprehension. This evaluation of the social implications a learner may consider as an anxiety-provoking experience is in line with Aidas (1994) fear of negative evaluation and Horwitzs et al. (1986) fear of social negative evaluation. As social beings, we have the need to make a positive social impression on others. Therefore, this impression is jeopardized when one does not have an adequate language capacity to handle it. When language students are not confident about what they are saying during their interaction in class, they develop fear of potential negative evaluation by both the language teachers and their classmates. Fear of negative social evaluation is similar to test anxiety (see below); nonetheless, it is broader in scope as it is not limited to test-taking alone.

Test anxiety translates into the apprehension one feels when faced with any form of academic evaluation tools (exams, tests). It usually occurs when students have performed poorly in previous tests and hence develop a negative attitude towards them. Test anxiety

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is quite prevalent in the foreign language classroom due to the nature of these lessons. Students are constantly evaluated on their performance in both productive and receptive macro skills.

Indeed, Horwitzs et al. (1986) anxiety constructs lay the conceptual foundations for the description of L2-related anxiety. Nonetheless, foreign language anxiety is not considered a simple transfer of these anxieties to language learning. What makes foreign language anxiety more than merely a combination of communication apprehension, test anxiety and social evaluative anxiety transferred to L2 learning is, as Tth (2008: 58) characteristically puts it, a unique metacognitive element, which manifests itself in learners awareness that deprived of their normal means of communication (i.e. the L1) they are to communicate via a language in which they do not have full competence. Language is used as a means to express oneself and if there are limited linguistic resources to accomplish this then this feeling of incompetence in presenting ones idea and feelings and overall communication triggers anxiety. It is exactly this connection of language to ones self that lead Horwitzs et al. (1986) to the claim that FLA is different from other forms of academic anxiety.

This classification proposed by Horwitz et al. (1986) provides a useful conceptual framework for understanding foreign language anxiety. This framework has been adopted and adapted for this study in order to investigate the presence of language learning anxiety among university ESP/EAP students in a Greek context. Based on their views of language anxiety, Horwitz et al. (1986) constructed a tool -the Foreign Language

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Classroom Anxiety Scale (see Chapter 5) to measure levels of language anxiety among learners of a second/foreign language. The types of anxiety the scale measures are mainly: communication apprehension, fear of negative social evaluation, and test anxiety, which have not only been proposed by Horwitz et al. (1986), but also by MacIntyre and Gardener (1989, 1991c) as three distinct components.

Having established the origins of language anxiety, the factors that contribute to its development and also the different types of anxiety that exist, it would be constructive to explore its effects on the language learner. These studies will be considered in connection to the findings of the present study (see Chapter 6). The section that follows looks at these various effects as they arise from the multiple studies conducted.

3.8 Language Anxiety and L2 Performance: What Studies have Shown

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A plethora of studies in different instructional contexts, with varying target languages and at numerous language proficiency levels have documented the potential effect of anxiety on language learning and performance. A review of some of these more recent studies that refer to university students either in EFL or ESP/EAP classes are presented and discussed below. The implications of these studies will be referred to later (Chapter 6) as they will be used as a measure of comparison with the results of this study, which in turn will be useful as no study conducted within a Greek context has been carried out so far, to the best of my knowledge.
36

For a summary of other studies on language learning anxiety see Appendix 8. 118

The damaging effects of anxiety have been found in all phases of this process including the four basic language skills (reading, writing, speaking, and listening) as well as input and output processing (see Chapter 2). The bulk of more recent research studies are in agreement that there is a negative correlation between foreign language study/learning and anxiety. What follows is a review of the body of literature on anxiety and foreign language learning.

One major study in support of the negative correlation between anxiety and language learning is that of Cheng et al. (1999). Their study took place in Taiwan in EFL classrooms and concentrated on the relationship between EFL writing and speaking and language anxiety. Cheng et al. (ibid) found a significant negative correlation between foreign language classroom anxiety and EFL speaking and writing. Although the magnitude of the correlations was found to be small, they considered it large enough to be significant.

Saitos et al. (1999) study considered the relationship between reading (as a macro skill) and foreign language anxiety, a relationship that had not been considered extensively in the literature albeit the importance of reading in foreign language learning. They found that reading anxiety is separate from general FL anxiety. Another interesting finding of their study was the fact that the level of reading anxiety depended on the language being studied. Consequently, they found that university students who studied Japanese as a foreign language exhibited higher levels of reading anxiety than those university students

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who studied French or Russian as foreign languages. An additional finding was that students who perceived reading in the target language to be difficult experienced more anxiety than those who did not perceive the reading in the target language to be difficult.

Another study to consider is that of Baileys et al. (2000) who looked at foreign language anxiety and study habits. Their findings revealed that high anxiety scores related to four specific study habits: students not getting enough sleep, spending too much time on some subjects while less on others, trying to spread study time out so as not to become too tired while studying and finally students experienced difficulty settling down when preparing to study.

Burdens (2004) study of Japanese university students in English language conversation classes showed that about half of the 289 students were classified as having moderate to high levels of language anxiety. Burdens findings are comparable to what Horwitz et al.
(1991) found in their study of American foreign language students. Similarly, Jacksons (2002)

study reported that Chinese students (in English-medium business classes at a university in Hong Kong) showed low levels of participation in discussion classes due to a combination of anxiety, personal and cultural factors.

With regards to another variable gender- Campbell and Shaws (1994) study revealed a definite interaction between gender and foreign language anxiety. Male students were reported to have more FLA than their female peers after a certain amount of instruction in that foreign language. Similarly, in her study, Stephenson (2007) found that female EFL

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students of a Spanish university reported higher levels of FLA than their male counterparts and thus Stephenson contended that gender was detected as a predictor of language anxiety.

Having looked at the above studies, one cannot but agree with Scovel (1978) with reference to his claims that foreign language anxiety research suffered from several ambiguities. However, the inconsistencies of past work in the area of foreign-language anxiety are likely attributable to an inappropriate level of instrumental specificity (MacIntyre & Gardner 1989: 34). Studies thereafter have proven that language anxiety is not that rare a phenomenon and actually does affect those afflicted by it. One such study is Tths (2010) who conducted a quantitative (FLCAS) and qualitative (interviews) study with 117 first-year37 Hungarian university ELT majors and found that they were affected by language anxiety despite their high level of language proficiency, which in turn had an impact on language performance (mainly speaking). Tth attributes these findings mainly to the learning situation and the course type at hand. The more intensive learning situation these students were faced with produced greater fear of inadequate performance in the target language (English). I would argue that these findings lend credence to the fact that language anxiety is not restricted to early stages of language learning but can potentially be identified throughout the course of ones language learning.

37

The study was conducted in the students advanced EFL classes. 121

In summation, some of the contradictory findings reported in the literature on anxiety are all indicative of its inherent complexity38. However, the majority of studies on language anxiety report similar findings. Namely, that language anxiety causes students to achieve lower grades compared to the relaxed language learners. In other words, the subjects levels of language anxiety are in inverse proportion to their levels of language proficiency. Moreover, the former students require more time to process new information and appear to have more trouble displaying their L2 abilities. The cognitive disruption discussed earlier is the primary cause of these negative effects. In some extreme cases, language learning evokes a severe anxiety reaction that approximates trauma (Young, 1998: 41). Another conclusion that can be drawn so far is that foreign language anxiety is different from and can be identified as separate from other forms of anxiety. Moreover, language anxiety may impact negatively on the academic, cognitive, social and personal aspect of a learners life.

There is a clear pattern in the way students manifest language anxiety. Most students with language anxiety exhibit similar psycho-physiological symptoms. In general, the physiological and psychosomatic symptoms include palpitation, perspiration, blushing, headache, to name a few physical ones. Some common physical activities anxious students engage in are fidgeting, squirming, and wringing hands. Finally, speech impediments may include a quivering voice, stuttering or stammering (Horwitz et al., 1991; Gregersen, 2007). On the psychological/behavioral level, symptoms include difficulty in concentrating, forgetfulness and apprehension, avoidance of eye contact, nervous laughter. Anxious students are captivated by negative self-talk and dwell on their
38

For a review of various studies see Appendix 8 122

poor performance debilitating effects of anxiety as the information processing abilities are hindered (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1994). Anxious students often use small stretches of speech or avoid speaking altogether and may even act in an indifferent manner. An interesting finding by Harrigan et al. (2004) as cited in (Gregersen, 2007) was the fact that anxiety can be decoded through paralinguistic and prosodic features of spoken communication (intonation and stress patterns, body language etc). In her report of the results of her study, Gregersen (2005), as cited in Gregersen (2007: 210), states that anxious learners manifested limited facial activity, including brow behavior and smiling, maintained less eye contact with the teacher, and were more rigid and closed with their posture. In any case, anxious students are likely to show identifiable symptoms when they experience anxiety in their foreign language classes.

3.9 Language Anxiety and Cultural Context

Various international studies reported above obviously reveal that the learners cultural background may be a predictive factor in FLA. Another element to consider is how different cultures interpret anxious behavior. Oxford (1999: 64) noted that behaviors vary across cultures, and what might seem like anxious behavior in one culture might be normal behavior in another culture. Horwitz (2001) also highlighted the importance of cultural differences in connection to language anxiety and classroom practice. How comfortable some classroom approaches and practices may appear to one group of learners may be anxiety-provoking for another group of learners from a different cultural group, who may be accustomed to a totally different style of instruction. Horwitz (ibid) further claimed that classroom atmosphere, teacher support, task orientation, and focus of instruction are all elements that influence students anxiety levels under instructional
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conditions. Cultural influences, such as the stereotyping of teachers, students, and classroom interactions, can be largely different from culture to culture.

3.10 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

This chapters main theme is affect. The beginning of this chapter focused on motivation, self-esteem and inhibition, which provide a wider context of the affective variables. It was shown that they are intricately interwoven with anxiety, are quite influential in the outcomes of language learning and carry significant weight in creating an environment that would be more conducive to the teaching and learning of a foreign language. Nonetheless, this chapters main focus was FLA, the main affective factor of this thesis. FLA was examined in terms of its origins, types and manifestation in language learners. Moreover, the deleterious role of anxiety in foreign/second language learning has been established. Hence, one of the practical implications that arises from this chapter is that ESP/EAP teachers should take these affective variables into serious consideration and make efforts to accommodate the ESP/EAP students needs in their teaching practice, a stance that will be further argued in Chapter Seven. The following chapter addresses the final pillar of this thesis which is language learning strategies.

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Chapter 4 Language Learning Strategies

4.0 Introduction
In recent years, the field of education has seen a great shift in focus. The emphasis once placed on the teacher and teaching gradually changed to the learner and learning (Nunan, 1988). Along the same lines is the fact that the search for the ultimate language teaching method was no longer the main focus of FL/L2 teachers and researchers, but instead the focus grew on how successfully language teachers and especially learners achieve their goals. More specifically, Long & Richards (1990) state that in the case of teachers, this change in focus has led to classroom-centered research on the linguistic, discoursal, and interactional structure of teaching events. In the case of learners, it has firstly led to the study of the angle from which learners approach learning, both in and out of classrooms, and secondly the kinds of strategies and cognitive processing they use in second language acquisition. A natural consequence of this change in focus was an increase in awareness and interest on the part of researchers and teachers in investigations pertaining to learning styles39 and learning strategies and their role in foreign language learning. In the intervening years, learning strategies have proven to be an extremely powerful learning tool (O'Malley, et al.,1985 as cited in Griffiths, 2004).
39

It should be noted that LLS are distinct from learning styles, which refer more broadly to a learner's "natural, habitual, and preferred way(s) of absorbing, processing, and retaining new information and skills" (Reid, 1995, viii). For more on the connection between and interdependency of LLS and learning styles see Cohen (1998).

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In its subsequent sections, this chapter addresses the notion of language learning strategies (LLS). It ought to be noted that although affective learning strategies are the key focus of this thesis, it was deemed important to provide an overview of other strategies so as to provide the framework of which affective strategies are a part. Each LLS should not be seen as detached from one another but as tools that are interrelated as they interact with one another (see sections 4.4 - 4.6). In this light, LLS are discussed under broader groupings.

In this view, Chapter Four provides a general theoretical foundation for language learning strategies and then proceeds with defining them. Moreover, a classification of language learning strategies is put forward in an attempt to firstly construct a notional framework and secondly to discern their interrelation and interaction, which will in turn serve as a basis which will help to interpret the findings of this research. Finally, their significance in relation to foreign language learning is discussed.

4.1 Cognitive Theory and LLS

Learning strategies in language did not emerge as an autogenous notional construct. At the core of language learning strategies lies the theory of cognition. LLS can be seen as an application of cognitive theory in that they are a manifestation of a learners cognitive processing. Therefore, before examining LLS, it is important to form a conceptual framework by looking at some fundamental theoretical insights of cognitive linguistics and cognitive psychology. Since the use of language learning strategies is seen as playing

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a significant role in language learning, I will first investigate them through the lens of foreign/second language (L2) learning40. In order to create scaffolding for cognitive theory, I look at cognitive psychology and linguistics. To begin with, cognitive psychology is a discipline which focuses on studying how people perceive, think, problem solve, remember, and learn. While cognitive psychology often adopts different theoretical approaches and studies a wide range of phenomena, most cognitive psychologists will agree that the focus of the subject is the main internal psychological processes involved primarily in studying ones environment, which in this case is the environment of foreign language learning. Equally important is making appropriate decisions, which in the case of foreign language learning includes making decisions about language input and output and decisions regarding LLS use. Similarly, cognitive linguistics, a fairly recent branch of linguistics, investigates language through conceptual systems, human cognition, and general meaning construction. As argued by scholars (cf. Geeraerts, 2006; Evans et al. 2006), cognitive linguistics adopts the premise that the study of language is the study of language use and as such, when one engages in any language activity, he/she unconsciously resorts to any available cognitive and cultural resources, creates multiple connections, coordinates information, and constructs cognitive mappings so as to process and make sense of the newly acquired information and subsequently store it and eventually recall it when required. All the above steps can be facilitated by the use of an array of LLS which can accommodate such
40

Here the terms learning and acquisition are used interchangeably and do not refer to the common distinction made in the literature i.e. learning occurs actively and consciously through explicit instruction, whereas acquisition occurs unconsciously and without formal instruction.

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highly cognitive tasks as using, for instance, memory strategies (discussed in section 4.4) to store and retrieve newly acquired language. It is important to note that cognitive linguistics goes beyond the visible structure of language and examines the more complex operations of cognition that create, for example, a conceptualization or an encoding process of language. Again, this is where LLS come into play as they are the behaviors and thoughts that a learner engages in during learning that are intended to influence the learners encoding process (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986: 315; cited in OMalley & Chapmot, 1990: 17). A cognitive theory of learning sees second/foreign language acquisition as a conscious and reasoned thinking process, involving the deliberate use of learning strategies. From this perspective, which views students as being able to consciously influence their own learning, the learning of language becomes a cognitive process similar in many ways to any other kind of learning (McLaughlin, 1978). This account of language learning can be juxtaposed with the behaviorist theory. of language learning, which sees language learning more of an unconscious, automatic process and the learner having more of a passive role in the learning process. Since the division between behaviorism and linguistics, O'Malley and Chamot (1990) deprecate the fact that cognitive processing has not received the same amount of attention in favor of language acquisition. According to language acquisition theory, acquisition occurs at unconscious and subconscious levels and is believed to be most effective when input is made comprehensible, a principle that Krashen (1982) affirms. However, "this notion is only partially accurate, tends to be misleading as stated, and leads to

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inappropriate consequences for instruction, such as the limited view that a teacher's primary role is to provide comprehensible input" (O'Malley & Chamot, 1990: ix). On the contrary, language learning involves conscious decisions at both the cognitive41 and metacognitive levels42. In this view, Anderson (1983) argues the importance of procedural and declarative knowledge43 in cognitive theory and uses the term cognitive skill as the ability to perform various mental procedures. Anderson explains that the repeated use of the same knowledge in a procedure can lead to the loss of access to the rules that enabled this procedure originally and hence our ability to declare or report these rules diminishes. Anderson further argues that procedural knowledge such as language acquisition requires extensive and repeated opportunities for practice and thus is slowly acquired whereas declarative knowledge may in fact be acquired quickly. OMalley and Chamot (1990) adopt Andersons stance and also see language learning strategies as cognitive skills that are acquired as declarative knowledge, which would subsequently become procedural as a result of extensive practice. With regards to second language acquisition, declarative knowledge does not automatically become procedural. There is a stage that interposes these two stages of knowledge and that is the associative

41

In language learning, cognition refers to the mental action or process of acquiring language and understanding through thought and experience (i.e. the process of learning or problem solving that requires direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials) Hismanoglu (2000). 42 Hacker (1998) provides a comprehensive definition of metacognition to include the knowledge of one's own cognitive and affective processes and states as well as the ability to consciously and deliberately monitor and regulate those processes and states. 43 OMalley and Chamot (1990: 13) explain that information in long-term memory consists of declarative knowledge, or the facts we know, and [continues to explain] that procedural knowledge [refers to] the complex cognitive skills and other process we know how to perform. 129

stage44. OMalley and Chamot (1990: 26) aptly comment that what occurs during this stage is that errors in the original declarative representation of the stored information are gradually detected and eliminated. Second, the connections among the various elements or components of the skill are strengthened []. However, the declarative representation initially formed is not always lost. Thus, even as we become more fluent at speaking a foreign language, we still remember its rules of grammar. These three stages of information processing (the declarative, associative and procedural) are termed cognitive information processing. In other words, during the declarative knowledge stage, the learner uses learning strategies to consciously process the new information and make sense of it. Following this stage, comes the associative stage where the new information is practiced through the use of another set of learning strategies and subsequently becomes familiar to the learner in preparation for the final stage, that of procedural knowledge, where the new L2 information is proceduralized in that it becomes more automatic and habitual. As is the case with any cognitive model of second language learning, Andersons too is without its limitations. The above process appears unidirectional in that it is single and accounts for a process that starts from declarative and finishes as procedural knowledge and implies that it takes place predominantly in the L2 classroom. Nonetheless, not all L2 learning takes place in a classroom and not all rules are encoded by the learners so that they can pass from a declarative to a procedural stage. Finally, one can question the flexibility of Andersons cognitive theory of acquiring complex cognitive skills. Despite some possible limitations of this theory, the understanding of declarative and procedural knowledge has implications for language

44

An information processing stage between declarative and procedural where new L2 information is practiced and stronger associations are made with existing knowledge OMalley and Chamot (1990). 130

teaching. An example of this implication may be drawn from the development of communicative competence. Increasing ones communicative competence requires procedural knowledge as considerable and repeated opportunities for practice are required for language acquisition to occur. Hence, L2 teaching approaches need to provide opportunities for learners to engage in meaningful communicative activities. These latter pedagogical implications will be further discussed in Chapter Seven.

4.2 Background of Language Learning Strategies

Language learning strategies have been used for thousands of years. In ancient times, storytellers, for example, used mnemonic or memory devices to help them remember their lines (Oxford, 1990). Oxford (ibid: 1) further supports this early use of language learning strategies by affirming the following: throughout history, the best language students have used strategies, ranging from naturalistic language practice techniques to analytic, rule based strategies. However, formal and systematic research into language learning strategies began in the 1960s. As mentioned above, developments in various sciences, and particularly cognitive psychology, shed light on the research carried out on LLS. Early definitions (as seen below) reflect the roots of LLS in cognitive science, on the premise that human beings process information and that a key element to learning involves such information processing. Clearly, learning strategies are involved in all learning, regardless of the content and context and hence learning strategies have been seen as an integral part of learning and are recognized throughout education at large.

One of the first important accounts of language learning strategies was that of Carton (1966) who published a study entitled The Method of Inference in Foreign Language
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Study. Early on, Rubin (1971) also recognized the importance of language learning strategies and began research to identify strategies of successful learners, which in turn could be available to other language learners to enhance their language learning ability. Following Carton and Rubin, many other scholars such as OMalley et al. (1985); Papaefthymiou-Lytra (1987a); Wenden and Rubin, (1987); Oxford, (1990); Stern (1975, 1992); Ellis, (1994); Macaro, (2006) gave their own accounts of LLS and provided their own classifications. Some of these classifications are examined in section 4.4.

4.3 On Defining Language Learning Strategies

Before proceeding with a taxonomy of LLS, it is important to create a notional framework by providing definitions of LLS as conceptualized by various researchers. Tarone (1983: 67) defined a language strategy as "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language [] to incorporate these into one's interlanguage competence". A language learning strategy in its own right is defined in a general sense by (Ellis, 1994: 529) as a mental or behavioral activity related to some specific stage in the overall process of language acquisition or language use. Ellis definition lends itself to various interpretations in that a strategy may be mental thus rendering it difficult to observe and measure, behavioral and hence easier to observe as it manifests itself through specific behaviors on the part of the student or finally, a strategy may be a combination of both. Another definition provided is that of Cohen (1998) who states that they [second language use strategies]45 constitute steps or actions consciously selected by learners either to improve the learning of second language, the use of
45

Cohen uses the term second language use strategies to include L2 learning and L2 use strategies. 132

it or both. [Second language use strategies are] processes which are consciously selected by learners and which may result in action taken to enhance learning or use of a second or foreign language.

It becomes obvious that Cohens definition underscores the notion that only conscious strategies are LLS which implies that they are not subconscious/unconscious or automatic processes. In essence, a change over time may be noted in the conventionalization of these definitions. Initially, there is an early focus on the product of LSS (linguistic or sociolinguistic competence; cf. Tarone, 1983) and mental process followed by a greater emphasis on the processes, actions and the characteristics of LLS.

Other definitional constructs put forward include Papaefthymiou-Lytras (1987a: 74) who defines learning strategies for communication purposes as internal procedures of communication realized in actual performance as verbal or non-verbal behavior. Papaefthymiou-Lytras definition places emphasis on two elements: observability and communication. In other words, strategies can be documented and analyzed in a learners effort to communicate.

The definitions that follow use a narrower notion of communication compared to that of Papaefthymiou-Lytras in that they are employed for purposes of learning and not necessarily for overall communication. However, in her later work, Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009) presents a rigorous argument and asserts that communication and learning strategies are two faces of the same coin46. Wenden and Rubin (1987: 19) see language learning strategies as any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to
46

Communication strategies are discussed in section 6.4.4. 133

facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information. Richards and Platt (1992: 209) see language learning strategies as intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn or remember new information. Stern (1992: 261) avers that the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques.

All the above definitions are constructed within the cognitive theory framework since language learning strategies are seen as an expression of a conscious and reasoned thinking process. These conscious and deliberate steps or behaviors used by language learners to enhance the acquisition, storage, retention, recall, and use of new information is also emphasized by Rigney (1978) and Oxford (1990). However, Oxford (1990) takes the above notion of conscious steps in processing language input and producing language output one step further and defines LLS as specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective and more transferable to new situations (1990: 8). Her use of the term action suggests that it is a conscious process. Oxford accepts the conscious and deliberate effort on the part of the learner in his/her use of LLS but adds the elements of easier and enjoyable in an attempt to fully convey the usefulness of LLS in language learning. However, Reid (1995) sees learning strategies as external skills that students use, often consciously, to improve their learning; we might describe them as study skills that students can be taught and that can enhance or expand their existing learning styles (viii). In her definition,

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Reid implies that the use of LLS is not always conscious, but learners may engage in them unconsciously.

As seen earlier, O Malley and Chamot (1990: 1) based their definition on a cognitive information processing view of a learners thought and action and hence define learning strategies as the special thoughts or behaviors that individuals use to help them comprehend, learn or retain new information. OMalley and Chamot do not use the terms conscious or unconscious, but in using the words thoughts and behaviors they are implying that LLS are used both deliberately and unconsciously since by definition thoughts and behaviors are expressed in similar ways. Similarly, in Aranis
(2005) view, cited in Bernardo & Gonzales (2009), all language learners use learning strategies either consciously or unconsciously when processing new information and performing tasks in the language classroom.

The fact that LLS may also be an unconscious activity is not supported by all the previously-mentioned definitions. Nonetheless, all definitions, to a certain extent, agree on the following point: that the utilization of language learning strategies is a conscious or intentional action on the part of the learner so as to maximize their language learning. Having the characteristic of a conscious activity renders learning strategies as a controllable component of the learning process. As such, they could be enhanced by employing various teaching approaches, the implications of which are argued in Chapter Seven. This dissension of whether LLS are observable or not is also supported by Tseng et al.
(2006), as cited in Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009: 37), by basically stating that the jury is still

out on whether learning strategies should be regarded as either observable behaviors or

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inner mental operations or both. On this debate, Papaefthymiou-Lytra (ibid: 38) asserts that at least with reference to oral communication, learning strategies may be observable as they integrate and blend with communicating strategies at the here and now of social interaction or classroom discourse rather than talking about them retrospectively.
In summary, and as noted, the definitions provided above differ in certain respects yet they

converge on certain elements. One point of convergence is that LLS are seen as elements of cognitive processes. They are conscious (or unconscious according to some researchers) learning behaviors that learners use to accommodate second language learning. In addition, the definitions refer to features that are associated with the learner and the language learning process respectively. In other words, there is an emphasis on what a learner knows about the strategies he/she chooses to employ as well as knowledge of the learners own learning (metacognition).

In short, a complete agreement as to the definition, demarcation, and categorization of language learning strategies has yet to be reached. Despite these obstacles, there seems to be a general consensus regarding the beneficial effects a student has when becoming aware of strategies and subsequently using them. Likewise, for the teacher it is also important to have a framework in his/her mind of a set of strategies (e.g. Oxfords taxonomy of the six basic strategy groups) so as to help L2 learners firstly become aware of specific strategies so that they can access them when necessary. This teachable property of LLS gave way to the development of various LLS training programs to be developed and implemented (Nunan, 1996; Cohen, 1998; Macaro, 2001)47. It would be

47

LLS training programs will be discussed in Chapter 7. 136

of value to end this section by reflecting on Macaros (2007), cited in Oxford (2011: v), words as they show his great concern: I believe that we owe it to our learners to get the theory right. I see too many failing young people in UK [foreign] language classrooms to risk getting theory wrong. So, yes, we need to define more precisely what a strategy is. Yes, we do need to sort out the relationship between strategy use and success by finding out why people use strategies differently. Yes, we do need to relate strategies to specific tasks and then see how learners feel about those tasks (self-efficacy). And yes, we do need to get our strategy instruction programs right and show, consistently, that they work. Macaro (2007) manages to capture in a few lines all the challenges of LLS. In other words, he demonstrates the relevance of LLS to language learning success, as well as the effectiveness of strategy training.

4.4 A Classification Construct of Language Learning Strategies

Although many researchers have provided a typology for the classification of language learning strategies, there are not many substantial differences or radical changes from one classification system to another as they reflect more or less the same categorizations. In general, LLS could fall under four broad categories in what they enable the learner to do (Goh & Foong, 1997: 41). There are strategies that enable learners to 1) comprehend, store, retrieve and use information; 2) manage and direct their learning through reflection and planning; 3) control their emotions; and 4) create opportunities to practice the target language with other people. I have adopted this broad categorization so as to provide a taxonomy overview of some of the most representative classifications as listed by OMalley & Chamot et al (1985b), Rubin (1987), Stern (1992) and Oxford (1990) among others. Consequently, in the sections that follow, a regrouping of the various taxonomies has been made in an attempt to show how they are interrelated. As stated in the

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introduction, I would like to note that apart from affective LLS, which are the focus of this thesis, an overview of various strategies is provided, as they are all interlocked, as Oxford (2011) characteristically supports. Therefore, there is a complex association among all the strategies since they are not independent components or linear. Moreover, it is hoped that these broad categorizations provide an overall LLS framework, which shows the interrelation of LLS as they apply to language learning.

4.4.1 Strategies that comprehend, store, retrieve and use information

Under this category of strategies could be placed all the strategies learners deploy to understand and store language input and subsequently retrieve and use it when necessary. OMalley & Chamot et al (1985b), Rubin (1987), Stern (1992) and Oxford (1990) have all used cognitive strategies in their taxonomies which, according to Hismanoglu (2000), refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning materials All the above scholars view cognitive strategies in a similar way to Brown (1994) who supports that they are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more direct manipulation of the learning material itself. Cognitive strategies have a vast range of distinct categories. Examples of these categories include deductive reasoning (consciously applying general rules to produce or understand L2), inductive inferencing (strategies concerned with making hypotheses about how the language works, guessing meaning of new items, predicting outcomes, or filling in missing information), clarification/verification (strategies used by learners to check whether they have comprehended a language item), receiving and sending messages (getting the idea quickly and using resources for receiving and sending

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messages), creating structure for input and output (taking notes, summarizing, highlighting) and finally, contextualization (placing a word or phrase in a meaningful language sequence). Along similar lines are the cohesive strategies suggested in Papaefthymiou-Lytras (1987a) model of learning strategies according to which strategies are used to maintain a syntagmatic relation of syntactic and semantic features of a specific language (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1998: 25) thus the notion of meaningful language production and use is stated by implication.

Within this category, I suggest placing OMalley & Chamots et al (1985b), Rubins (1987), Sterns (1992) and Oxfords (1990) memory strategies (also referred to as memorization strategies) since they are used to help learners store and retrieve new information. Resorting to the use of mnemonic devices, creating mental linkages, and lexical groupings are examples of memorization strategies.

4.4.2 Strategies that manage and direct learning through reflection and planning
As Stern (1992) claims, management and planning strategies are those related with the learners intention to direct his/her own learning. A learner can take charge of the development of his/her own language learning when he/she is helped by a teacher whose role is that of an adviser and resource person. In other words, Stern (1992) argues the learner must decide how committed he/she is to language learning; establish the goals he/she wants to achieve; decide on an appropriate methodology to employ for optimal learning and in doing so find appropriate resources, and monitor progress; and finally,

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evaluate his/her achievements with respect to the goals set forward at the outset of the language learning endeavor. Under the same category come metacognitve strategies which are used by OMalley & Chamot et al (1985b), Rubin (1987), and Oxford (1990) as a distinct category of the LLS paradigm. Metacognitive strategies refer to those strategies that involve how to go about learning; thinking about the process of learning as it is taking place; monitoring of ones language, including comprehension or production (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1987a, 2009); and evaluating learning after the completion of an activity. Stated differently, I could say that in using metacognitive strategies learners coordinate their own learning process. This process of monitoring and coordinating ones learning interrelates with Sterns (1992) management and planning strategies as in both cases the learner plays an instrumental role in taking control of his/her learning. This idea of self-management leads the learner towards the direction of understanding the conditions that help him/her to learn and subsequently arranging for the presence and exploitation of those conditions (OMalley & Chamot et al, 1985b).

4.4.3 Strategies that help learners control their emotions

The strategies that are used to help learners cope with negative emotions, attitudes and beliefs as well as low motivation associated with language learning are named affective. Affective strategies are the focal point of this thesis due primarily to their infrequent occurrence in L2 research. This infrequent occurrence in studies may be largely attributed to the fact that L2 researchers do not often investigate these behaviors mainly because the subjects (learners) are not used to paying attention to their own feelings and social relationships as part of the L2 learning process as Oxford (1990b) maintains. Apart from

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Oxfords observations, I may add that even when L2 learners do become aware of their own feelings and social relationships (meta-affect48), the metalanguage used by both the learner who is expressing these feelings and social relationships and the researcher who is recording them may create implications for the research and its subsequent findings. For example, when trying to decode the responses of interviewees and similarly report these responses, as in the case of the present research, great attention must be paid to metalanguage (see section 5.6 for more on metalanguage).

Only Sterns (1992) and Oxfords (1990) language strategy inventories explicitly refer to affective LLS, which shows their attempt to redress this imbalance of other classification systems that place an emphasis primarily on cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In the relevant literature there are certain instances, i.e. Macaro (2006) who sees affective strategies as part of the construct of metacognitive strategies ascribing thus a lower value to the former.

Nonetheless, affective strategies play an important role in language learning as they allow students to take control over their emotions and attitudes linked to learning. Any negative feelings associated with language learning can stifle progress. The affective dimension is fundamental to L2 learning (Horwitz, 2007) or any learning for that matter. Emotions pervade all of our activities (MacIntryre, 2002: 61; as cited in Oxford 2011: 65). Therefore, affective strategies are very important as language learners often experience various negative emotions. Successful language learners are conscious of their emotional state and try to create a positive feeling towards anything associated with the foreign
48

Meta-affect is discussed later (in this section). 141

language (its speakers, activities involved and the language itself). Despite their usefulness, not all L2 learners extensively employ such strategies (as is the case of the participants of this study -see Chapter 6) as perhaps these learners may not feel negative emotions towards language learning and thus do not need to use affective strategies to counterbalance this. Oxford (1990) adamantly supports the development and use of affective strategies and has coined the term LET (141) an acronym for Lowering Ones Anxiety; Encouraging Oneself; Taking Ones Emotional Temperature. According to Oxford, lowering ones anxiety means using progressive relaxation, deep breathing, or meditation, using music, and using laughter as simple techniques. To encourage oneself, he/she has to make positive statements, take risks wisely, and reward him/herself. Finally, so as to take Ones Emotional Temperature (assess their emotions as they relate to language learning), Oxford claims that it is necessary to listen to their body, use a checklist, write a language learning diary, and discuss their feelings with someone else. Other affective strategies the learner may resort to include positive self-talk, visualization, and humor among others. These techniques have been suggested as simple steps that any learner can resort to in order to help him/her cope with anxiety and other stressful properties that are often associated with language learning. As previously stated, and as we will see below, LLS do not occur in isolation nor do they occur independent of each other but instead there is a complex association among all the strategies. Therefore, affective LLS are closely linked to other LLS.

A model of interaction and interrelation of affect and other LLS is argued by Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009). She posits that affect is in the interface of cognition and

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metacognition (discussed below). Similarly, Oxford (2011: 61) maintains that affect interacts closely with cognition at many learning stages, and this is particularly true in L2 learning so although it is being isolated now for closer examination, its interrelation and interaction with the other learning strategies should not be overlooked. Wolters (2003) proposed a meta level of affective strategies. As is the case of metacognitive strategies, a meta dimension to affect strategies brings control (Oxford, 2011: 62) to affective strategies. A meta-affective set of strategies (e.g. paying attention to affect; implementing plans for affect; monitoring, and evaluating affect) is deemed as important as it will help the learner to go beyond the simple employment of strategies to control emotions. Instead, he/she will reflect on the affective needs (e.g. state of emotion, level of motivation) and take steps towards building an affective environment conducive to L2 learning.

Affective strategies are a key component of Oxfords Strategic Self-Regulatory Model (S2R)49 where there is reference to two affective strategies: (1) Activating, Supporting Emotions, Beliefs and Attitudes and (2) Generating and Maintaining Motivation and this shows that affective strategies in her S2R model accounts for all the components of affect: learners emotion, beliefs, attitudes and motivation. This model has been taken into account when the pedagogical implications are discussed in Chapter Seven.

S2R is a model whereby learners actively and constructively use strategies to manage their own learning. (Oxford, 2011: 7). This model integrates three aspects of learning theory and research: psychological, social-cultural, and cognitive (cf. Oxford, 2011) and endeavors to provide a better balance of dimensions. 143

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4.4.4 Strategies that help create opportunities to practice the target language with other people
Under this category of strategies, I have placed the various strategies that provide learners exposure to the target language and strategies used to maintain communication. All the aforementioned scholars (OMalley & Chamot et al, 1985b; Rubin, 1987; Stern, 1992; Oxford, 1990) have included such strategies under different names. As previously seen, OMalley & Chamots et al, (ibid) metacognitive and cognitive categories approximate Rubins indirect and direct strategies. Nevertheless, OMalley & Chamots et al, (ibid) addition of the social mediation and transaction with others category of strategies (an aspect of their socioaffective category) reveals the significance of interactional strategies in language learning. In a similar fashion, Oxford (1990) talks about social strategies in connection with the social element of language learning. Language learning does not take place in a vacuum. Language is a form of social behavior; it is communication, and communication occurs between and among people (Oxford, 1990: 144) thus students manipulation of appropriate social strategies are very important in the process of learning. This redressing of a taxonomy indicates the importance placed on learning by interaction with others. Rubin (1987) also includes this category in her taxonomy. As in the case of Oxford, for Rubin social strategies refer to various activities students engage in that provide them the opportunity to be exposed to and practice their existing knowledge. These strategies provide exposure to the target language; however, they contribute indirectly to learning since they do not lead directly to obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of the language (Wenden & Rubin, 1987). In this vein, Stern (1992) refers to one of his categories as communicative-experiential strategies which are
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techniques used by learners to maintain the flow of communication and comprise circumlocution, gesturing, paraphrasing or requests for repetition and explanation.

What Papaefthymiou-Lytra (1987a) refers to as coherent strategies in her classification could be placed under this category as the focus is on interaction between participants during communication. According to Papaefthymiou-Lytra (ibid: 74), some coherent strategies refer to the overall interaction structure of communication in relation to the topic and the biographies of the participants. Others refer to the segmentation of interaction in a step-by-step development, as the participants interchangeably become speakers and listeners. Still others are used to restore normality in interaction []. Finally, Stern includes interpersonal strategies in his categorization and claims that these help learners monitor their own development and evaluate their own performance and suggests that learners should have contact with native speakers and cooperate with them. It is noteworthy that Sterns reference implies the attribution of added value to engaging in interaction with native speakers. Upholding communication is the essence of this set of the above-mentioned strategies. The actual use of the term communication strategies is not that frequently used in the LLS taxonomies as it is often thought of as something distinct from LLS.

Communication strategies are not directly related to language learning since, as the term itself implies, the focus is on the process of participating in a conversation and communicating meaning. In other words, a learner tries to enhance communication with others. Speakers resort to communication strategies when faced with difficulty due to the fact that their communication ends outrun their communication means or when
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confronted with misunderstanding by a co-speaker Hismanoglu (2000: 2). Put differently, a learners communication goals are often more sophisticated than what his linguistic resources actually allow him to achieve. Thus instead of abandoning communication when faced with an obstacle, the learner sustains communication by resorting to these communication strategies and in order to learn what he/she needs to communicate. Drnyei (1995) & Macaro (2001) have also recognized the importance of communication strategies. Communication strategies can be considered real life tools that people utilize to achieve effective communication. However, according to Macaro, these are also classroom tools in that they provide learners with the assurance that they are able to communicate despite their lack of perceived ability and knowledge.

Rubin included communication strategies in her taxonomy as opposed to Brown (1980) and Tarone (1980) who saw this inclusion as controversial since learning strategies and communication strategies were seen as two quite separate manifestations of language learner behavior. Brown (1980: 87) drew a clear distinction between learning strategies and communication strategies on the grounds that communication is the output modality and learning is the input modality. Tarones (1980) basis for differentiating between communication and learning strategies was motivation or intention. In other words, is the learners motivation and intention to learn or communicate? The apparent drawback of this argument is how does one differentiate between these two intentions. Ellis (1994: 530), as cited in Griffiths (2004), also concedes that there is no easy way of telling whether a strategy is motivated by a desire to learn or a desire to communicate.

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On the other hand, Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009: 36) argues that communication strategies and learning strategies are two sides of the same coin as characteristically stated earlier (section 4.3), in that they are both essential in oral communication. Her argument stems around the notion that social and affective strategies are the cornerstone of what she terms communication strategies whereas her concept of learning strategies include compensation and memory strategies as their base. Communication strategies are overt communicating strategies but covert learning strategies and learning strategies are overt learning strategies but covert communicating strategies. In principle what is implied is that if the learner cannot learn what he/she needs on the spot, communication dies off.

As a final remark, I would like to state that the challenge of a clear differentiation between learning and communication strategies does little to unravel the complexity of the decision regarding which learning strategy taxonomies should or should not be included in a universal taxonomy. Amid this welter of various LLS classifications, it could be argued that the above four broad categories of strategies (see 4.4.1, 4.4.2, 4.4.3, 4.4.4), based on what they enable the learner to do, provide an overall framework and show the interrelation of LLS for language learning, the intention of which was stated in the introduction to this section.

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4.5 An Overview of Oxfords Taxonomy and Justification for the use of this Paradigm
Oxfords Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)50 is the one favored in this research. The SILL is used primarily as a quantitative tool in this thesis and thus a synopsis of the strategies included in the SILL should be given so as to provide the theoretical underpinning. As previously mentioned, Oxford puts forward a classification system organized around a division of two main strategy groups: direct and indirect. This main distinction concentrates on the fact that direct strategies (memory, cognitive and compensation) are more directly associated with the learning in how the learner deals with and works on the target language. In Oxfords view, direct strategies refer to strategies that directly involve the target language and require mental processing of the language (Oxford, 1990: 37). Whereas indirect strategies (social, affective metacognitive) relate to the general management of learning or as Oxford (1990: 151) puts it provide indirect support for language learning through focusing, planning, seeking opportunities, controlling anxiety, increase cooperation and empathy and other means. Each category is further divided into more discrete items (memory, cognitive, compensation). In short, memory strategies are used to store and retrieve new information. Cognitive strategies are mental processes that involve the manipulation of, transformation of and interaction in the target language. Finally, compensation strategies are used to cope with any gap in knowledge of the target language that is required to comprehend and produce it. Indirect strategies (metacognitive, affective, social), on the
Oxfords SILL has gained great popularity and is considered a very influential instrument in the area of LLS (Rivera-Mills & Plonsky 2007). For more on the SILL refer to Chapter Five.
50

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other hand, help learners regulate their learning process by supporting and managing language learning without direct engagement in the target language or as Oxford (1990b: 71) states that [indirect LLS] do not directly involve the subject matter itself, but are essential to language learning nonetheless". Metacognitive strategies are utilized by learners to evaluate, monitor and plan their language learning. Learners control their emotions, attitudes and motivation towards language learning by using affective strategies. The final strategy of this classification system social strategies- refers to the learners interaction with others in the target language. Once again, it is important to note that direct and indirect strategies are in tandem and do not appear in isolation, as the categorization may suggest and are both an integral part of effective language learning. It would be of interest to look at some studies that have utilized Oxfords taxonomy (see section 4.5).

As the focus of this thesis was not the entire breadth of LLS, but affective LLS, I examined the use of affective LLS within a wider context of strategy use. As such, an inventory of strategies had to be used as the basis of the quantitative research conducted in this thesis in an attempt to find any marked interrelational or other correlational significance in the results it has yielded. In other words, any statistically important associations among the reported frequency of LLS use was sought after. Despite the fact that Oxfords taxonomy does not differentiate substantially from those of her predecessors in the actual categorization, her classification system was the one favored in this study on the grounds of various reasons.

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First of all, by synthesizing the earlier classifications and building upon her own research, Oxford does provide a more comprehensive, insightful and detailed account in that it is an all-embracing scheme for language learning strategy use based on research conducted by her predecessors (e.g. Stern, 1975; O'Malley et al., 1985; Wenden and Rubin, 1987). These properties are what make Oxfords taxonomy more accessible. This overall comprehensive framework is what differentiates Oxfords taxonomy from others as this taxonomy includes social and affective strategies, which is not the case in the taxonomy provided by, for instance, Rubin (1987). Oxfords classification incorporates all the elements of compensation strategies into one which makes it easier to decode and yield results connected to this strategy. Moreover, I espouse Oxfords (1990: 22) stance that this taxonomy organizes well-known metacognitive, cognitive, and memory strategies so that you can access them easily when juxtaposed, for example, with Rubins (1987) category of cognitive strategies which includes six specific strategies, namely clarification/verification, deductive reasoning and memorization, to name but a few. However, Oxfords category of cognitive strategies includes four specific strategies (practicing; receiving and sending messages; analyzing and reasoning; creating structure for input and output) which renders them more accessible.

Another very important aspect in defense of this classification is that it draws on the interrelationship between and among strategies in a systematic way and as the figure below shows (Figure 5) each strategy can connect to any other in multiple combinations. This figure successfully depicts the notion that strategy use is not employed in a linear fashion, but in a complex association among all the strategies. Oxford (1994: 34)

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supports this view in saying that language learners do not use one particular strategy or any strategy in isolation. On the contrary, they tend to select strategies that work well together in a highly orchestrated way.

Figure 5 Interrelationships between direct and indirect strategies and among the six strategy groups. (Source: Oxford: 1990: 15)

This lack of interaction in other classifications is an aspect emphasized by Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009: 27) who states that they [LLS] are presented in a linear fashion that does not demonstrate their interdependence and their interaction in the act of communication by L2 language learners/users. In line with the argument developed by Veenman et al. (2006: 5), cited in Papaefthymiou-Lytra (ibid: 33), that there is a complex relation between metacognition and cognition, which involves a higher-order cognition about cognition [] (functioning) as an agent overlooking and governing the system, while simultaneously being part of it, Papaefthymiou-Lytra (ibid) contends that cognitive and metacognitive practices are interconnected like the two faces of a coinas mentioned above- hence, providing another lens through which to look at the non-linear interrelation of LLS. As the figure shows (see Figure 6), memory, compensation, affective and social strategies are situated at the interface between cognition and

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metacognition. Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009: 33) views these four strategies (memory, compensation, affective and social strategies) as the channels of communication between cognition and metacognition or between declarative knowledge and procedural knowledge of language learners/users and argues that all FL communication encounters (including FL classroom discourse) [are] problem solving tasks in a broad sense.

Cognitive

Memory Compensation Affective Social

Metacognitive

Figure 6 Interrelationships of strategies. (Source: Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 2009: 34)

Aside from the two figures shown (Figure 5 and Figure 6), I would also like to propose another graphic representation of Oxfords LLS model that of a jigsaw puzzle (see below Figure 7). The metaphor of the jigsaw puzzle is quite appropriate. I have chosen this analogy for its strong semiotics. Each piece of the puzzle represents one of the six strategies and all these pieces assembled into the jigsaw puzzle constitute one's repertoire of strategies at hand. Moreover, it has visible features on the faces of the pieces (observable and conscious aspect of LLS) but we cannot see beneath the pieces (nonobservable, unconscious aspect of LLS). Furthermore, a jigsaw puzzle has individual pieces that keep them distinct from each other as well as differently shaped edges that lead to a conscious effort in joining them together in a specific way to complete the picture. This effort can be compared to that of trying to construct a sound theory
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underlying LLS. In a jigsaw puzzle, if the pieces are pieced together, we have the complete story/picture. In a similar way, we have a complete systematic view of LLS. Nonetheless, another stance could be taken involving the metaphor often used as in the meaning something is puzzling me. This adds the dimension of the lack of demarcation and complete comprehension of the role and importance of LLS as well as the consensus among the experts regarding a definitional construct.

Figure 7 Puzzle: Interrelationships of strategies. (Source: Original)

4.6 The Revelations of LLS Studies

There have been many studies conducted internationally which investigate the use of LLS among students learning various languages, but primarily students learning ESL/EFL and will be used to draw some comparisons with the results yielded in my research (see Chapter 6). The same studies also cover all levels of education ranging from tertiary level down to primary and secondary levels (cf. Griffiths, 2003; Lan & Oxford, 2003; Lee & Oxford, 2008; Nisbet, Tindall & Arroyo, 2005; Purdie & Oliver, 1999; Wu, 2008).
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However, there are international studies that have specifically addressed ESP/EAP target groups (cf. Peacock, 2001; Peacock & Ho, 2003; Bernardo & Gonzales, 2009). Similarly, there are studies on LLS use that have been carried out in a Greek context (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1987a; Kazamia, 2003; Griva. & Tsakiridou, 2006; Gavriilidou, & Papanis, 2010;) but do not involve an ESP/EAP context. Nonetheless, there are studies with a focus on ESP/EAP within a Greek university context (cf. Psaltou-Joycey, 2003; Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009a, 2009b). Conclusions from some of these studies are presented below. Since the present studys focus is on tertiary-level ESP/EAP students, it would be of interest to look at some more recent indicative research in the area of LLS within the general ESP/EAP context. Peacock (2001) investigated the association of individual strategies and levels of language proficiency among university EAP students and found that there are positive associations with some strategies and negative associations with other strategies. Peacock & Ho (2003) investigated common language learning strategies by EAP students across 8 disciplines and revealed that students from different disciplines employ strategies that differ in frequencies and categories. Bernardo & Gonzales (2009) investigated the use of LLS with a specific focus on strategies pertaining to vocabulary in an EAP setting across multiple (five) disciplines in a Filipino university. More specifically, Bernardo & Gonzales (2009) findings revealed statistically significant differences in the use of determination and social vocabulary learning strategies (VLS) across the disciplines. In addition, non-significant differences in the employment of memory, cognitive, and metacognitive VLS were reported. Finally, the results also

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showed that the identified vocabulary learning strategies converged with each other (Bernardo & Gonzales, 2009: 17). Within a Greek context, few studies have been conducted to measure the variation and frequency of strategy use and they too have employed the SILL as their main quantitative research tool. More specifically, Kazamia (2003) discussed the language learning strategies of Greek EFL civil servants in relation to tolerance of ambiguity and found a declining order of use in metacognitive, social, compensation, cognitive, memory, and affective strategies among her participants. Griva. & Tsakiridou (2006) investigated the range and types of LLS (concentrating more on cognitive and metacognitive strategies) employed by Greek university students in both ESP and FSP (French for Specific Purposes) classes with reference to the four major language skills and did not find a high frequency in the use of these two strategies. Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou (2009a) looked at students from various disciplines from both ESP classes as well as other LSP (language for specific purposes) classes and one of the main findings was that more advanced trilingual students made more frequent use of cognitive and metacognitive strategies. In their subsequent study Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou (2009b) researched LLS profiles of university students in Greece in connection with various factors such as gender, field of study and language proficiency and found significant differences among these variables.

The latter study is the only one (to date and as the literature review reveals) which investigates strategy use among students attending ESP/EAP courses in Greek tertiarylevel education. The findings of the studies in the Greek context reveal that overall there is not a high frequency of strategy use and this is obviously related to the socio-cultural
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milieu (see section 4.7) which the language learning setting is a part of. In relation with affective strategies, research signifies that they were among the lowest in terms of frequency use which is indicative of the lack of high levels of anxiety which have been found by the researcher of this thesis (see Chapter 6). The fact that students do not feel particularly anxious of their language learning does not necessarily imply positive emotions or beliefs and attitudes towards the language; on the contrary, it may imply the lack of motivation and overall indifference towards it. Hence, it could not be claimed with certainty that there is no need to resort to the use of affective strategies. The frequency of use of LLS also depends on another factor i.e. the cultural context within which studies are conducted. The influence of culture is discussed in the following section.

4.7 Socio-Cultural Influences on Language Learning Strategies

It is argued that a learners socio-cultural background does affect strategy choice. Bedel and Oxford (1996), cited in Psaltou-Joycey (2010), reported several studies that highlighted the link between ones ethnicity or cultural background and the use of LLS. An integral part of learning according to situated cognition is that all knowledge is situated in activity bound to social, cultural and physical contexts (Greeno & Moore, 1993). In connection with foreign/second language learning (as language learning is situated in a given cultural context), this theory holds that cultural influences are inseparable from what is learnt. Oxford et al. (1992) support the belief that although culture is one of the determinants, it often does play a significant role in the strategies adopted by many participants in a given culture. Similarly, the importance of a learners cultural background in connection with the way he/she carries out communicative tasks
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(and by logical extension to strategies employed to avoid communication breakdown) is affirmed by Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2007). Gu, (2003), cited in Dakun (2006), supports the idea that strategies employed by learners are determined not only by his/her personal factors but also by the socio-cultural context where he/she studies and that an effective learning strategy that is appropriate in one learning context may be deemed unsuitable in another context. Macaro (2006), cited in Papaefthymiou-Lytra (2009: 30), also holds this view by stating that LLS use is not just a matter of personal choice, but rather is influenced by the learners socio-cultural background.

The main point to be drawn here is that the learners cultural context of the learning situation can be expected to have a strong influence on choice and acceptability of language learning strategies. Such cultural elements include attitudes toward authority, beliefs about how difficult (or easy) it is to learn a language [] concepts about whether personal expression and creativity are allowed all these are cultural issues that affect the use of language learning strategies (Oxford, 1996: xii). For example, in a culture that prizes rote (i.e. memorizing loads of information) learning and pronounced passivity and does not encourage creative thinking or learners critical view of matters, memory strategies may be favored. Likewise, a society where its educational system includes many competitive tasks and promotes individual competition among students may lead successful language learners to use LLS that allow them to work alone rather than social strategies that involve cooperation with others. Another example which indicates the importance of cultural influences on the use of LLS is related to cultures which appreciate extroversion (e.g. Latin America) where students are perhaps led to the use of social strategies for learning.
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In support of the above-mentioned influences are studies that have been conducted in specific cultural contexts. As Wharton (2000) reports, a study of ethnically Chinese, bilingual Singaporean university students studying a foreign language (French or Japanese) found that students reported a preference for social strategies as well as a disinclination to use affective strategies. Another study (Olivares-Cuhat, 2002) investigated LLS use of students in a university advanced Spanish writing class and compared LLS (among other factors) between those students speaking Spanish as a first or heritage language and those learning Spanish as a foreign language. The study revealed that students with a Spanish language background showed a greater preference for affective and memory strategies compared to the students for whom Spanish was a foreign language. In another study, Taiwanese students seemed far more structured, analytical, memory-based, and metacognitively oriented than other groups (Oxford, 1994).

So far, it has become obvious that studies have shown an association between cultural differences and LLS approach and use. However, despite the fact that these differences are attributed to culture, they may in fact be the result of learners prior schooling experience, which of course is embedded in a specific cultural context. Needless to say, more research on determining the influence of a learners socio-cultural background on the approach and application of LLS is deemed necessary to extract more concrete results.

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Socio-cultural aspects become an important factor in this study as the participants used in the research belong to a specific linguistic and cultural context namely that of a predominantly Greek monolingual society. In discussing the implications (see Chapter 7), the socio-cultural aspects of this particular studys context (Greek) will be put forward in an attempt to interpret the results pertaining to the use of affective LLS.

4.8 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

In this chapter, the roots of LLS which lie in cognitive science were put forward. A classification framework was proposed to include a number of the various LLS, which in turn were discussed. It was noted that the classification system developed by each researcher shares similarities both in breadth and depth, and many instances of overlapping do occur; however, the fact remains that LLS definitions and even research results of LLS approach and application are not -to a certain extent- generalizable in that differences and conflicting results do occur. Still another issue involves the classification of strategies. The mere existence of distinct strategy typologies indicates a major problem in the research area of L2 learning strategies: lack of a coherent, well accepted system for describing them. Oxfords SILL, and hence taxonomy, has been the inventory favored in this thesis and a justification of this choice was presented mainly based on its relative merits as it was argued that it provides a comprehensive and detailed account of LLS. The results of some indicative research were presented as a background for the research findings of this thesis. This chapter also discussed the influence of the socio-cultural context in which language learning takes place as an important factor in LLS use.

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The conclusion that could be drawn from this Chapter is that the researchers agree on the importance of using these strategies within the framework of language learning and interaction as they help learners to take control over their learning.

So far, this thesis has created a framework of reference regarding mainly the areas of ESP/EAP, adult learners, language anxiety and language learning strategies -with particular reference to affective strategies- in an attempt to map this extensive and diverse terrain. The remainder of the thesis discusses the methodological procedures; presents the findings and addresses the implication of these findings. In the following chapter (Chapter 5), a detailed account of the research design is presented.

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Chapter 5 Research Methods and Procedures

5.0 Introduction
As stated in the introductory chapter (Chapter 1), the primary goal of this research is to first identify the pervasiveness and extent to which university students in Greece experience language learning anxiety in their ESP/EAP classes and secondly to investigate their use of affective strategies in particular. The aim is to tally the results and explore any significant statistical correlational value between foreign language learning anxiety and the use of affective LLS. More specifically, the research questions to explore were formulated as follows:

Firstly, how pervasive is foreign language anxiety among students in Greek university ESP/EAP classes and to what degree does language learning anxiety manifest itself? The first question seeks to find out the severity and scope of foreign language anxiety as reported by first and second year Business and Economics majors in connection to selected variables such as gender, language proficiency, year of study etc.

Secondly, to what extent do Greek University students in ESP/EAP classes employ affective language learning strategies? The second question aims to identify the amount of affective strategy use among the above mentioned target group and in connection to the same variables.

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Thirdly, what is the correlation between reported levels of language learning anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies among these ESP/EAP students? The third question examines the relationship between language learning anxiety and the use of affective learning strategies.

The research design and methodological procedure used to seek answers to the above questions are presented in detail in this chapter. More specifically, the two scales the investigator resorts to for the quantitative part of the study are discussed in detail and justification is provided for the use of data and methodological triangulation. The questions used for the semi-structured interviews are also presented in this chapter. An account of the setting and participants, as well as some limitations and other considerations are all argued here. In summary, this chapter considers the research design and the methodology employed for this study.

5.1 Research Design

Most empirical studies into language anxiety and LLS have used quantitative approaches (cf. Horwitz, 2001; MacIntyre, 1999; Young, 1994; for language anxiety and Hong-Nam & Leavell, 2006; Zhang, 2005; Oxford, 1990 for LLS) as they have been based on selfreport questionnaires (e.g. FLCAS, SILL). Nonetheless, although less in number, there has been other empirical research which has taken the form of qualitative investigations (cf. Gregersen, 2003; Price, 1991 for language anxiety and Liu, 2010 for LLS)51. Finally,

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For more information on these studies see Chapter 3 regarding language anxiety and Chapter 4 regarding LLS. 162

there have been studies that have combined both qualitative and quantitative methods (Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1987a; Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009a, 2009b; Tth, 2010).

My study relies on two research approaches (quantitative and qualitative). It is firstly based on the quantitative research tradition. More specifically, the normative approach is used, an approach which is characterized by the use of Likert-scale questionnaires in the investigation of any question involving learner beliefs put forward by the researcher. The chosen research approach reflects this researchers ontological and epistemological52 assumption, which is reflected in the research paradigm. With reference to the former assumption, I hold the stance that there is a reality that can be apprehended and thus I try to discover the cause-effect relations behind foreign language anxiety and affective LLS in the Greek ESP/EAP context or at the least, I endeavor to find meaningful indicators of what is happening in the particular context I am investigating. With reference to the latter assumption, and as already mentioned, I chose to use different types of inquiry methods of investigation (quantitative tools, interviews) to more fully examine how the factors in question interact with each other and what effect they have on participants.

Despite the fact that there is a rich tapestry of complementing research approaches available, none are without their limitations. So as to increase the validity and reliability
Wand and Weber (1993: 220) refer to ontology as "a branch of philosophy concerned with articulating the nature and structure of the world." In short, ontology poses the following question: what is the form and nature of reality around us and, what is there that can be known about it? The term epistemology denotes according to Hirschheim et al. (1995: 20) "the nature of human knowledge and understanding that can possibly be acquired through different types of inquiry and alternative methods of investigation."
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of the findings, I have used multiple forms of diverse and redundant data collection methods (triangulation see section 5.3). In the case of correlations, as is the case for this study, the use of a qualitative tool is important as a quantitative analysis alone does not indicate cause and effect (Gardner, 2000) nor is it able to take full account of the many interaction effects that take place in classroom settings for example; whereas a multifaceted approach may help provide causal interpretations. This is the conviction I have adopted in trying to better understand and interpret the ensuing results.

Consequently, this multiple approach complements the quantitative approach by using the second research tradition -the qualitative- thus adding another dimension to the study. In using triangulation, I attempt to move away from the correlational/quantitative approach that, as mentioned earlier, other studies have engaged in and which leave out the participants perspectives on such intricate issues as anxiety and affective language learning strategies in an effort to shed more light on the research questions put forward in this thesis. Due to the abovementioned considerations, the mixed method approach was chosen to carry out the analysis. To begin with, the quantitative research methods in the normative approach provide clarity and precision through the use of well-designed questionnaires and descriptive statistics, and can include a large number of respondents and afford them anonymity as posited by Bernat & Gvozdenko (2005: 7). To this end, I opted for the use of two well-established questionnaires -the FLCAS and SILL (see section 5.2), each measuring a distinct variable: foreign language anxiety and the use of affective learning strategies (as part of a survey of LLS) respectively.

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Qualitative research methods are commonly studies of small scale that render them ideal for in-depth descriptive and interpretive analyses. They include interviews, the use of diaries, and may involve classroom observation (in an educational context). These approaches increase the amount and the quality of data gathered as subjects may misunderstand certain items on the questionnaires and more importantly their feelings or beliefs about something may be affectively and intellectually complex and consequently difficult to decode by the use of questionnaires as Wilkinson & Schwartz (1989) and Weinstein (1994) fervently argue. In addition, the use of a qualitative approach allows for the triangulation of data. In including the qualitative dimension of the study, I was well aware of some of the drawbacks to such an approach which are mainly the limitations that arise due to the selectivity of data and the subjectivity of interpretation.

5.2 Instruments
The quantitative part of the research was based on two well-established questionnaires: The Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale developed by Horwitz, Horwitz and Cope (1986) and the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning developed by Oxford (1989). It should be noted that a Greek-translated version53 of both the FLCAS and SILL were given so as to minimize misunderstanding of the language being used in the English-version questionnaires. Moreover, as regards the FLCAS, the phrase foreign language was substituted by the phrase English language, so as to make it more appropriate for this specific sample of subjects and context. Moreover, the statistical analysis of the research was carried out using the software Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 17.0. The level of significance was set to = 0.05 throughout
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See 5.3.1 for more on the issue of translation. 165

the statistical analysis, and the findings obtained were discussed in accordance with this level of significance. Below follows an account of each questionnaire.

5.2.1 Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale

The FLCAS (see Appendix 1 -English and Greek versions) is a 33-item, self-report measure, scored on a five-point Likert scale, garnering responses ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree, and was developed by Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) in order to provide investigators with a measure to capture the scientific essence of foreign language anxiety in a classroom setting and to provide investigators with a standard measure. Items 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, and 33 represent high anxiety and are scored from 5 points (strongly agree) to 1 point (strongly disagree). The remaining items 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, 18, 22, 28, and 32 have a reverse rating54 (1 point for strongly agree to 5 points for strongly disagree) and represent lack of anxiety. Theoretically, the score can range from 33-165. An average score of 3.0 (on the scale of 1-5) or mean score of 99.0 (on the scale of 33-165) and above denotes medium to high levels of anxiety and as the mean score increases so does the intensity of perceived anxiety. As Horwitz et al. (1986) posit, this scale is based on an analysis of potential sources of anxiety in a language classroom, integrating three related anxieties (communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation see Chapter 3). More

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In psychometrics, it is generally recommended that both standard ("positive") and reverse-scored ("negative") items be included in applied research instruments so as to control for response biases e.g. a tendency to provide agreement responses. 166

specifically, the FLCAS intended to measure apprehension of speech communication (real or anticipated communication); fear of English tests (fear of failing in test situations); and fear of being negatively evaluated. As it is shown below, the total items suggestive of these fears do not amount to thirty three. The creators of the scale added more items to reflect some specific and more general academic issues which were grouped into a fourth category (Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues). Hence, the 33-item FLCAS has been divided into four dimensions for the purposes of this study (see Appendix 4). The first three dimensions are the ones Horwitz et al. (1986) set out to measure in constructing the FLCAS. The dimensions are: Communication Apprehension, Test Anxiety, Fear of Negative Evaluation, and Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues (See Chapter 3 for a detailed account of the first three dimensions). I have added the fourth dimension as some items (see items 5, 6, 11, 16, 17, 22, 25, 26, 28, and 30) do not specifically target anxiety, but look at distinct academic issues (as they pertain to the English language class) and more general academic issues. The fourth dimension will help better understand the impact of the social context in and out of the classroom setting. The first category, Communication Apprehension (CA), includes items: 1, 2*, 3*, 4*, 9, 12, 13*, 14, 18, 20*, 23, 24*, 27, 29*, and 32*55. This dimension emphasizes the importance of interpersonal interaction during second language encounters. High scores in this category signal an inability on the part of the learner to convey thoughts and ideas in a mature and comprehensible way. Language learning is also language performance so
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Items marked with an asterisk may be included in other categories mainly the third- as they do refer to some sort of negative evaluation. However, I believe it is more suitable to place these items in the CA category, as these items imply uneasiness and apprehension on the part of the learner. 167

learners with high communication apprehension find it difficult to perform in any type of task which requires their participation. This dimension prevails in FL anxiety. The second category, Test Anxiety (TA), includes items: 8, and 21. These are the only two items that explicitly state worry about inadequate performance in an evaluative situation. TA, as the findings of research such as Dalys (1991) and Aidas (1994) reveal, undoubtedly negatively influences the language learner, but MacIntyre & Gardner (1991) contend that it does not lend itself to a deeper understating of language learning anxiety and thus they claim it is considered less important overall. The next category, Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE), comprises the following items: 7, 10, 15, 19, 31, and 33. The fear of being evaluated negatively is a major aspect of the FL anxiety conceptualization. Similar to TA, FNE also looks at evaluation, however, it is more overwhelming in comparison to TA as it may occur in any learning context and not only in the physical presence of a test and also it is not contextually limited to the learner. Academic contexts are by definition closely linked to evaluation. The final category, Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues (AECAI), contains items 5, 6, 11, 16, 17, 22, 25, 26, 28, and 30. These items could not fit the more defined confines of the other three categories hence they were placed in a fourth category which I termed AECAI. I argue that this category identifies the FL learners anxiety in a more social context within, of course, the language classroom and signifies a learners overall anxiety of his/her English language class and academic matters pertaining to the language.

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Generally speaking, since its inception, the FLCAS has been used in the majority of studies investigating anxiety in foreign language learning and has been found to be a highly reliable56 measure as in-depth qualitative research has proven rendering it one of the most comprehensive and valid instruments used to measure language anxiety. This statement has been affirmed by various scholars who investigated foreign language anxiety. Indicatively, I mention Aida (1994) who in her study investigated the construct of the FLCAS in connection to American university students learning Japanese as a foreign language and concluded that it is a highly reliable tool to measure the levels of anxiety in her context. Frantzen and Magnan (2005) conducted a study on true beginners and false beginners in first-semester university French and Spanish classes. In using the FLCAS, they reported it to be a reliable and valid instrument. Obviously, validity and reliability are very important attributes in a measurement as conclusions drawn from the data generated are soundly based. Another recent study employing the FLCAS is that of Tth (2010) who in her adaptation of the FLCAS to suit her study with Hungarian university students reported that it was reliable and had internal consistency similar to the original construct of the FLCAS. One of the few studies that have subsequently challenged the FLCAS is that of Sparks & Ganschow (2007) who presented a conflicting argument regarding the accuracy in the measurements of this tool. However, the fact remains that the majority of researchers have attested to its validity and reliability and until present is the predominant measuring tool of detecting language anxiety.

As a whole, the FLCAS has demonstrated internal reliability, achieving an alpha coefficient of .93 (Horwitz, 1986).

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Apart from its wide acceptability as a scale of measuring language anxiety, I have chosen the FLCAS for another main reason. The FLCAS has proven valuable for me in seeing the multidimensional57 aspect of anxiety. Anxiety is not a unitary or unidimensional phenomenon. As seen above, the literature refers to three main response dimensions: communication apprehension, test anxiety and fear of negative evaluation. The FLCAS looks at anxiety not as a global construct but as a multidimensional conceptualization, which allows for the measuring of the various facets of anxiety.

Another characteristic that favored the use of FLCAS in this study is that it was designed to measure situational/state anxiety (and not trait anxiety) directly linked to the specific context of the foreign language classroom. Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope (1986) suggest that foreign language anxiety is a situation-specific anxiety. As seen in Chapter Three, MacIntyre & Gardener (1991c: 89) make a case for the fact that trait anxiety because of its global and ambiguous nature is not useful in predicting second language achievement so it is of no direct concern to the language practitioner. Consequently, the type of anxiety learners experience in a language learning context is linked to situational/state anxiety.

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A unidimensional conceptualization of a concept treats it as a unitary, global construct and measurement of this concept contains no subscales and produces only one summed score. A multidimensional conceptualization is composed of several different but interconnected dimensions which are parts of the global construct.

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5.2.2 Strategy Inventory for Language Learning

The present study used the SILL as its main quantitative tool to measure the extent of affective strategy use among the participants. A case in favor of the use of Oxfords taxonomy and subsequent use of the SILL was made in Chapter Three. The SILL questionnaire (version for speakers of other languages learning English: Version 7.0ESL/EFL) (see Appendix 1 English and Greek version) is for students of English as a second or foreign language and the use of LLS. The SILL is a standardized measure, and as such can be used to gather and analyze information about larger numbers of language learners. The SILL instrument contains fifty short statements, each describing the use of one strategy. These statements are grouped into the Direct Strategies and the Indirect Strategies which are further classified into three categories, each corresponding to one of Oxfords category system (Direct Strategies: memory, cognitive, comprehension, Indirect Strategies: metacognitive, affective, and social) mentioned earlier in this study (Chapter 3) and as seen below:

1. memory strategies include grouping, imagery, rhyming, moving physically and reviewing in a structured way. 2. cognitive strategies include reasoning, analyzing, summarizing and practicing. 3. compensatory strategies are used to offset limited knowledge and include guessing meanings from context and using synonyms and gestures to convey meaning in the context of communication.

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4. metacognitive strategies are used for evaluating ones progress, planning for language tasks, consciously searching for practice opportunities, paying attention and monitoring errors 5. affective strategies are used for anxiety reduction, self-encouragement and self-reward. 6. social strategies are used for coping with various situations such as asking questions, speaking to or cooperating with native speakers, and becoming culturally aware (Green & Oxford, 1995: 264-265). Communication is enhanced by the use of social strategies (as it is a form of social behavior) and [] appropriate social strategies are very important in this process. (Oxford, 1990: 144).

According to Green and Oxford (1995), the SILL can be used to measure a students strategy use in the following ways: across the entire survey, in terms of the six broad strategy categories listed above, and in terms of individual strategies. Within the scope of the current study, only the use of affective language strategies is reported. The items corresponding to affective LLS are a total of six (items: 39-44, see Appendix 5). However, the participants were administered the complete SILL, so that I could examine if any statistically significant correlations of the use of affective strategies and any other strategy exists or if any apparent pattern emerges58 (See Appendix 2). Similar to the FLCAS, the SILL is a self-scoring, paper-and-pencil survey and requires subjects to respond to each statement on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (Never or almost never true of me) to 5 (Always or almost always true of me). Scores above 2.5 are regarded as medium strategy use.

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As will be mentioned in Chapter Six, the statistical analysis revealed that no statistically significant correlations between affective and other LLS emerged for the sample group under investigation. 172

5.3 Triangulation
As noted earlier, the application and combination of various research methodologies are used, a method known as triangulation. More specifically, triangulation refers to the use of more than one approach to the investigation of a research question in order to enhance confidence in the ensuing findings (Bryman, 2004). ODonoghue and Punch (2003: 78) similarly state that triangulation is a method of cross-checking data from multiple sources to search for regularities in the research data. Altrichter et al. (2008) contend that triangulation gives a more detailed and balanced picture of the situation. Finally, triangulation of data involves drawing together different sources in order to develop a robust fix on the case while at the same time allowing for the subtle nuances of interpretation and insight that multiple perspectives can provide (Richards, 2010: 213). In essence, all the researchers agree that triangulation helps assemble a more comprehensive picture of the research at hand. The two types of triangulation that are employed herein are that of Data triangulation and Methodological triangulation (Denzin, 1970). The former triangulation type entails gathering data through several sampling strategies involving time, space and persons; whereas the latter type refers to the use of more than one method for gathering data. The use of methodological triangulation serves as a vehicle for merging quantitative and qualitative research methods and thus more than one method is used to gather data. In this case of this study it is questionnaires and interviews.

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5.3.1 Data Triangulation

In order to triangulate the data, the questionnaires (FLCAS and SILL) were piloted using 63 students at the Technological Education Institute of Patras, Greece (School of Business and Economics). The piloting was done using the English version of the questionnaires. As noted, the original research instruments, the FLCAS used by Horwitz et al. (1986), and the SILL used by Oxford (1989), were written in English which proved to be an issue during this piloting phase of the questionnaires. The items in the questionnaires, and especially the FLCAS, have a heavy emotional language load. This emotive language59 was a problem mainly for those students who were not proficient in English. Consequently, the misunderstanding of the items on the part of the students posed some problems in obtaining valid and reliable results. A number of students continuously asked questions regarding certain items as they did not appear to fully comprehend them, despite the brief glossary provided. This evident issue was the probing force to have the questionnaires translated into Greek, an issue that was of concern as any translated version of a questionnaire may jeopardize its internal reliability. Special care had to be taken so that the language was appropriately translated to grasp the intensity of the feelings as expressed in the scales and to find a suitable equivalent of the original English items in Greek.

More specifically, certain steps were taken in the translation process to ensure accuracy. I initially translated the questionnaires and the first draft of translation was given to two

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Emotive language refers to language deliberately designed to arouse the emotions and have an emotional impact or response. Examples of emotive language found in the questionnaires are overwhelmed, nervous, relaxed etc. 174

Greek EFL teachers to also translate these questionnaires. For the next step of the
procedure, the three translations were compared in order to combine the various suggestions put forward by all three translators and a final version was produced. The next step involved another Greek EFL teacher who was asked to back translate (translating the translated

version back into the source language) and any further discrepancies were dealt with. It ought to be noted that the process of forward and backward translation was not an easy task as it was difficult to convince teachers to act as volunteer translators so the entire process relied on my personal contacts. Finally, I pre-tested the questionnaires during the piloting stage (see section 5.1) when various misunderstandings were addressed and improvements were incorporated into the final version.

After both questionnaires were translated, they were given to the same group of students the following week (this time a total of 57 students participated instead of 63 as some were absent the day the questionnaires were re-administered). The students claimed that they were able to comprehend the questionnaires fully with the exception of very few ambiguities which were then addressed.

A second piloting (with a different group of students -18 in total) of the already translated version of the questionnaires was conducted this time taking into consideration the few ambiguities students had previously mentioned. These participants were a group of thirdyear students in the department of Business Administration, University of Patras, Greece. The participants did not mention any significant problems regarding their understanding of the questionnaires and thus the final translated version of the questionnaires was prepared and subsequently administered to the participants in question. What is
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noteworthy is that scores produced from all the piloting stages were very similar (no statistically significant difference) despite some language barriers during the first piloting. This perhaps reveals the lack of necessity of the translated version; however, it was strongly felt that the Greek version would be more appealing to the participants, an idea confirmed by all participants after being addressed with this issue. In any case, these multiple piloting and sampling approaches were done so as to ensure maximum reliability and validity. The reliability of both the FLCAS and the SILL questionnaire in their translated version (Greek) used in the present study was found to be high. The Cronbach alpha coefficient for the sample group for the modified Greek version of the scales was found to have internal consistency as they measured Cronbach = 0.90 for the SILL and = 0.91 for the FLCAS, suggesting that the reliability of the instruments are satisfactory60. Therefore, my initial apprehension that an acceptable model of being able to embody the original concepts in the English language instrument could be fit to the Greek version questionnaire was diminished.

The final Greek version was administered to a total of 365 students (N=365) from two universities and a total of three departments. The names of the participating universities and details of the subjects are provided below (Section 5.4.)

5.3.2 Methodological Triangulation

A subsequent small sample of 21 students (from the pool of students that filled in the final version of the questionnaires) was chosen based on the level of anxiety reported
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A score of 0.7 and higher is considered satisfactory for Cronbachs alpha reliability coefficient (Cohen, et al. 2000). 176

(low, moderate, high) and naturally on a voluntary basis (from the University of Patras, departments of Economics and Business Administration). After explaining to the participants what their further participation would entail (i.e. a short interview, the content of which would remain completely confidential), they agreed to undergo followup structured interviews (using a predetermined set of 16 open-ended questions -see Appendix 6). So as to form a more accurate and clear picture of the responses received through the questionnaires and the interviews, a small sample of five ESP/EAP instructors were invited to also undergo a structured interview using a set of 10 predetermined open-ended questions (see Appendix 7). The names of the three university departments at which these instructors teach are withheld to ensure anonymity.

The inclusion of the interview as a qualitative dimension provides another lens through which to capture some of the ESP/EAP students thoughts and feelings on affective factors and the use of affective language learning strategies which they perhaps were not able to fully express through the questionnaires. To this effect, Pite (1996: 13) opines that the questionnaire method of gathering data relies on respondents own interpretation of questions. Therefore, one cannot be sure of achieving completely objective, accurate responses. Students, because of different personality types and self-perceptions, may evaluate themselves very differently. The methodological triangulation approach also sought to give a voice to the ESP/EAP instructors so as to express their views on matters pertaining to ESP/EAP in relation to how it is taught to and perceived by the stakeholders.

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The use of a phenomenological interview (see section 5.5) was considered vital as an interview records and describes a subjects experiences about a concept or phenomenon. The interview was structured and included specific steps. First, research questions that explored the meaning of lived experiences for individuals, and asked individuals to describe these experiences, were included. The interviews were based on a general interview guide, using a set of questions which were developed to give the participants the opportunity to elaborate on what they had expressed through their answers in their questionnaires. To ensure elaboration, most questions were open-ended and interviewees were encouraged through various probing to express their views. The interviews were conducted in Greek, the native or second language of all the participants (one participants mother tongue was Albanian, but had native-like fluency in Greek). Greek was used so as to avoid any linguistic barriers participants might have confronted in expressing some sensitive and emotionally heavy language. In other words, it would be difficult for the interviewees to find appropriate words to express, for example, overwhelmingness or frustration. The interviews were audio-reordered (with the full knowledge and consent of the participants) and then transcribed verbatim to provide the source for the qualitative analysis. Moreover, some notes were discretely taken during the actual interview which tried to capture the participants body language and any other form of non-verbal communication that would be impossible to subsequently transcribe from the audiotape. The purpose of this note-taking was to offer inferential clues for the subsequent analysis.

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Initially, the students were informed about this study and the researcher engaged in an informal conversation so as to build rapport between him and each participant. It is of particular interest that the researcher did not notice any levels of anxiety or awkwardness on the participants part during the initial stages of the interview, so not much effort was required to establish a relaxed, non-threatening atmosphere. In the case of the ESP/EAP instructors, they were contacted by phone and informed about the present study and were subsequently asked to take part in the interview and were assured that their anonymity would be maintained. Due to geographical distance and practical constraints, two interviews were conducted over the phone and the other three in person. Every effort was made to create a relaxed environment in order to encourage sincere responses. The 21 interviewees, who came from the body of N=365 subjects, willingly agreed to take part in the interviews. As previously stated, all the interviewed participants were students of the University of Patras. Since the qualitative analysis did not indicate any statistically significant difference among respondents from the three different universities, only the students from this particular university were interviewed due to practical reasons and constraints. Their geographical proximity to the researcher made it more feasible for him to contact and schedule interview appointments with the students. The answers provided by all the participants were collected to determine whether the obtained data correlated with the responses on the questionnaires. A detailed account is provided in the following chapter, where the results are presented.

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5.4 Setting and Participants

In order to recruit students to become participants in this study, several emails and phone calls were made to colleagues teaching in various university departments of Business Administration and Economics throughout Greece, a task that was admittedly onerous. In total, seven departments were invited to participate. Three departments declined to take part in the study due to time and other practical constraints. Four departments agreed to have their students participate. More specifically, the participating universities were: The University of Patras, Departments of Business Administration and Economics; the University of Macedonia, Department of Business Administration; and The University of Thessaly, Department of Economics. It becomes obvious that the geographical distribution of the universities is southwestern, northern and central Greece respectively. The goal of this geographical diversity was to include as many different universities as possible to have a good geographical representation. All the participants were first and second year students majoring in Business and Economics studies. Nonetheless, The University of Thessaly was finally excluded from the study, as only a very small number of participants (7) agreed to complete the questionnaires on the day of administration. Consequently, three departments from two universities were finally included in the present study.

The questionnaires were sent out to the University of Macedonia and detailed instructions of administering were given to the ESP/EAP teacher. Regarding the University of Patras, I administered the instruments myself due to geographical proximity to my residence. My decision to personally administer the questionnaires was based on the fact that I wanted

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to ensure that the procedure was done according to the guidelines I required. In all cases, participants were informed that the questionnaires were designed to record general feelings about their ESP/EAP classes (and not anxiety in particular) and also to record strategies they use to help them with their language learning and did not inform them that affective strategies were the main target of the research. No time restrictions within which to complete the questionnaires were given and nor were names asked to be written on the questionnaires. The anonymity was used to ensure confidentiality and to encourage students to respond as sincerely as possible. However, as a follow up would be required, participants were asked to use a code as well as provide a mobile phone number for purposes of identifying and contacting those who would subsequently be willing to volunteer for the interview. I informed the participants that there would obviously be no repercussions. I also kindly asked that only participants who were willing to provide sincere responses to complete the questionnaires to ensure, as much as possible, honest and accurate results.

The questionnaires were attached and were preceded by a section on respondents demographics. The following participant demographics were collected through the introductory part of the questionnaires: 1 2 3 Name of university and department Gender Native language

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Level of English language (based on the Common European Framework of Reference CEFR: A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2)61

5 6 7

Years of study of the English language Other foreign languages spoken Grade achieved in the previous ESP class

5.5 Phenomenology and Metalanguage

Phenomenology and metalanguage are two issues that need to be addressed when conducting research that resorts to questionnaires to obtain data. As mentioned above (section 5.3.2), phenomenological interviews are part of methodological triangulation. A phenomenological study describes the meaning of the lived experiences of people about a concept or a phenomenon (Creswell, 1998). Polkinghorne (1989) characteristically says that phenomenology explores the structures of consciousness in human experiences. In other words, through this thesis I seek to identify what participants experienced i.e. FLA and affective LLS and how they experienced these. As this study was partly phenomenological, certain steps were taken to ensure, to a satisfactory degree, an accurate representation of the data gathered during the interview. This data analysis involves horizontalization (i.e., extracting significant statements from transcribed interviews). The significant statements are then transformed into clusters of meanings according to how each statement falls under specific psychological and

phenomenological concepts. Finally, these transformations are tied together to make a

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Participants were informed about the equivalent of their language certificates to each level of the CEFR. 182

general description of the experience both the textural description (of what was experienced) and the structural description (of how it was experienced). It ought to be noted that the researcher can incorporate his/her personal meaning of the experience here on condition that he/she decides as to how and when his/her personal experiences will be incorporated into the study. With regards to metalanguage, using language to talk about the object language is always an issue the researcher has to consider. Reporting and analyzing the language being used during interviews is definitely a challenging task. Considerable attention was paid so as not to merely report a neutral account of what was said during the interviews. Metalanguage does not stop at reporting the speakers words on the utterance surface. Metalanguage is often responsible for carrying the ideology-laden assumptions of the speakers subject language (see also section 7.4.3). Likewise, metalanguage can reproduce and reinforce ideologies, nonetheless it can subvert them. Monitoring this delicate balance is the challenging task a researcher has to deal with.

5.6 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

This chapter addressed the research methodology employed to obtain the necessary data to address the research questions. A justification for the use of the specific research tools used was provided and a detailed account of the participating respondents and setting was given. It was also noted that special attention was paid to the fact that the researcher needs to bracket his/her own experiences so as to minimize subjectivity when interpreting the ensuing results thus the important issues of phenomenology and metalanguage were

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discussed. The presentation of the findings yielded by the research along with an interpretation and discussion are provided in Chapter Six.

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Chapter 6 Presentation and Discussion of Results

6.0 Introduction
This chapter presents the results pertaining to the three research questions put forward in this thesis. The first research question aimed to identify and measure the reported levels of language anxiety found in the sample group of ESP/EAP students in Greece. The second research question sought to measure the frequency of affective language learning strategies employed by these ESP/EAP students. Finally, the third question investigated any association that may exist between the reported levels of language anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies. More specifically, the results of both the FLCAS and SILL are presented in this Chapter in the form of quantitative accounts (for further details of the statistical analysis see Appendix 262) and reveal how pervasive foreign language anxiety is among the body of participants used in this study, as well as the degree to which affective language learning strategies are used among the same group of participants. Secondly, the possible relationship between the reported levels of FLA and the use of affective LLS is examined. This is followed by an account of the responses provided by both student-participants and ESP instructor-participants. The first two sections (6.1 & 6.2) of this chapter merely provide raw statistical findings followed by comments and the presentation of the interviewees responses. The final section (6.3) provides an interpretation and comprehensive discussion of the findings quantitative and qualitative- this study yields.

62

All tables with the prefix A (e.g. A1) are in Appendix 2. 185

6.1 Quantitative Results of the FLCAS and SILL

Starting from the FLCAS (q1), the scores of each participant in each one of the four main categories (Communication Apprehension CA, Test Anxiety TA, Fear of Negative Evaluation FNE, Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues AECAI63) were calculated. Then, the main descriptive statistical measures of each dimension that appears in Table 2 (mean, standard deviation, minimum, maximum) were computed. The mean values range from 2.3156 (TA) to 2.6901 (CA). In addition, the mean score of the whole FLCAS has been computed for each participant where the mean value is 2.56 for the whole sample. In Figure 8, there is a visual representation of the aforementioned values. The 95% confidence interval of the mean of each dimension is also depicted in the top of each bar of Figure 8. Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS N Minimum Maximum 342 1,27 4,73 358 1,00 5,00 352 1,00 5,00 338 1,20 4,70 362 313 1,12 5,00 Mean Std. Deviation 2,6901 ,63486 2,3156 ,79623 2,5919 ,71728 2,6435 ,57564 2,5668 ,58098

Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise)

63

It should be noted that for the statistical analysis, these abbreviations were used. 186

Figure 8 Bar graph of FLCAS means

The same procedure has been followed for the second questionnaire (SILL). In Table 3, the main descriptive statistical measures are presented for the second questionnaire. All the strategies were calculated and each one is presented separately (Memory Strategies MemS, Cognitive Strategies - CogS, Compensation Strategies - CompS, Metacognitive Strategies - MetaS, Affective Strategies - AS, Social Strategies - SS) so as to provide an overall depiction of the array of LLS use among this particular sample and to investigate any apparent pattern among the LLS. However, it needs to be underscored that the focus is on affective LLS and therefore this category was isolated from the SILL. Incidentally, the category of affective LLS has the lowest mean value (2.57) while the dimension
187

MetaS (metacognitive strategies) has the highest one (2.93). The same findings are also verified from Figure 9 where the mean values are depicted in bars. Table 3 Descriptive Statistics of SILL N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Memory Strategies 358 1,00 4,75 2,7452 ,64965 Cognitive Strategies 356 1,00 4,50 2,7892 ,60193 Compensation strategies 354 1,00 5,00 2,8649 ,73705 Metacognitive 342 1,00 4,89 2,9333 ,67901 Strategies Affective Strategies 340 1,00 5,00 2,5707 ,61802 Social Strategies 341 1,00 5,00 2,6977 ,76960 SILL (q2mean) 359 1,00 4,07 2,7723 ,46364 Valid N (listwise) 339

Figure 9 Bar graph of SILL means

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In the next step, the extracted dimensions have been binned into three categories based on the fact that a mean value greater than 4 is an indication of high FLA, 3-3.9 is moderate and lower than 3 is low respectively. The corresponding frequencies and percentages of the above classifications are presented in Table 4 and Table 5 for both questionnaires.

Table 4 Frequencies and percentages of categorized dimensions of FLCAS Low Count Row N % 222 64,9% 256 71,5% 244 69,3% 250 74,0% 272 75,3% Moderate Count Row N % 105 30,7% 84 23,5% 98 27,8% 82 24,3% 81 22,4% High Count Row N % 15 4,4% 18 5,0% 10 2,8% 6 1,8% 8 2,2%

CA TA FNE AECAI q1mean

In Table 4, we can see that the number of participants who fall under the Low category of FLA is approximately 70%, the Moderate group ranges from 22.4% to 30.7% and the High group has a range from 1.8% to 5%. The pattern that seems to emerge is that in most cases the participants scores were mostly low to moderate.

With references to the affective LLS, the extracted dimension has been classified into three categories considering that a mean value greater than 4 is an indication of high frequency usage of affective LLS, 3-3.9 is moderate and lower than 3 is considered a low/moderate or low frequency usage of affective LLS. Table 5 below shows a numerical representation of the scores where the Low percentage is 69.7%, the Moderate score is 28.2% and the High one is 2.1%. The percentages of the affective LLS in the second questionnaire are quite similar to the ones in the FLCAS. Additionally, similar to the

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FLCAS scores, the majority of participants employ a low to moderate number of affective LLS. Table 5 Frequencies and percentages of the categorized dimensions of the Affective LLS in SILL Low Count Row N % 237 69,7% Moderate Count Row N % 96 28,2% High Row N % 7 2,1%

Count

Affective LLS

6.1.1 The relationship between FLA, Affective LLS and individual differences variables
In this section, the relationship among foreign language anxiety, the use of language learning strategies and individual differences variables is investigated. More specifically, FLA and affective LLS are measured against the following factors: a) the gender of the participants; b) the year of study participants are in; c) knowledge of another foreign language (apart from English); d) the university department participants attend; e) their level of language proficiency according to the CEFR; and, finally, f) grades achieved in previous ESP classes. 6.1.1a Gender The potential differences between the scores of male and female participants are examined first. In Table 6, the main descriptive statistical measures of the FLCAS factors are presented for both males and females. A careful examination of Table 6 below reveals that in all factors, the mean score of males is moderately lower than the corresponding one of females. The lower mean score appears for TA and the higher one for CA.

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Table 6 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by sex Sex N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Female Communication 190 1,47 4,73 2,7909 ,64778 Apprehension Test Anxiety 197 1,00 5,00 2,3680 ,78756 Fear of Negative 196 1,00 5,00 2,6845 ,71738 Evaluation Anxiety of English 192 1,30 4,70 2,6609 ,59332 Classes/Academic Issues q1mean 201 1,23 4,26 2,6290 ,57894 Valid N (listwise) 175 Male Communication 130 1,27 4,60 2,5190 ,58779 Apprehension Test Anxiety 137 1,00 5,00 2,1971 ,76061 Fear of Negative 135 1,00 3,83 2,4333 ,69205 Evaluation Anxiety of English 127 1,20 4,60 2,5827 ,54658 Classes/Academic Issues q1mean 137 1,12 4,51 2,4300 ,53739 Valid N (listwise) 121

Following the same procedure for the second questionnaire (SILL), the descriptive measures of the affective LLS split by the factor sex are presented in Table 7. Again, the mean score of females is slightly higher than that of the males.

Sex Female Male

Table 7 Descriptive Statistics of Affective LLS split by sex N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Affective LLS 192 1,00 4,00 2,5759 ,59525 Affective LLS 126 1,00 5,00 2,5513 ,65123

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Figure 10 Bar graph of FLCAS means split by sex

Figure 11 Bar graph of Affective LLS means split by sex

In Figures 10 and Figure 11 we observe that the mean score of females, as mentioned above, is slightly higher than the score of males.

It is worth investigating whether this discrepancy in scores between males and females is statistically significant. In order to investigate this, it must be decided which statistical
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tests (parametric or non parametric) will be utilized. The main assumption of the parametric hypothesis tests is the normality assumption of the data. To examine this assumption, a series of one sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov64 normality tests are conducted on each sample. If the p-value of a test is higher than the default level of significance =0.05, then the normality assumption is not rejected.

Conducting Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests in FLCAS factors split by sex, it can be inferred that the normality assumption is met in all variables but TA and AECAI (Table A1). Hence, the Mann-Whitney test is used to compare the scores between females and males on TA and AECAI. For the remaining categories, the two independent samples t-test65 is used.

The difference between the mean ranks of males and females in TA and AECAI does not seem large (Table A2). Conducting a Mann-Whitney66 test in TA and AECAI by gender leads to the conclusion that there is no statistically significant difference between the scores of males and females in TA and AECAI since the p-values are higher than 0.05 (Table A3).

64

In statistics, the KolmogorovSmirnov test (KS test) is a nonparametric test for the equality of continuous, one-dimensional probability distributions that can be used to compare a sample with a reference probability distribution (one-sample KS test). In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolmogorov-Smirnov. 65 In statistics, a t-test is any statistical hypothesis test in which the test statistic follows a t distribution if the null hypothesis is supported. It is most commonly applied when the test statistic would follow a normal distribution if the value of a scaling term in the test statistic were known. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/t-test. 66 In statistics, the MannWhitney is a non-parametric statistical hypothesis test for assessing whether two independent samples of observations have equally large values. MannWhitney test. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ MannWhitney. 193

With regard to the remaining factors and in order to decide which version of t-test should be used (equal or unequal variances), first, a Levenes67 test for the equality of variances of the female and male scores is conducted. Again the fact that could be drawn is that there is no statistically significant difference between the variance of the female scores and the variance of the male scores of all CA, FNE and q1mean, since all p-values are greater than 0.05 (Table A4). Therefore, the equal variances t-test will be used for the comparison of the means.

Conducting t-tests for CA, FNE and q1mean by gender, one reaches the conclusion that there is a statistically significant difference between the mean score of females and the mean score of males on all three factors (Table A5). Combining the above findings with Table 6, we conclude that females achieve higher scores than males in CA, FNE and the total q1mean. With regards to the affective LLS, the same procedure is followed. At first, a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test is conducted for the affective LLS split by gender, where it is inferred that the normality assumption is met (Table A6). Then, a Levenes test for equality of variances of the female and male scores is conducted. We draw the inference that there is no statistically significant difference between the variances (pvalue >0.05), so the equal variances t-test will be used for the comparison of means (Table A7).

67

In statistics, Levene's test is an inferential statistic used to assess the equality of variances in different samples. Some common statistical procedures assume that variances of the populations from which different samples are drawn are equal. Levene's test assesses this assumption. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Levene's test. 194

Conducting a t-test for the comparison of mean scores between male and females, we arrive at conclusion that there is no statistically significant difference between the means of females and the means of males of affective LLS at a 5% significance level. 6.1.1b Year of Study The next factor under investigation is the year of study of the participants. More specifically, since the participants were in their first and second year of studies, they were grouped into two large categories respectively. The corresponding table of frequencies appears in Table 8. Table 8 Table of frequencies of Year of study Frequency Percent 221 75,9 70 24,1 291 100,0 Cumulative Percent 75,9 100,0

Valid 1 2 Total

Most of the students are in their first year of study (75.9%) while about one quarter of them are in their second year. It should be noted that besides the missing values, there were 22 participants above their second year of study that were excluded.

Again, in order to decide which statistical tests are to be used, a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test is conducted for each factor of the FLCAS split by year of study (Table A9). Since the p-values of TA, FNE and AECAI are lower than 0.05, the normality assumption is not met in these variables; hence, non parametric tests will be used for them. The typical descriptive statistical measures of the FLCAS factors for each year of study are presented in Table 9.

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Table 9 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by Year of study Year of study Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) N Minimum Maximum 208 1,27 4,60 219 1,00 5,00 215 1,00 4,33 203 1,20 4,70 220 192 68 69 68 64 70 60 1,12 1,40 1,00 1,17 1,30 1,36 5,00 4,73 4,00 5,00 3,60 4,09 Mean 2,6811 2,2991 2,5698 2,6433 2,5549 2,7108 2,2826 2,6324 2,5797 2,5631 Std. Deviation ,62283 ,82161 ,69994 ,61241 ,60426 ,66463 ,74989 ,76325 ,52317 ,54737

It appears that there is no difference between the mean scores of each factor for the first and the second year of study. The same can also be seen from Figure 12 below.

Figure 12. Bar graph of FLCAS means split by year of study

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To verify this lack of difference, a series of t-tests and the Mann-Whitney test must be conducted. At first, a Levenes test for equality of variances is conducted for CA and q1mean. In both cases, there is no statistically significant difference between the variances of the scores of 1st and 2nd year students on CA and q1mean. From the results of the t-test, it is apparent that there is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of CA and q1mean for 1st and 2nd year students since both p-values are greater than 0.05 (Table A10).

For TA, FNE, and AECAI, a Mann-Whitney test is conducted in order to compare the scores of these factors between 1st and 2nd year students. Once again, the findings reveal that there is only a slight difference between the mean ranks of the two years of study (Table A11). So, the Mann-Whitney test proves that there is no statistically significant difference between the scores of 1st and 2nd year students for factors TA, FNE and AECAI, since all p-values are greater than 0.05 (Table A12). Similarly to the FLCAS, the SILL (only for affective LLS) was also examined for any possible links regarding the year of study participants were in. In Table 10, the main descriptive statistics of the affective LLS split by the year of study are presented. Table 10 Descriptive Statistics of the SILL split by Year of study Std. Deviation ,61682 ,60102

Year of study 1 Affective LLS 2 Affective LLS

N Minimum Maximum 202 1,17 5,00 70 1,17 4,00

Mean 2,5886 2,4624

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In Figure 13, the corresponding means are shown. The conclusion to be drawn here (as shown in Table 10 and Figure 13) is that, for this sample, the year of study does not play any role in the use of affective LLS or the amount of FLA exhibited.

Figure 13 Bar graph of SILL means split by year of study

Next, we conduct the Kolomogorov-Smirnov normality test for the affective LLS split by the year of study. The normality assumption is not met since p-value=0.032<0.05 (Table A13). A Mann-Whitney test is employed for affective LLS by year of study. We observe that there is not a substantial difference between the mean ranks of the affective LLS scores of 1st and 2nd year students (Table A15). We can, therefore, deduce that there is no statistically significant difference in affective LLS between the 1st and 2nd year participants, since p-value=0.167 >0.05 (Table A16).

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6.1.1c Knowledge of other language Another demographic factor to be examined is the link that a participants knowledge of another foreign language may have on the appearance of FLA and the frequency of use of affective LLS. The table of frequencies is presented in Table 11 which shows that the percentage of students that have knowledge of another language is marginally higher (52,9%) than those who do not (39,2%). Table 11 Frequencies of Knowledge of other language Frequency Percent 143 39,2 193 52,9 336 92,1 29 7,9 365 100,0 Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 42,6 42,6 57,4 100,0 100,0

Valid

No Yes Total Missing System Total

In Table 12, the main descriptive measures of the FLCAS factors split by knowledge of another language are presented. We observe that the mean FLCAS factors of the students with knowledge of another foreign language are lower than the ones who have not learnt another foreign language. Table 12 Descriptive Statistics of the FLCAS split by Knowledge of other language Knowledge of other language No Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) N Minimum Maximum 134 1,40 4,73 140 138 131 1,00 1,00 1,40 5,00 4,33 4,70 Mean Std. Deviation 2,8194 ,63134 2,3536 2,7609 2,7679 ,77621 ,71053 ,59125

142 122

1,23

5,00

2,6829

,59834

199

Yes

Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise)

183 190 189 181

1,27 1,00 1,00 1,20

4,60 5,00 4,33 4,60

2,5723 2,2500 2,4392 2,5304

,61058 ,82416 ,64844 ,55499

192 170

1,12

4,51

2,4495

,54569

From the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality tests of FLCAS by Knowledge of other language, we conclude that the normality assumption was not met for TA and AECAI (Table A 17).

The Levenes test showed that there is no statistically significant difference between the variances of CA, FNE and q1mean so the equal variances t-test will be used. The initial presumption is verified as there is a statistically significant difference between the mean scores on CA, FNE and q1mean of knowledge and non-knowledge of other languages since all p-values of the t-tests are lower than 0.05 (Table A 18).

Moving on to the TA and AECAI, we observe that the mean ranks of the students that have studied another foreign language are a little lower than the ones of the remaining participants (Table A19). Then, from the Mann-Whitney test, we come to the conclusion that the difference in scores between the students with knowledge of another foreign language and non-knowledge is statistically significant only for AECAI since pvalue=0.001<0.05 and not on TA (Table A20).

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Moving on to the affective LLS, one can see in Table 13 that there is only a slight difference between the mean scores of student-participants with knowledge of and those without knowledge of another foreign language. Table 13 Descriptive Statistics of SILL split by Knowledge of other language Knowledge of other language No Affective LLS Yes Affective LLS Std. Deviation ,58342 ,63628

N Minimum Maximum 133 1,00 4,00 182 1,00 5,00

Mean 2,5892 2,5604

Conducting a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test proves that the normality assumption is not met in affective LLS (Table A21). Also, there is no statistically significant difference between the scores of students with knowledge of other languages and without (p-value=0.512 as seen in Table A23, Table A24). 6.1.1d University department The next factor under investigation in this study is the influence of the university departments participants attend. Table 14 depicts the frequencies of the students of each department in the sample. Half of the students are from the Department of Business Administration (BA) of the University of Patras (N=180) and the reaming are almost split in half between the Departments of Economics (Econ) of the University of Patras (N=102) and the University of Macedonia (N=83). Table 14 Table of frequencies of Departments Cumulative Frequency Percent Percent Valid Econ Patras 102 27,9 27,9 Econ Maced 83 22,7 50,7 BA Patras 180 49,3 100,0 Total 365 100,0

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From Table 15, we observe that the mean factor scores of FLCAS do not appear to be different among the three departments. The means range in values from 2.27 up to 2.74. Table 15 Descriptive Statistics of FLCAS split by departments Institution Econ Patras N Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues q1mean Valid N (listwise) 93 101 97 94 Minimum Maximum 1,47 4,60 1,00 1,00 1,50 5,00 4,50 4,70 Mean 2,5921 2,2772 2,5034 2,7170 Std. Deviation ,58523 ,86740 ,71604 ,63120

Econ Maced

101 86 76 79 80 77 81 72 173 178 175 167

1,38 1,27 1,00 1,00 1,20 1,12 1,40 1,00 1,00 1,30

5,00 4,53 5,00 4,17 4,30 4,10 4,73 4,50 5,00 4,00

2,5387 2,6825 2,4557 2,6250 2,6234 2,5914 2,7461 2,2753 2,6257 2,6114

,63438 ,71462 ,80539 ,76744 ,57374 ,60967 ,62034 ,74603 ,69394 ,54269

BA Patras

180 155

1,23

4,09

2,5715

,53763

To further investigate the existence of any statistically significant differences between the departments, a normality test is initially conducted. The normality assumption is met for

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all factors of FLCAS with the exception of Test Anxiety (Table A25). Hence, an ANOVA68 test is applied for the comparison of the mean factor scores between the three institutions for each factor except TA (Table A26). For TA a Kruskall-Wallis test is conducted since it is the non parametric equivalent of the ANOVA test (Table A27, Table A28). We conclude from the ANOVA and Kruskall-Wallis69 test that the factor Department has no statistically significant effect on the scores of the FLCAS factors.

I now examine the effect the University departments may have on the affective LLS factor scores. In Table 16, the main descriptive measures of the scores split by the three institutions are presented. Examining the table, we observe that the mean scores of the institutions do not seem to have a substantial difference. They all take values from 2.5 to 2.66. Table 16 Descriptive Statistics of Affective LLS split by department Std. Deviation ,62965 ,62163 ,60958

University Departments Econ Patras Affective LLS Econ Maced Affective LLS BA Patras Affective LLS

Minimum Maximum 86 1,00 3,67 79 1,00 5,00 175 1,00 4,00

Mean 2,5078 2,6599 2,5613

Examining the normality of the affective LLS in each institution by using a KolmogorovSmirnov test, we infer that the factor follows the normal distribution (Table A29) so the

68

In statistics Analysis of variance (ANOVA) is a collection of statistical models, and their associated procedures, in which the observed variance in a particular variable is partitioned into components attributable to different sources of variation. In its simplest form ANOVA provides a statistical test of whether or not the means of several groups are all equal, and therefore generalizes t-test to more than two groups. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ANOVA. 69 In statistics, the KruskalWallis one-way analysis of variance by ranks (is a non-parametric method for testing whether samples originate from the same distribution. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskall-Wallis. 203

ANOVA test will be used for the comparison of the means. From the ANOVA test, it is inferred that there is no statistically significant difference between the mean affective LLS factor scores of the three departments (Table A30). 6.1.1e Language Proficiency Level The next factor that will be examined with respect to the factors under study is the language proficiency level of the participants. In Table 17, the frequencies and percentages of the four language levels are presented (B1, B2, C1, and C2 according to the CEFR). Based on the claims of participants regarding the language certificates they have attained, about half of them are at B2 level while the rest are about equally divided into the B1, C1 and C2 levels respectively. Table 17 Table of frequencies for Language Proficiency Level Frequency Percent 41 11,2 188 51,5 48 13,2 70 19,2 347 95,1 18 4,9 365 100,0 Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 11,8 11,8 54,2 66,0 13,8 79,8 20,2 100,0 100,0

Valid

1 2 C1 C2 Total Missing System Total

In Table 18, the mean and standard deviations of FLCAS factors split by language level are presented. One can notice that as the level of language increases, the mean scores of FLCAS decrease, a finding that may lend itself to interesting conclusions (see section 6.3 below). Next, I examine whether this apparent difference is statistically significant or not.

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Table 18 Descriptive statistics of FLCAS by Language Proficiency Level Language level 1 2 C1 C2 Standard Standard Standard Standard Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation 3,11 ,71 2,76 ,58 2,47 ,60 2,40 ,62 2,80 2,87 3,07 2,99 ,89 ,78 ,64 ,72 2,38 2,67 2,74 2,63 ,73 ,65 ,52 ,49 2,29 2,48 2,47 2,44 ,71 ,73 ,45 ,53 1,85 2,24 2,29 2,20 ,75 ,68 ,57 ,55

Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/ Academic Issues q1mean

From the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test, one concludes that the normality assumption is met for all FLCAS factors expect Test Anxiety (Table A31). Thus applying an ANOVA test in each factor, one draws the conclusion that there is a statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the four language levels in all factors but TA (Table A32). For TA, a Kruskal-Wallis test is conducted and the same conclusion is reached, that language level affects TA (Table A33, Table A34).

In order to further investigate this effect, I have done a post hoc analysis by using the Scheffe test for the pairwise comparison of means for FLCAS factors excluding, however, TA (Table A35). For TA pairwise comparisons, I have used the Mann-Whitney test (Table A36). The conclusion is that the mean scores of B1 are statistically significantly superior than all the other levels for all FLCAS factors. Comparing the means of B2 and C1, we come to the conclusion that there is no statistically significant difference in all FLCAS factors. Now, comparing C1 and C2 means, we infer again that there is no statistically significant difference in all FLCAS factors excluding TA. In TA
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the mean factor score of C1 is statistically significantly superior than the one of C2. To have a visual representation of the aforementioned conclusions, the means plot of FLCAS factors by language level is presented in Figure 14. It is obvious in the figure that as the language level increases, the mean scores of FLCAS decrease.

Figure 14 Means plot of FLCAS by Language level

We will now examine how the language proficiency level affects the affective LLS factor. From Table 19, where the main descriptive measures are presented, we observe that the mean scores do not seem to differ. The same can be seen further down in Figure 15.

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Table 19 Descriptive statistics of Affective LLS by Language Proficiency level Language Proficiency Level 1 2 C1 C2 Standard Standard Standard Standard Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Affective 2,62 ,60 2,58 ,59 2,52 ,58 2,54 ,73 LLS After conducting a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test for the affective LLS factor, we conclude that the factor follows the normal distribution (Table A37). Comparing the population mean of the affective LLS factor scores between the four levels of language by an ANOVA test, we conclude that there is no statistically significant difference between them at a 5% significance level (Table A38). Figure 15 Means plot of Affective LLS by Language Proficiency Level

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6.1.1f Grades obtained The last variable in question is grade. In other words, the possible link between the participants academic achievement on previous ESP/EAP classes and the factors of the two questionnaires is scrutinized. The lower sample of participants (N=88) is attributed to the fact that some students did not have any available grades as they were first year students, and some participants simply did not provide this information, although they had previously attended ESP/EAP courses since they were in their second year of studies.

To study the abovementioned factors, I have split the grades into three categories: lower than 5, 5 to 7 and higher than 770. The table of frequencies of the three categories of grades is presented in Table 20 where we observe that 70% of the sample had achieved a grade ranging from 5 to 7 while each of the other two categories consisted of about 15% of the sample respectively. Table 20 Table of frequencies of categories of previous grades Frequenc y Percent 8 9,1 41 46,6 9 10,2 58 65,9 30 34,1 88 100,0 Valid Cumulative Percent Percent 13,8 13,8 70,7 84,5 15,5 100,0 100,0

Valid

<5 5-7 >7 Total Missing System Total

In order to establish initial results of how grades affect the FLCAS factors, the main descriptive statistical measures are presented in Table 21. In CA, FNE and q1mean the
70

Universities in Greece use a 1-10 scale for grading and a score of 5 or higher must be obtained to pass a course. 208

participants that achieved a grade higher than 7 in their previous ESP/EAP classes have lower mean scores than the rest of the students. Table 21 Descriptive statistics of FLCAS by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 5-7 >7 Standard Standard Standard Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation ,35 2,76 ,42 2,33 ,15 ,58 2,80 ,73 2,67 ,35 ,67 2,83 ,76 1,98 ,63 ,43 3,02 ,33 2,78 ,26 ,33 2,85 ,30 2,44 ,22

CA TA FNE AECAI q1MEAN

Mean 3,01 2,38 3,00 3,10 2,87

In order to verify this conjecture, statistical hypothesis tests must be conducted. From the Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test, we deduce that the normality assumption is not met in TA, but is met in all other FLCAS factors split by previous grades (Table A39). Applying ANOVA tests for the comparison of the mean scores of the categories of previous grades, we can infer that there is a statistically significant difference in CA, FNE and Q1mean as expected (Table A40). For TA, a Kruskal Wallis test is performed and it verifies that there is no statistically significant difference between the scores of the three previous grade categories (Table A41, Table A42). To further investigate the differences of the mean scores, a post hoc analysis is conducted by using Scheffe71 tests (Table A43). It can be concluded that there is a statistically significant decrease of the mean score of students with grades higher than 7 (achieved in their previous ESP/EAP courses) compared to students who fall under the other two grade brackets in CA, FNE

71

In statistics, Scheff's method, named after Henry Scheff, is a method for adjusting significance levels in a linear regression analysis to account for multiple comparisons. It is particularly useful in analysis of variance, and in constructing simultaneous confidence bands for regressions involving basis functions.. In Wikipedia. Retrieved September 10, 2009 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kruskall-Wallis. 209

and q1mean. In other words, students who have achieved higher academic results exhibit lower levels of CA and FNE. Moreover, there is no statistically significant difference in the mean scores of students with grades between 5 and 7 and of students with grades lower than 5 in the three aforementioned factors.

Moving on to the affective LLS, the means and standard deviations of the factor scores appear in Table 22. Table 22 Descriptive statistics of SILL by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 5-7 >7 Standard Standard Standard Mean Deviation Mean Deviation Mean Deviation 2,56 ,34 2,63 ,64 2,70 ,64

Affectiv e LLS

Applying a Kolmogorov-Smirnov normality test on affective LLS factor scores split by previous grade categories, we can safely draw the conclusion that the normality assumption is met (Table A44). Moreover, after conducting an ANOVA test, it is apparent that there is no statistically significant difference between the mean scores of the three previous grade categories (Table A45).

6.1.2 Link between the FLCAS and the use of Affective LLS
What follows is an examination of the possible link between FLA and the use of affective LLS. The results of this examination follow. In Table 23, the Pearson correlation

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coefficients72 between affective LLS and FLCAS are presented along with their statistical significance tests. Table 23 clearly illustrates that there is no statistically significant correlation between affective LLS and FLCAS factors. Table 23 Correlations of all factors of FLCAS and Affective LLS Fear of Anxiety of English Communication Test Negative Classes/Academic q1 Apprehension Anxiety Evaluation Issues mean Affective Pearson -,012 ,027 ,072 ,023 ,047 LLS Correlation p-value ,829 ,625 ,190 ,690 ,387 N 323 333 329 316 337

In Table 24, the reliability coefficients of the FLCAS and affective LLS factors are presented. More specifically, Cronbachs alpha73 has been calculated and shows that in most cases it has an acceptable value except in the cases of TA and affective LLS. Table 24 Reliability coefficients of FLCAS and Affective LLS factors Cronbach's N of Alpha Items 0,853 15 0,363 2 0,714 6 0,677 10 0,529 6

Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues Affective LLS

72

The Pearson correlation coefficients is a measure of the correlation between two variables, giving a value between +1 and 1 inclusive. It measures the strength of linear dependence between these two variables. 73 It should be noted that Cronbachs alpha is a measure of internal consistency and generally a value higher than 0.7 is considered acceptable.

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6.2 Qualitative Results

In this section, I present the responses to the interview questions participants (ESP/EAP students and instructors respectively) were asked. Participants that indicated low, moderate and high levels of anxiety were included. These responses allow for an insight into the attributions of anxiety or the lack of it. Additionally, insight is also gained by the responses student-participants provide regarding their use of affective LLS. Finally, the responses instructors provide are taken cognizance of in an effort to shed further light on the situation of ESP/EAP in the specific departments sampled in this study.

6.2.1 Students Responses to Interview Questions

What follow are the actual questions that the twenty-one student-participants were asked and a compilation of their most indicative responses (responses have been grouped together and quantified). These questions were formulated not only to record participant responses regarding FLA and affective LLS use, but also to decode their thoughts and beliefs regarding ESP/EAP in the Greek tertiary-level context which in turn will create the basis for considering the practical and pedagogical implications addressed in the following chapter (Chapter 7). 1. Could you please talk about your feelings in reference to your ESP/EAP class? Overall, subjects did not express any extremely negative feelings regarding their ESP/EAP class. The vast majority (90,4%) of respondents claimed that their comfort level was satisfactory as they did not experience any high levels of anxiety. Among these
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students, six students mentioned the fact that for them it was an enjoyable lesson and they looked forward to it. Three students reported that often they feel bored or indifferent about the class and thought it was not really worth their time. Two students referred to some anxiety-provoking situations mainly when they are called upon to speak in English in class or when the instructors speak only in English during the lesson. 2. Are you ever given the opportunity to address any feelings you may have about your ESP/EAP class during the lesson? Twenty (95,2%) of the students stated that they were not given this opportunity, but even if they were, they did not think that there was much to be said. Seven (33,3%) participants said that at times they were asked how they felt about the course and that they felt the instructor would try to take their feelings into consideration. These respondents were appreciative of this and one mentioned characteristically, I feel that the instructor actually cares about how we feel. 3. What do you think may stress you or cause anxiety during your ESP/EAP classes? After considering the results of the questionnaires, it was not surprising that the majority of students expressed the opinion that they did not feel high levels of anxiety or stress in connection to their ESP/EAP classes. Three (14,2%) students mentioned that they felt slightly pressured at times with the amount of material that had to be covered before the end of the course or assignment deadlines that had to be met and would have preferred if

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things were a bit more easy going in class, as one respondent put it characteristically, since their workload in other courses was often heavy. 4. Do you personally do anything to help you cope when you feel some anxiety in your ESP/EAP class? This question could have been left out entirely from the interview since the reported levels of anxiety were not high. However, it was felt that a voice could be given to the participants that felt moderate to high levels of FLA. The majority (80,9%) of students, as expected, simply responded that they did not feel any debilitating levels of anxiety and as such did not need to do anything about it. Two (9,5%) students, nonetheless, mentioned the fact that even when they do feel a bit stressed, especially since they feel they lack fluency when speaking in class, they try to put this stress aside or they simply avoid stress-provoking situations i.e. speaking English in class. Two (9,5%) students mentioned that when they lack complete comprehension in class, they either withdraw from any active participation or contrarily they put in a lot of effort to understand what is being said, often requesting the help of classmates seated close to them. 5. Would you say that you enjoy your ESP/EAP class overall? It seemed that students were a bit reluctant to answer this question, perhaps out of fear that they would be stigmatized if they truly expressed themselves. After trying to encourage them to be frank about their responses, as complete confidentiality was to be secured, some (33,3%) students admittedly opened up. Still the majority of students responded that this class was mediocre, but they felt more could be done to make the

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lesson more interesting and more constructive. They suggested the content of the lesson more closely reflect current trends and topics in business and economics and said that the study of representative case studies, would be, for example, quite productive. However, the few (33,3%) respondents that were willing to share their views in greater depth stressed the fact that in many cases they did not see any reason to be doing this course since the material covered was often mundane, rudimentary and non-motivating. These statements are undoubtedly disheartening and necessitate immediate action on the part of the ESP/EAP instructor and other stakeholders to redress the issue (see Chapter 7 for recommendations). These students went on to express a more generalized feeling about their university studies as being less interesting than what they had expected. Some students were categorically negative about their ESP/EAP classes stating that not only do they not acquire the English necessary for their respective fields (e.g. terminology and improved reading comprehension skills to tackle business and economics-related texts), but also that their knowledge of general English was not enhanced in any way. With reference to the last statement, a participant expressed her disappointment in that she was hoping the ESP/EAP lessons would complement her extramural EFL lessons in preparation for her upcoming language certificate exam. This students belief may suggest that some ESP/EAP students see these classes as complementary to their private EFL tuition, a mentality that is often carried over from the students secondary school experience (lessons at school are often seen as complementing private tutoring rather than the opposite). 6. When you make mistakes in class, how do your classmates react and how does this reaction make you feel?
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I could say that the respondents found this question amusing. The vast majority of students claimed that they were indifferent to their classmates reactions. Some said that their classmates often laugh, but this did not really bother them. One (4,7%) student even said characteristically that she would get her revenge by simply reciprocating the mocking when she would have the opportunity to do so. However, two (9,5%) students (the ones who actually reported high levels of anxiety) said fervently that they felt very uncomfortable since they internalized their classmates reactions and this made them feel like they were inadequate learners. 7. How do you react when the ESP teacher corrects you? With regards to this question, students did not have anything noteworthy to say. In essence, they all expressed the fact that when comments/corrections are well intended then they are welcome. Four (19%) students mentioned the fact that at times they feel a bit embarrassed when their ESP/EAP teacher corrects them or comments on what they had contributed. Moreover, they claimed that correction is closely connected to how the instructor goes about doing it. Some instructors have the tendency to use sarcasm when correcting and this is what is more insulting rather than the actual comments/correction. 8. Do you believe that the ESP/EAP teacher plays a role in creating a comfortable atmosphere in the classroom? All (100%) the students talked about the pivotal role the ESP teacher or any teacher plays in the creation of a comfortable atmosphere. One student adamantly supported that 99%

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of the classroom atmosphere is a result of the teachers approach to teaching and efforts and not necessarily the academic demands imposed by the courses level of difficulty. 9. What recommendations would you make to your ESP/EAP instructor to create a more comfortable, stress-free environment? The general response to this question was very similar. Students said that all instructors have to show understanding and patience and at the same time be fair and less demanding of them some times. Three (14,2%) students mentioned the fact that they felt stress at times as a result of their instructor using too much English, as they said characteristically; hence, it would be more constructive for them if some explanations (especially vocabulary) were provided in Greek. 10. How do you feel about this interview? Do you think it will help you in any way? The students mentioned the fact that it is important to give them a chance to speak about things that have a direct impact on them. They did not, however, feel that this interview would help them in any direct way. One (4,7%) student said that he believed that no one is probably interested in how they feel about what goes on in university, so that this was a nice opportunity to express some ideas, and thus was greatly appreciated. 11. Do you think in general Greek ESP/EAP students exhibit language anxiety? Why or why not?

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This question, too, was asked in great anticipation of the students responses. The responses varied considerably. Five (23,8%) students claimed that students probably exhibited language anxiety while the majority said that they felt they did not. It was felt that the lack of FLA was attributed to personality traits of the Greek students (e.g. an overall indifferent attitude towards some courses among which is ESP/EAP) while others to the educational system or the course itself. Moreover, seven (33,3%) students responses addressed the issue of character/personality traits and how students see their university education. They emphasized the fact that students, and more so in their first year, try to enjoy student life, especially after a very tiring preceding year, when all their efforts were geared towards passing their national university entrance exams. They felt that once they entered university, they could relax mainly in view of the fact that they had years ahead of them to make up for any academic failure, as some students reported. However, the remaining (66,6%) students pointed out that the lack of anxiety was due to the status the ESP/EAP course has in general, a response that is quite interesting and admittedly expected. This status is carried over from the EFL classes during their school years as English was never taken so seriously during these years. A few (19%) students said We have all studied English outside the school, either at foreign language centers74 or through private tutoring, so for us, English at school was a time to relax and prepare for the next lesson. Besides the material covered at school was redundant of what had already been covered in our extramural English classes. Consequently, these students

In Greece, many privately run foreign language centers (for extramural language lessons) have been established and offer language courses to learners of all ages. Their focus, apart from teaching foreign languages, is often exam preparation for recognized certificates. Most Greek students attend these centers and tuition takes place after school.

74

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felt the same way about their ESP/EAP classes at university which many said that they see as a repeated process of what went on in school. It is also noteworthy to mention that the ESP/EAP course grade, at this university at least, carries no weight towards the grade point average (GPA) of their degree. These courses are required for our degree, but are not counted towards our final GPA so all we need is a five to pass! one student posited. Two (9,5%) students also mentioned the fact that the ESP/EAP course they are taking has no vocational or professional value. One (4,7%) student expressed his view adamantly by saying that in the job market English is very important, but employers usually require proof of EFL knowledge in the form of a recognized certificate issued by one of the examination boards (see section 3.3.1.1). An employer will not normally ask you about the English you were taught at university. This statement may reflect the attitude some employers could have about the value and quality of ESP/EAP courses taught at university and would be worthy of investigation. The students that thought that some students may have exhibited FLA was put down to the fact that some ESP/EAP instructors have too many expectations or are strict, especially when it comes to grading so these factors may provoke FLA. Moreover, it was felt that students are often heterogeneous in terms of language level, so probably weaker students feel a certain amount of FLA. Two (9,5%) students referred to the fact that some students may simply be anxious by character regardless of any university course. 12. What are your strengths and weaknesses in English? The vast majority (90%) of students claimed that they did not experience any difficulty in comprehending the language, but they felt weak in producing the language and especially
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speaking. Many students stated I understand everything, but I cannot express myself fluently. In other words, they felt their receptive skills were stronger than their productive skills, something, of course, that is in line with the general principles of language learning and thus was no surprise. 13. Are there any specific techniques you use to help you learn English more quickly and effectively? This question was posited so as to give students the chance to talk about the overall language learning strategies they use to help them more effectively cope with language learning. To my disappointment, however, not much was said. Three (14,2%) students said that they watch American films without resorting to the subtitles. Four (19%) mentioned that they listen to music or read books/magazines written in English. One (4,7%) student referred to the mnemonic techniques used to retain new vocabulary items, and that included relating the new word to either something that impressed her or to an image. 14. Are you aware of your own learning styles75? If so, do you think that they are catered to during the ESP class? The responses to this question varied. Fifteen (33,3%) students reported that they have never thought about this question and were not sure about their preferred learning style. The remaining six (28,5) respondents claimed that they felt that one type of perceptual learning style prevailed (e.g. visual) over another (e.g. auditory), but that the teaching
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I explained the notion of learning styles to the participants in terms of cognitive, affective, and psychological factors that serve as relatively stable indicators of how learners perceive, interact with, and respond to the learning environment (Keefe, 1979). 220

approaches used by the ESP/EAP instructor did not necessarily reflect these preferences, for example, no multimedia tools were used in the classroom or very few listening activities, if any, were employed during the lessons. 15. Do you think renaming the ESP/EAP course (which in your department is referred to as English or Foreign Language), having more appropriate content, and receiving a grade that would affect your overall GPA would make a difference in the way you see the course? The answers here were admittedly somewhat predictable. The entire body of respondents claimed that the aforementioned changes would definitely add status to the course and students would probably respect it more as they could identify its value more easily. Seven (33,3%) students claimed that these changes may also increase the level of anxiety that they would feel about their ESP/EAP course, especially due to the weight of the grade it would carry, which indicates that academic achievement may be a predictor of anxiety for some students or that facilitative anxiety (discussed in sections 3.7 & 7.2.4) may actually be perceived by the students as something beneficial. 16. Do you think that ESP/EAP is a useful course in your university studies? The students response was unanimous. All (100%) students felt that their studies should include courses in specialized English. Sixteen (76,1%) students commented about the usefulness of learning terminology related to their respected field. However, sometimes they felt that their courses included too much general English rather than something more specialized. The student responses also revealed the fact that to their mind ESP/EAP was

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more about learning terminology and less about developing broader language and communication skills that would help them with their future professional development. In the case of ESP/EAP courses connected to business and economics, these skills would include job interviews, making presentations, covering variouis genres of writings, i.e. business plans and business reports etc. It was encouraging that none of the respondents referred to the course as a mere requirement they needed to pass only to fulfill their degree requirements.

6.2.2 ESP/EAP Instructors Responses to Interview Questions

Below are the questions the five ESP/EAP instructors were asked during the interviews and the summarized responses are provided after each question. The questions aimed not only at getting responses from the participants regarding LLS use and FLA among ESP/EAP students, but also at mapping the ESP/EAP terrain within the Greek socioeducational context. Similarly to the student-participants responses, the responses of the ESP/EAP instructors are conducive to several practical and pedagogical implications discussed in Chapter Seven.

1. Do you feel the ESP course content reflects the real needs of students? Four out of five instructors reported that they try to use texts that are somewhat related to economics, business, finance etc. In this sense, the students needs are met. They use these texts as the basis to analyze language related to the abovementioned areas. Most of the activities that take place during the lessons are related to reading comprehension, and very little time is spent on the development of the other language skills.

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2. Do you conduct a needs analysis prior to the commencement of your course, and if not what criteria do you use to decide about the needs of the students and the content of the course? All the instructors interviewed responded that they did not conduct a needs analysis (see Chapters 2 & 7 on needs analysis). Their decisions on what to include in and exclude from the course were not based on any identifiable language needs (resulting from a needs analysis) that the students may have, Instead, their prior teaching experience was used to guide them as to what they would teach. Three instructors admitted to not having a systematic overall syllabus when teaching their ESP/EAP classes. One instructor reported not teaching content-specific material to her Economics students; instead she felt it was more important to teach general English language as the more content-specific material could easily be learnt in the students professional environment. The instructor insinuated that ESP/EAP courses are not of that great value.

3. Do you collaborate with the subject specialists (professors) during the academic term? None of the instructors reported systematically collaborating with any subject specialists. Only one instructor mentioned some informal talks she had had with faculty staff regarding her course and its content, but this was not done in a more formal and systematic way. However, the instructors did claim that there would be some potential benefits from such cooperation. One instructor also commented on the fact that cooperation with professors may actually enhance the reputation the ESP/EAP course

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carries and create a more positive impression of the course for the professors who, according to this respondent, probably did not have a very favorable opinion of the course. 4. Do you take your students learning styles into consideration? Three respondents admitted to not being very familiar with the concept of learning styles. The other respondents reported not consciously considering their students learning styles when teaching, but in hindsight they believed their teaching did accommodate the basic perceptual styles76 such as auditory and visual. However, these responses are in conflict with those of the students as the latter claim that they felt their learning styles were not accounted for in their ESP/EAP instructors teaching (see answer to question 14). 5. Do you use techniques that will help your students employ LLS? All five instructors admitted to not systematically trying to encourage students to use LLS nor involved them in any overt training in using LLS. It was also felt that some instructors were not completely sure what was meant by LLS. 6. Do you think renaming the ESP/EAP course (which in your department is referred to as English or Foreign Language), having more appropriate content and receiving a grade that is calculated in the overall GPA would make a difference in the way your students see the course?

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Perceptual learning styles encompass types of styles such as visual, auditory, tactile, kinesthetic, and haptic. For example, learners who are classed as visual, process information through words, pictures and diagrams and tend to prefer reading to lectures. On the contrary, auditory learners prefer lectures to reading, process information through oral explanations, and tend to learn best by listening and discussing (Reid, 1995). 224

The responses here reflected those of the students. The ESP/EAP instructors unanimously believed that these proposals would bring about change towards a positive direction. Renaming the courses and assigning a grade that would count towards the students degree would raise the profile of the course and give it more prestige in the eyes of the students, and one respondent claimed in the eyes of the faculty members as well. 7. Do you think it would be better for ESP/EAP courses to administratively belong to the department you teach in rather than the Center for Foreign Language Teaching? The responses to this question varied. Three respondents claimed that from their point of view it was preferable to be part of the Center for Foreign Language Teaching as this gives them more flexibility from an administrative point of view. Furthermore, belonging to this center meant that they were flexible in choosing which department they would teach in from one academic year to the other. On the contrary, there were two instructors who claimed that belonging to the department would enhance their focus on the particular subject area of the department and they would also have the opportunity to establish a deeper and more meaningful cooperation with the other faculty members of this department. Notably, these responses did not reflect on the actual ESP/EAP course. When questioned again about this part of the question, two of the respondents claimed that it would probably make no noteworthy difference, whereas the others supported the view that it would be better for the ESP/EAP course.

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8. Have you had any formal training in the areas of ESP/EAP? Surprisingly all of the instructors interviewed reported that they did not have any formal training in ESP/EAP teaching and they had learned some things through experience, seminars and through their own readings. Only one instructor had received formal training (in the form of postgraduate studies) in applied linguistics, but not specifically in the field of ESP/EAP.

9. What is your opinion about this studys results? (A summary of the results of the study was presented to the interviewees). The ESP instructors did not appear to be surprised by the results. They all claimed that students generally are indifferent to a great number of courses their studies include and much more so when it comes to their ESP/EAP courses. Hence, they did not expect students to score high on the language anxiety scale. Likewise, students are not explicitly and systematically taught to use language learning strategies throughout their education and more so at tertiary level education. Consequently, they did not believe students would exhibit a high frequency of overall LLS including affective LLS use. 10. What do you perceive as being the biggest challenge in teaching ESP? Interestingly enough, all the ESP teachers gave similar responses. They referred to the fact that they had the feeling of not belonging which raises issues of low professional morale. The other challenge they faced was attracting students to their classes. The ESP/EAP teachers reported student attendance that ranged from very limited to none. When asked what they felt they could do about this, they reported that this phenomenon

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of low attendance was beyond their control. The teachers were of the opinion that students often feel that their (students) knowledge of English is sufficient and in many cases their level is above that of their ESP/EAP course, hence, there is no need to attend it. Moreover, students general indifference towards their studies was also an important culprit, a notion expressed by the student participants as well (see student responses to question 11). It is interesting to note that the ESP/EAP teachers interviewed do not feel they share any responsibility in, for example, their students low record of attendance or indifferent attitude and instead they see it as completely circumstantial.

6.3 Discussion of Results

The following sections (6.3.16.3.2) present a discussion on the quantitative and qualitative results of the present study. Each section looks at the results with reference to a specific demographic variable so as to better delineate the findings since they are discussed and dealt with in a more concrete manner.

6.3.1 Discussion of Quantitative Results

In this section, we will consider the first tool used for statistical analysis (FLCAS). The FLCAS shows that levels of language anxiety for this particular sample range from low to high. More specifically, and as seen in this chapter, the mean values range from 2.31 (TA) to 2.69 (CA). In addition, the mean score of the whole FLCAS has been computed for each participant and the mean value is 2.56 for the whole sample, which constitutes an overall low level of anxiety. A breakdown of the mean score of the FLCAS reveals that 272 participants (75,3%) would be classified as having low levels of FLA; 81
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participants (22,4%) as having moderate levels of FLA; and only 8 (2,2%) participants would be considered highly anxious language learners.

Similarly, for the second tool used for statistical analysis (SILL) the frequency of affective language learning strategies employed has been categorized into the same components (low, moderate, high). According to this categorization, 237 participants (69,7%) would be classified as having a low frequency of affective LLS use; 96 participants (28,2%) as having moderate and 7 (2,1%) would be considered as having a high frequency of affective LLS use, which shows that overall the majority of participants in this particular study do not report a high frequency of affective LLS use.

Finally, no significantly statistical link between the presence of language anxiety and the use of affective LLS was identified. The findings as they relate to language anxiety and the use of affective LLS do not tally with the general results of other studies previously mentioned (see Chapters 3 and 4). Nonetheless, it should be noted that the contexts of these studies were not in all cases ESP/EAP, but were in the context of university students studying EFL. With regards to FLA, no comparisons can be made to a Greek university ESP/EAP context as no similar studies have been conducted, up to date, investigating FLA. Indicatively, I mention some of the international studies referred to in Chapter Three. For instance, Burdens (2004) study of university ESP students showed that about half of the 289 students were classified as having language anxiety. Likewise, in Kondo and Ying-Lings study (2004) it was found that Japanese students also exhibited various levels of language anxiety in connection to their English language

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classes. When isolating affective LLS use of other studies among university English EFL students, a moderate to high frequency use of LLS is reported. A typical example is Wafas study (2004) which revealed such use of LLS among EFL Arabic students. Similar results were recorded by Vidals (2002) small-scale study of Brazilian EFL university students. Within a Greek university ESP context, the only available study on overall LLS profiles is that of Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009b (see Chapter 4). Their investigation revealed a mean score of M=2.71 (low-medium use) for affective LLS use among all the participants of their study. With reference to the business and economics students of their study, it was found that the mean score is M=2,63. These results are comparable to this studys mean score of M=2,57. Therefore, within this ethnolinguistic and educational context (Greek university business and economics students) and according to the existing two studies (the present and that of Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou, 2009b) it may be safe to assume that learners do not frequently employ affective LLS, which may in turn be interpreted as students lack of self-encouragement and self-reward and overall lack in effort to control their attitudes and emotions regarding L2 learning. Another assumption may be that students do not try to create associations of positive affect towards the foreign language as they understand the impact of negative feelings on their L2 learning.

These somewhat unexpected findings raise the obvious question as to why students in Greek universities differ when compared to their counterparts in other parts of the world (studies discussed in Chapter 3) where language anxiety was reported as being present (ranging from mild to severe) and where students engaged in higher levels of LLS use

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(see studies in Chapter 4). Theorizing as to the cause of this discrepancy is not simple. A hypothesis may be that students are not systematically trained to use LLS (as reflected in the interview responses) and this becomes an issue which will be discussed in Chapter Seven. In general, it appears that the lack of high levels of FLA renders the use of affective LLS unnecessary since the purpose of applying affective LLS is primarily to help the learner tackle any negative feelings connected to learning, i.e. foreign language anxiety. With regards to affective LLS, the similar findings in the Greek context may mean that this specific socio-educational context can be taken to indicate that indeed context (social and educational system) is a reliable predictor of the extent and frequency of affective LLS use.

Having referred to the results in a general manner, a more detailed account and discussion of the findings is provided by separately addressing each of the factors under examination. This set of factors is connected to the individual differences data obtained from the background questions (gender, year of study, knowledge of other language, university department, language level, and grade obtained). 6.3.1a Gender The findings of this study replicate, to a certain extent, those found in other studies (see Chapter 3). Nevertheless, these finding do not accord with those, for instance, of Matsuda
and Gobel (2005), who found no significant difference in FLA between male and female students. With regards to the FLCAS, female participants reported higher scores of

anxiety overall compared to their male counterparts. This statistically significant difference is especially evident in Communication Apprehension and Fear of Negative
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Evaluation. These findings may translate into the fact that female participants find it more difficult to cope with classroom interpersonal interactions or to perform in any type of task which requires oral participation when compared to their male counterparts. Fear of Negative Evaluation is closely linked to Communication Apprehension (see section 3.7). In other words, when language students are not confident about what they are saying during their interaction in class, they develop fear of potential negative evaluation by both the language teachers and their classmates and this appears to be the case more so for the female participants of this and other studies (Campbell and Shaw, 1994; Stephenson, 2007; see Chapter 3). However, no statistically significant difference was linked to gender in connection to Test Anxiety or Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues. Moreover, a possible explanation was sought in the academic performance of female and male students.

Taking a closer look at the statistical results referring to the mean grades female and male participants had received in previous ESP/EAP courses, one could see that although female students had a higher mean score, there was no statistically significant difference between them. Female participants had a mean score of M=6,04; whereas the male participants had a mean score of M=5,68 (p-value=0.438 > =0.05). Therefore, the reasons for this tendency towards higher levels of FLA reported by female respondents are unclear. One could only speculate, as mentioned above, that perhaps female students are more self-conscious of communicating in class (Communication Apprehension) and detest any negative evaluation as it may hurt their self-image (Fear of Negative

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Evaluation), which are factors that may relate to the socio-cultural roles imposed on female students. Moving on to the results shown in reference to the connection between affective LLS and gender, it is clear that there is no statistically significant difference between male (M=2,55) and female (M=2,57) participants. These results suggest that males and females do not show any difference in self-managing their emotional state when learning a language. Griffiths (2003) study reports similar findings with respect to differences in LLS use among male and female students. However, the evidence of this study does not support the results of, for example, Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou (2009b) who found that female participants reported a higher rate of affective LLS use when compared to their male counterparts. Similarly, Peacock (2001) claims that males and females approach their language learning in different ways because of their different socio-cultural roles that they have adopted as the result of the societal expectations of the society in which they live. These inconclusive associations between gender and affective LLS use revealed in the various studies make for a week argument as to the connection between gender and the frequency of affective LLS use.

Despite the lack of high levels of FLA reported by the participants and their low frequency of affective LLS use, I believe that making learners aware of affective LLS and explicitly and directly training them in their use will aid them in their language development77 and help them cope with any stressful situations that occur during their language learning experience in a more effective way.

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The beneficial effects of affective LLS training will be discussed in Chapter 7 Practical Implications. 232

6.3.1b Year of Study On examining the year of study students are in (freshman and sophomore), the results reveal that there is no statistically significant difference between the year of study and the reported levels of FLA. Pichettes (2009) study of first semester university language students and their peers from higher semesters showed similar findings. The same applies to the year of study and its link to affective LLS. The conclusion to be drawn for these factors is that the year of study (at least for the first and second-year students examined) does not bear any influence on the above mentioned factors which may imply that the more experienced ESP/EAP participants do not necessarily exhibit more or less FLA nor do they use a higher frequency of affective LLS to cope with language learning. 6.3.1c Knowledge of other language It was interesting to investigate the participants knowledge of another foreign language beyond that of English. The results unequivocally show that only TA is not linked to the knowledge of another language, which may suggest that anxiety of test taking does not diminish with language learning experience. This form of anxiety is prevalent regardless of how many languages a student has studied. In connection to the other factors, however, there appear to be important links which are not confounding. The main link being that the overall mean of the FLCAS (q1mean) as well as the individual factors (except TA) show a negative correlation. In other words, the more languages a participant has studied, the lower the levels of reported FLA. This finding lends credence to the assumption that more experienced language learners cope more effectively with their language learning and exhibit less FLA. Hence, knowledge of another language is a predictor variable of this study which also lends weight to, for example, Onwuegbuzies
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et al. (1999) study which demonstrated that prior knowledge of another language was a predictor of FLA.

Contrary to the above results, a close investigation of the knowledge of other language factor and the use of affective LLS reveals that experienced language learners in this study do not necessarily employ a higher frequency of affective LLS compared to the less experienced ones. In connection to the above correlation regarding this factor and FLA, one could predict that perhaps experienced language learners employ affective LLS to manage FLA, whereas their counterparts do not and thus report higher levels of FLA. However, this prediction is completely invalidated according to the results. These results may simply suggest that the even lower levels of FLA among experienced learners are not attributed to the use of affective LLS, but to the level of comfort learners have established due to their extended language learning experience. 6.3.1d University department Another factor that was included in the investigation was the connection between FLA and affective LLS use and the department in which the students were enrolled. The results showed unsurprising findings. The departments investigated herein do not play any statistically significant role when correlated with the FLCAS and SILL. In other words, whether the participant is a student in the Economics department of the University of Patras or the Economics department of the University of Macedonia has no bearing on the participants report of FLA nor on their use of affective LLS. One could speculate that these findings lend support to the fact that FLA is not brought on by the circumstance a learner is in (state or situation specific anxiety) but rather due to his/her personality
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(trait anxiety) as stated by Gardner (1985). Moreover, what could be assumed a priori is that the lack of high levels of FLA does not necessitate the use of affective LLS. Another assumption may be that since students are not systematically trained in LLS use, as the interviews revealed, they may not be overtly aware of them and hence not use them. 6.3.1e Language Proficiency Level As shown in Chapter Five, the level of participants language proficiency was divided into four categories (B1, B2, C1, C2 according to the CEFR) so as to investigate any patterns that may arise from correlating the variables of FLA, affective LLS use and language proficiency level among the participants. The results yielded some interesting findings. Firstly, with regards to the levels of FLA exhibited, language proficiency was negatively correlated. More specifically, the higher the level achieved in language learning the lower the levels of FLA. In particular, participants at B1 level reported much higher levels of FLA compared to the participants at the other levels, who also reported levels of anxiety, but not very different from one language level to the other. One could conjecture that, to a certain degree, B1 level learners have not achieved a higher level of language learning due to the existence of FLA since, as seen in Chapter Three, language learning is hindered by the presence of FLA. Consequently, students may be demotivated by the fact that language learning is a somewhat stress-inducing experience. A supposition that could also be made is that more advanced learners are accustomed to the stress that may be associated with language learning and thus pay no heed to it. These findings lead me to hypothesize that FLA is more prevalent at the earlier stages of language learning and declines as language proficiency increases. This hypothesis has also been supported empirically by other studies (e.g. Frantzen & Magnan, 2005).
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However, these findings do not tally, for instance, with those of Tths (2010) study of university students majoring in ELT as she found that L2 proficiency does not confer a sense of confidence of using the target language to every learner (189). Similarly, Onwueghuzies et al (1999) research and Lius (2006) study of beginner, intermediate, and advanced learners failed to find any significant difference of FLA at these various language levels. Finally, various studies (e.g. Cheng, 2002; Marcos-Llins & Garau, 2009) revealed findings that support the notion that advanced language learners had higher scores of FLA in comparison to their lower level counterparts.

These inconsistent results draw ones attention to the fact that there are no clear indications as to the link between foreign language anxiety and language proficiency level and hence a call for the re-examination of this relationship is obvious. It may be safe to claim that language learners anxiety is not ascribed to a learners level of language proficiency. Taking this claim a step further, one could say that language proficiency may not actually play a crucial role in the development of FLA or to put it differently, the findings can be taken to indicate that proficiency level by itself is not a reliable predictor of FLA.

In this study, language proficiency, on the other hand, shows no statistical correlation with the use of affective LLS despite the differences in mean scores (increasing as the language level increases). Regardless of language level, participants use the same levels of affective LLS. These results are in line with those of Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou (2009b) as their study concludes that the use of affective LLS does not support significant

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differences between C2 students and B2 (or lower). With reference to overall LLS use, however, it should be noted that various international studies (Green & Oxford, 1995; Griffiths, 2003; Peacock & Ho, 2003) have reported that the level of proficiency in the foreign language has a direct effect on the selection and frequency of overall LLS use. The similar findings of affective LLS suggest that this category of LLS is irrespective of differences in learners L2 proficiency. 6.3.1f Grades obtained The last variable under investigation is the grades students have obtained in previous ESP/EAP courses. As mentioned in Chapter Five, the grades were divided into three broad categories: lower than 5.0, 5.0 to 7.0 and higher than 7.0 on a scale of 1-10. Starting with the FLCAS, the results show that overall there is a statistically significant indication that participants who have achieved higher grades (above 7.0) have an overall lower level of FLA as reported in the FLCAS. This is the case for q1mean, CA, and FNE. When looking at AECAI and TA, there is not a statistically significant indication that the grade achieved plays a role. The point that should be made here, nonetheless, is that the overall FLCAS score gives a clear indication that grade does have a certain amount of impact. Students with higher grades perhaps develop more self-confidence in their language learning and as such exhibit less FLA. Naturally, having discussed the negative effects FLA has on the learner and his/her academic achievements (see Chapter 3), the same could be claimed for the reverse; in other words, that the higher levels of FLA are a hindrance to language learning and thus to academic achievement.

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Finally, when examining the link of the grade factor to the scores on the SILL, one can see that again there is no statistically significant indicator for affective LLS which demonstrated that neither the higher nor the lower academic achievers of this study used affective LLS more or less frequently so this variable is independent of high or low grades. This lack of a statistical correlation can be taken to indicate that academic achievement by itself in not a reliable predictor of the frequency of affective LLS use with regards to this sample group. It is noteworthy to mention that these findings are not in line with the findings produced by other research. For example, Saricoban and Saricaoglou (2008), who in conducting a study with Turkish EFL university students, found that academic success and the use of affective LLS negatively correlated. In other words, students who were less successful academically employed more affective LLS. Saricoban and Saricaoglous (2008) findings may provide evidence for the fact that lower academic success rates among L2 learners trigger feelings of disappointment and anxiety which in turn may drive the learner to resort to the use of affective LLS to help him/her cope with these negative feelings. In this study, nevertheless, grades do not appear to be reliable predictors of FLA and affective LLS. 6.3.1.1 Link between the FLCAS and the use of Affective LLS What follows the examination of the individual differences factors is an investigation of the link between FLA and the use of affective LLS. The initial hypothesis that low to moderate levels of language anxiety exhibited by the participants of this study may be partly due to their effective use of affective language learning strategies is not verified statistically. On the contrary, this study shows that there is no statistically significant link between these two factors. In other words, the levels of FLA reported are irrespective of
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the amount of affective LLS used. Notwithstanding these unpredictable results, one may be able to provide a plausible explanation. Affective LLS are used primarily for FLA reduction. However, it may be the case that since levels of anxiety in this study were not reported as being high, the use of affective LLS to manage it was not deemed necessary.

Another explanation underlying the low levels of FLA and the low frequency of affective LLS use as well as the lack of correlation between these two variables may simply be the students stance on ESP/EAP courses and their lack of awareness of the use of affective LLS, which is discussed below (section 6.3.2). Another important point to add is the ESP/EAP teachers lack of knowledge of or even interest in (as it becomes clear from the interviews) how to guide their students to use affective LLS.

6.3.2 Discussion of Qualitative Results

Moving away from the statistical data gathered in this study onto a composite of the answers provided by the subjects (both ESP/EAP students and instructors) during the interviews, some possible explanations are provided with regards to the findings. I would like to note that the answers to some interview questions78 that specifically target ESP/EAP and not FLA or LLS are used as a springboard to draw various practical and pedagogical implication that are addressed in the following chapter (Chapter 7).

The first point that could be underscored is that the participants interviewed felt that FLA was not prevalent among ESP/EAP students, which was obviously confirmed by the

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Questions 15, 16 for ESP/EAP student-respondents and questions 1,2, 3, 6 7 8 10 for ESP/EAP instructor-respondents. 239

quantitative results. As stated earlier (section 6.2.1) only seven students felt FLA was present among some of their classmates and they attributed this either to students low level of ability in English or due to personality traits. These assumptions on the part of the students are interesting and as explored earlier (Chapter 3), the general assumption put forth in this study is that FLA is probably closer related to a learners character rather than his/her level of language proficiency, despite the fact that students with lower proficiency levels reported higher levels of FLA. These findings, however, are not statistically significant to draw sound and valid generalizations. The ESP/EAP instructors interview responses indicated that they too did not think that FLA was prevalent among their ESP/EAP learners and thus was not considered a problem.

As far as LLS are concerned, ESP/EAP instructors admitted to not specifically addressing LLS use or making their learners aware of their use in class let alone systematically training their learners in LLS use. Similarly, students did not seem to be aware of their LLS use and hence could not explicitly state that they employed many techniques to enhance their language learning in their ESP/EAP class. The low frequency of LLS use in general and affective LLS in particular by the participants of this study raises the issue of the beneficial effects of more direct training in strategy use (addressed in Chapter 7) to help learners with their language development and overall language proficiency.

Another explanation lies in student attitude. As many student-participants reported, the general attitude students in Greece have during their first years of study in university is often marked with indifference. The harsh and highly competitive university entrance

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system physically and mentally drains these students. This situation in turn creates a specific indifferent attitude towards their courses. Students tend to feel a sense of accomplishment for succeeding in getting into university; therefore, many of them put their studies on hold and focus more on having a full social life to the detriment of their academic life. Greek universities policies provide an asylum79 for such a stance since students may repeat a course (in essence the final exam of the course) as many times as required until they receive a passing grade, with no repercussions on their transcripts or their studies in general.

A further reason that may partially justify the findings, and especially with regards to the lower levels of language anxiety (in comparison to other international studies), is the fact that students are quite accustomed to English language instruction. Students have had several years of instruction at school, ranging from six to nine years, and an additional number of years of private language tuition which usually leads to a language proficiency certificate (the vast majority of respondents reported to be the holders of a recognized language certificate which ranges from B2 to C2). This number of years of language instruction and the possession of a language certificate, in addition to the fact that the English language class did not enjoy the same status as other subjects such as Mathematics and Greek language studies has provided students with a high comfort level in English. This level of comfort and mentality are carried over to university, as students themselves report in their interview responses. The ESP/EAP instructors views on this

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The laws regarding higher education are currently undergoing changes, so this may affect the number of times students can retake a final examination or the overall number of years they may require to complete their degree.

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matter are in line with those reported by the students in that the tendency to see the ESP/EAP course as a general English language course prevails. By the same token, student responses point to the direction that anxiety is closely linked to the beliefs students carry about a course. The equation is quite straight forward: the more challenging a course is, the higher the status it is assigned, and the more difficult it is to achieve a passing grade, the more likely students are to develop and exhibit anxiety.

This indifferent or at times even negative predisposition towards the ESP/EAP courses on the part of the institution also has a bearing on the students, especially since the grade attained in the ESP/EAP course, in most cases, carries no weight or worse yet is not credit-bearing. This disdain for the course is inevitably transmitted to the students and even the ESP/EAP instructors, who in turn are not motivated to create an engaging and challenging ESP/EAP teaching and learning environment thus leading in a vicious circle.

ESP/EAP instructors responses also show that they do not make any overt effort to help their learners with affective LLS use or overall LLS use. In order for students to become aware of LLS and maximize the potential benefits they have for language learning, students need to be made aware of LLS through systematic training and guidance. In a subsequent phase, students ought to be encouraged to employ these strategies to help them cope with any situation in the ESP/EAP class that may appear challenging.

6.4 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

In this chapter, I reported the findings of my quantitative and qualitative inquiry. In view of the reported findings, the results can be summarized as follows. FLA among the
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participants ranged from low to moderate, and that very few (7 or 2.2%) students exhibited high levels. Likewise, the use of affective LLS was reported to range from low to moderate with only a few (2.1%) using them frequently and systematically. In terms of the data connected to the individual differences factors, the results substantiated that gender, language proficiency level, number of foreign languages spoken, and the grade obtained in a previous ESP/EAP class all had statistically significant connection to FLA and affective LLS. On the contrary, no statistically significant results were attained from participants year of study or university department attended. Finally, no statistical link was identified between FLA and the use of affective LLS. The qualitative results which derived from the interview questions posed to both groups of participants did shed light on the quantitative results and yielded valuable input for the qualitative investigation and finally provided some insight into ESP/EAP and its current state.

The results made a case for a fertile interpretation and discussion which have also been provided in the present chapter. The findings mainly show that overall, students exhibit low to moderate levels of language anxiety and report low to moderate frequency of affective LLS use. Redressing the field of ESP/EAP in Greece becomes imperative, especially nowadays when the demand for such courses is obvious and even more so in a unified European context where there is a burgeoning mobility of students, but also in a more globalized context in which students may be required to work in the future. These issues will be addressed in the following chapter (Chapter 7).

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Chapter 7 Practical - Pedagogical Implications and Teaching Suggestions

7.0 Introduction
This chapter addresses the practical and pedagogical implications sourcing from the findings of this thesis and makes teaching suggestions for more effective ESP/EAP teaching for a Greek university context since a theoretical account of research findings is always an integral part of any scientific investigation, but if practical and pedagogical implications are not drawn for everyone involved, then much of its usefulness is lost. These implications, both direct and indirect, which are relevant to all the stakeholders involved, including ESP/EAP instructors, students, and decision makers of university departments, are discussed in this chapter.

It is apparent, from the research findings yielded, that the ESP/EAP situation in Greece is in need of major revamping if students are to be provided with meaningful and useful courses that will genuinely help them, on the one hand, develop intellectually and academically, and, on the other hand, help them access existing resources and build a repertoire of skills necessary for their academic and future professional lives.

As such, this chapter will first look at the specific practical and pedagogical implications pertaining to the learners low levels of FLA and affective LLS use reported in this study. Secondly, more general practical and pedagogical implications as they connect indirectly

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to the findings as well as suggestions for improving ESP/EAP teaching in Greece are provided with regards to the ESP/EAP course, the ESP/EAP student and finally the ESP/EAP instructor with a particular focus on the Greek context.

7.1 FLA: Maintaining Optimal Levels of Facilitative Anxiety

One of the key components of this thesis is FLA. The findings of this study clearly suggest that reported levels of FLA among ESP/EAP students in a Greek tertiary-level setting are rather low. As noted earlier (Chapter 3), high levels of anxiety are debilitating for language learning and its presence leads to avoidance behavior and heavily impedes the learning process as it hinders comprehension and production. Consequently, the lower levels of anxiety found in Greek students of this study would normally be welcomed, as the students are not inhibited by such affective factors and consequently their language learning is not affected. However, although seemingly contradictory, small levels of language anxiety facilitate learning. In other words, a certain level of uneasiness is desired so that the learner will have enough poise to face the challenge of his/her class. It was seen in a previous chapter (Chapter 3) that early on Alpert and Haber (1960) talked about facilitative anxiety as an affective state which actually can create a fertile environment for learning. Baileys (1983) research on competitiveness and anxiety showed that facilitative anxiety played a positive role in learning. In his work, Carl Rogers (1969, 1983) also argues the beneficial effects of low anxiety.

More specifically, as seen in Chapter Three, Baileys (1983) research on competitiveness and anxiety showed that facilitative anxiety played a positive role in learning and Marcos-Llins & Garau (2009) argued that foreign language anxiety keeps a learners
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motivation high to perform well. As such, creating an optimal level of anxiety will give the impetus the learner needs to be a more effective learner. Taking the beneficial impact facilitative anxiety may have on the ESP/EAP learner, ESP/EAP instructors ought to try to create and maintain this optimal level of anxiety (without, of course, creating high levels of debilitative anxiety) in an effort to make learning more challenging as it will keep students alert and give them a competitive edge, factors that are key requisites for language learning. This maintenance of an optimal level of anxiety may be achieved through the aforementioned suggestions. In other words, using challenging tasks as prescribed by Task-Based Learning (TBL discussed in section 7.7.4), or incorporating Information Communications Technologies (ICT discussed in section 7.4.6) in ones teaching of ESP/EAP are steps that may help in creating an adequate amount of facilitative anxiety. Moderately increasing students level of anxiety through these approaches give the ESP/EAP instructor a pivotal role to play and may require a partial or total revamping of his/her teaching practice. .

7.2. Alleviating Instances of High Levels of Anxiety

Apart from the overall low levels of anxiety, there were instances -albeit few- of high levels of anxiety reported. For these learners, provisions must also be made to help them alleviate their high levels of FLA. The affective needs of the students can be met through various approaches. First and foremost, the ESP/EAP practitioner should try to create a non-threatening environment. To do this, the practitioner must set humanistic goals. This may include developing a stress-free climate. Such an endeavor may partially be achieved by helping students increase their self-confidence and self-esteem and lower

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their inhibitions (see sections 3.3.3 and 7.5.4) without focusing on competence or performance. Moreover, it is important for the ESP/EAP instructor to reflect a holistic, affective, student-centered view of language learning (Finch, 2002: 5). Equally important is to help the ESP/EAP students develop peer-support networks. Doing so will enable them to communicate their affective needs with their peers and in turn this will help them allay any feeling of isolation. In addition, a relaxed atmosphere encourages students to take risks and make errors without fearing the negative consequences such as ridicule or embarrassment (fear of negative evaluation see section 3.7). Finally, if learners take part in the planning stage of the course (i.e. negotiated syllabus see section 7.4.2) they feel at ease as they will be aware of the expectations of their ESP/EAP course.

7.3 LLS: Incorporating the use of LLS in ESP/EAP Teaching

The low to moderate frequency of both affective LLS and general LLS use necessitates the need to address LLS in the Greek ESP/EAP context since research supports that their use is beneficial to the language learner (see Chapter 4). Therefore, a main assertion of this thesis is that attention must be paid to language learning strategies. If we borrow Oxfords (1990: 8) definition, learning strategies are specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations, we see that the use of LLS can contribute to one of the main goals of ESP/EAP teaching, which is communicative competence. At this point, it is important to mention Oxfords Strategic Self-Regulatory Model (S2R -discussed in section 4.3.3), where there is reference to two affective strategies: (1) Activating, Supporting Emotions, Beliefs and Attitudes and (2) Generating and Maintaining Motivation and this shows that affective strategies in her S2R model
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accounts for all the components of affect: learners emotion, beliefs, attitudes and motivation. Incorporating the S2R model in ones ESP/EAP classroom will help students with any negative emotions associated with language learning; will help them form positive attitudes towards their ESP/EAP class and, finally, will help them increase their motivation.

Likewise, the use of LLS allows learners to become more self-directed and to support their learning overall (Oxford, 1990). Many language learning strategy theorists (OMalley et al., 1985; Wenden and Rubin, 1987; Oxford, 1990; Stern, 1992; Ellis, 1994; Hismanoglu, 2000; Papaefthymiou-Lytra, 1987a, 2009) attribute language learning success to the use of such strategies and assert that they are teachable skills. On this premise, the ESP/EAP instructors have yet another role to play. They have to help students become aware of these strategies and encourage their systematic use by providing ample opportunities to use them, which they neglect to do as seen from the interview responses (see response to question 5 in section 6.2.2). Oxford (2003) adamantly claims that even though we do not yet know everything we wish to know about optimal strategy instruction, there is growing evidence that L2 teachers can and should conduct strategy instruction in their FL classrooms.

The use of language learning strategies leads to higher levels of language proficiency as many studies have shown (cf. OMalley & Chamot, 1990; Wafa, 2003). Moreover, for students who exhibit FLA, becoming aware of and learning how to make use of affective as well as cognitive and social LLS would be very helpful as they allow students to take

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control over their emotions and attitudes in connection to learning. Therefore, language learning strategy instruction becomes imperative if ESP/EAP students are to reach their fullest language potential and become autonomous language learners. To achieve this goal, OMalley and Chamot (1990:157) enumerate the following steps to strategy instruction: the teacher first identifies or shows students their current language strategies, explains the rationale and application for using additional learning strategies, provides opportunities and materials for practice, and evaluates or assists students to evaluate their degree or success with new learning strategies.

7.3.1 Adopting a Strategies-Based Instruction Approach

As seen above, LLS instruction is beneficial. To this end, Rubin & Thompson (1994) report good results in teachers efforts to teach students to use learning strategies. Needless to say, before ESP/EAP teachers are in a position to teach their students how to use strategies effectively, they should be trained in the multitude of LLS available and how to implement strategy instruction into their teaching situation. Even including elements of a Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) approach may be beneficial in an ESP/EAP classroom. The role of SBI in EFL teaching is also emphasized by Cohen, Weaver and Li (1996). They stress that the use of an SBI approach may prove quite fruitful as it is used to systematically introduce, brace and support the various LLS which lead to the more efficacious use of the target language.

When incorporating SBI in ESP/EAP teaching, the instructor ought to bear in mind the socio-cultural aspects. For instance, the participants used in this study belong to a specific linguistic and cultural context namely that of a predominantly Greek monolingual

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society. Therefore, this characteristic must be taken into account. It has been discussed in Chapter 7 (section 7.4) that the socio-cultural background of the learner affects the frequency of strategy use.

7.4 Implications and Suggestions for ESP/EAP Courses

Having looked at the specific implications of FLA and LLS in this section, I will be considering various areas that warrant attention such as the profile of the ESP/EAP course, syllabus design, needs analysis, a TBL teaching approach, and the implementation of ICT. All these implications and suggestions must be seen from a critical perspective and in light of the fact that with reference to ESP/EAP, English in Greece is only an auxiliary language as noted in Chapter Two.

7.4.1 ESP/EAP course Profile

One of the important implications that arises from the present study is the existing profile of the ESP/EAP course in university departments investigated herein. Consequently, one crucial step needed to be taken involves changing the profile of the course. This change in profile may simply begin by changing the title assigned to the ESP/EAP course, a step that may require a considerable amount of negotiation and convincing of the department head and faculty. In most cases, the ESP/EAP courses are assigned a generic name like English followed by a mere number, thus courses are usually referred to as English 1, 2 and so forth, and often, even the title foreign language is used instead of English. The use of these course titles creates an automatic association in the minds of students that they will be doing yet another general course in English where they will be covering the

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rudimentary features of the language similar to what they had been doing during the previous years in their primary and secondary school EFL classes. Instead, the ESP/EAP courses could be given titles that more precisely reflect the ESP/EAP content. In its simplest form, it could be English for General or Specific Academic Purposes and considering more specialized titles such as Academic Writing, Business

Communication or Written Business Communication may prove beneficial. These course titles, along with a comprehensive course description may arouse the interest of students who will likely feel the great value of these courses while potentially diminishing a number of their preconceived notions.

To use Dudley-Evans and St Johns (1998) term, ESP/EAP courses in Greek universities are extensive in that they only occupy a small part of a students timetable and usually run over an extended period of time, usually one or more academic semesters. According to Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) extensive ESP/EAP courses, have a raised profile as a subject, which in turn results in students increased motivation due to certain characteristics. These characteristics are namely the fact that ESP/EAP courses run in parallel with the subject courses, are part of the timetable, and finally students are assessed. Consequently, since the ESP/EAP courses offered by Greek universities are extensive, they have the potential of becoming more motivating.

Another issue university departments ought to consider is not only the number of ESP/EAP courses taught, but also the year in which they are taught. ESP/EAP courses in universities mostly deal with pre-experienced learners thus they commonly address

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delayed needs80. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) assert that running ESP/EAP courses in the final year, instead of the first or second year which is the case of the academic departments of this study- is a factor that contributes to raising the status of the course. In addition, I believe that it would also affect the motivation students have regarding the course. If the course is taught during the final year of the students academic program, there could be a more intense focus on professional skills or academic skills pertaining to postgraduate studies in an effort to further enhance students motivation. To this end, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998: 149) affirm, students seem to be much more motivated by a course that prepares them for oral and written communication in their future professional world.

In addition, creating and implementing courses that not only have a general EAP focus (i.e. EGAP, discussed in Chapter 2), but course that are more advanced and specific (i.e. ESAP, also discussed in Chapter 2) may be more attractive to students. Although students coming into tertiary education have an overall satisfactory level of English, they patently lack academic skills with regards to all the macro skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) and micro skills (e.g. note-taking, presentation delivery etc). Helping students improve these skills in preparation for their postgraduate studies may prove to be very beneficial. There is a big tendency nowadays for students to pursue postgraduate studies and mainly at English-medium universities, hence, making the need for advanced knowledge of specialized English obvious. However, even within Greek universities, much of the bibliography and lectures (e.g. visiting professors) require advanced levels of

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Needs that will become more important later (usually when the learners graduate and become involved in their professional lives) rather than the needs students have at the time of the course. 252

English language comprehension and production. These needs are quite obvious to students as they will be encountered in their near future. This is the competitive advantage compared to teaching more general EAP/ESP courses where some of the material taught is not contextually situated, as it is linked to future professional needs, which to some students are in the distant future or even completely unknown as they lack professional experience. As a result, the need for both EGAP and ESAP become apparent even if the latter is offered as an optional course for those students who endeavor to pursue more advanced studies.

Nonetheless, even in instances where the ESP/EAP course is taught during the first semesters, the teacher can take steps to increase student involvement and motivation. It is often the case that course books in the ESP/EAP classes presuppose certain knowledge of the subject area which students do not yet possess. This presupposition could be seen as an opportunity for the ESP/EAP teacher (and perhaps in collaboration with the subject expert) to not merely regurgitate students existing knowledge, but to provide them with opportunities to learn things in their subject area that they would otherwise learn in a subsequent semester. A personal example of this is teaching second-year business administration students the principles of business plan writing, a topic that they normally cover in the third and fourth years of their studies. Students, according to their feedback, find such activities motivating as they feel they are gaining original knowledge and are thus better equipped to handle this activity in their L1 when they are taught it by the subject expert.

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A further point to be brought up in line with the profile of the course is the notion of a form of ESP/EAP language certification that could be offered to the ESP/EAP students. It was discussed in Chapter Two that prospective employers and agencies in Greece (mainly in the public sector) require proof of language proficiency which is commonly documented in the form of language certificates awarded by various independent examination boards. As such, most students would try to earn some kind of certification. However, despite the fact that ESP/EAP is an integral part of the students core program of study, their universities cannot provide them with any form of ESP/EAP certification81 upon the completion of their required ESP/EAP courses. If university departments did offer a form of ESP/EAP certification, the level of students instrumental motivation would most likely increase as the Greek socio-cultural context has been traditionally examination oriented and the vast majority of job vacancies ask for proof (usually in the form of certificates or degrees) for any qualification they require.

Additionally, the interviews conducted in this study revealed that students place more importance on a course if it carries more academic weight through means of grades/credit (as seen from the responses to question 15 in section 6.2.1). Consequently, in universities where the ESP/EAP course does not bear credit, it would be valuable for the ESP/EAP instructor to make a case for the importance of credit being assigned to the ESP/EAP courses and exert pressure on the department to consider changing this state of affairs.

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It should be mentioned that the Technological Educational Institute (TEI) of Kavala, Greece has been piloting an ESP/EAP examination system for certain specializations that leads to a certificate. However, these certificates have not yet been officially recognized by the state, which unfortunately undermines them. 254

7.4.2 Syllabus Design

Considerations regarding syllabus82 design must also be put forward as it has become apparent that the construction of a syllabus prior to the commencement of an ESP/EAP course is often neglected. The syllabus is an important component of the ESP/EAP course as it is a plan of work and as Robinson (1991) contends it serves as a guideline and context for class content and as such, I would argue, it may affect learners motivation as the context in which learning takes place may determine motivation.

The content, as is defined by the syllabus, of the ESP/EAP course should closely reflect the current and future language, communication and other needs of the students83. These needs can easily be identified through the systematic use of a needs analysis tool (see sections 2.7 and 7.1.3) which is an integral component of any attempt to organize the content of an ESP/EAP course. The interviews with student-participants revealed that the ESP/EAP teachers were teaching content that did not necessarily reflect the true needs of the students as ESP/EAP instructors did not formally identify these needs prior to the beginning of the course or even the initial or ongoing stages of the course (see responses to question 2 in section 6.2.2). No needs analysis tools were used, neither in the form of a questionnaire nor in collaboration with subject specialists of the department who could
According to Dubin & Olshtain, (1997: 28) a syllabus is a more detailed and operational statement of teaching and learning elements which translates the philosophy of the curriculum into a series of planned steps leading towards more narrowly defined objectives at each level. A distinction is made with curriculum which encompasses philosophy and value systems; the main components of the curriculum: purposes, content, methodology and evaluation; and the process whereby curricula are developed, implemented and evaluated. (White, 1993: 19). However, it should be noted that curriculum and syllabus are often used interchangeably in the literature. 83 As mentioned in Chapter Two, given that ESP/EAP is an approach and not a subject to be taught, syllabus materials will unavoidably be pieced together, some borrowed and others designed specially to meet the needs of ones target group. Resources may include authentic materials, general EFL materials, ESP/EAP materials, and teacher-generated materials.
82

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provide some insight into the area they teach and identify some key future professional and academic needs of the students.

Likewise, student responses revealed that they felt that the syllabus they were taught did not include an adequate amount of knowledge that they could carry over to their future professional or academic life need be. Hence, they saw little value in the ESP/EAP course and considered its place in their curriculum only as something following a trend: English should be taught as it is taught everywhere! as some student-participants reported distinctly (responses to question 16 in section 6.2.1). Involving the learners in the process of syllabus design may prove quite beneficial. A negotiated syllabus can be decided upon at the commencement of the course84 that will give the ESP/EAP students the impression that they are active participants in their learning process, which is quite rare since ESP/EAP students are seldom given due consideration as syllabi are often based on pre-set information or ad hoc language description.

Among others, Breen & Littlejohn (2000) and Breen & Candlin (2001) stress the important contributory role and the merits of a negotiated syllabus in their work, mainly being that of increased motivation and the encouragement of autonomous learning. Along the same lines is the fact that there should be a consensus between the ESP/EAP learners and teacher regarding the goals that are set for the ESP/EAP course so as to ensure that more realistic ones are being attainted. Xenodohidis (2002) maintains the importance of having realistic goals; otherwise, the students would be de-motivated.
84

One practical idea is for students to be handed out a list of various areas the teacher intends to cover as a subject and prioritize them according to how valuable they consider them and also have the opportunity to add more items to this list. 256

In connection to the teaching of business English, ESP/EAP teachers should seriously consider Zhangs (2007: 399) tripartite curriculum, which aims to cultivate business expertise rather than just the language skills and discrete knowledge of the subject areas as is often promoted in the ESP/EAP literature. This type of curriculum will equip students with the necessary knowledge, tools and resources to develop as individuals and as future professionals.

The material used in an ESP/EAP course should be carefully selected and/or designed to suit and cover, as closely as possible, the needs that have derived from the previouslyconducted needs analysis (see sections 2.7 and 7.4.3). The use of authentic material and access to online resources are a few examples from an array of material that could be employed. Regarding authentic material, as seen in Chapter Two, Arnold (1991: 237) argues its beneficial impact as this material reflects the real world. The advantages of authentic materials have been highlighted by Wajnrybs (1988) who talks about the fact that the distance between the real world and the classroom is shorter than it used to be and also the fact that authentic material has influenced the teachers vision of language. Nonetheless, authenticity has often been debated. Ibsen & Wiland, 2000 contend that when an authentic text is removed from the context in which it originally appeared and is put into a new context (e.g. a language textbook) it may have lost its authenticity. On that account, Widdowson (1998a) argues that an authentic text, in itself, cannot guarantee that students will learn real language. Along the same lines, Hutchinson & Waters (1984) state that when engaging in the use of authentic material, one should be cautious of its limitations: mainly being that its use does not automatically lead to the acquisition

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of competence the given context requires. Another limitation for the ESP/EAP instructor to consider is that overly dependence on the use of authentic material in the teaching of ESP/EAP as synonym for real communication is often to the detriment of methodological principles (Widdowson (1979). In cases where authentic material is difficult to obtain, the use of simulation could also prove quite positive, a point discussed and maintained by Burns and Moore (2008).

Finally, in designing the syllabus, the ESP/EAP teacher must seriously consider the makeup of the group of students at hand. In other words, he/she must take into account the likelihood of the group being heterogeneous (see Chapter 3). It was noted in Chapter Three that Dudley-Evans (1998) makes a point of this and emphasizes the motivational benefits when the group is homogeneous. When taking homogeneity into account, one can look at it in terms of the age of students, their background knowledge in the area of specialization etc. However, in the context of Greek tertiary education the aforementioned factors do not play a crucial role as Greek ESP/EAP backgrounds are quite similar in terms of their age and background knowledge of the subject area as they are commonly in the same year of study and belong to the same academic department. However, homogeneity does become an important issue with regards to the students background of general English proficiency. Students general English language abilities, as the findings indicated, range from B1-C2 (See results in Chapter 6). Tackling such an imbalance would be difficult as dividing students according to their language proficiency would be a utopia due to financial and other practical constraints. Therefore, the ESP/EAP teacher should at least aim to develop a syllabus that would include graded

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topics and material to accommodate the entire range of language proficiency in an attempt to handle heterogeneity and maintain an optimal level of motivation. Naturally, the issue of heterogeneity is more complex than just diverse abilities, interests and learning profiles and it includes differences in other areas such as learning styles and thus it is crucial to also look at the notion of differentiated instruction (see section 7.5.3).

7.4.3 Needs Analysis

The central importance of any educational context is the learner and his/her attitude to learning. This offers the suggestion that the starting point in setting up an ESP/EAP course is carrying out a needs analysis (see also section 2.7), an element not given much attention to by the ESP/EAP instructors, as was found in the present study. It is apparent that a needs analysis plays a critical role and therefore should be carried out in a partial effort to create a more appropriate and meaningful ESP/EAP course. This should help to construct and plan an appropriate and adapted syllabus in order to assure successful learning. However, carrying out a needs analysis is not an easy task. On the contrary, it requires a highly methodic and systematic approach, but in the long run its use is beneficial as it is believed that this tool may in fact have a positive impact on the ESP/EAP course at large.

The word needs itself has many definitions. Berwick (1989) says that the definition of needs is to be built within the context in which the analysis is carried out, since the concept may vary according to the beliefs of the people involved in the process. As stated in Chapter Two, Hutchinson & Waters (1984) distinguish needs from wants

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explaining that needs are related to what the learner needs to do with the language in the target situation, i.e. reading reports, doing presentations etc, while wants refer to what the learner wants to know, even if the content proposed is not directly related to the usage of the language in the target situation. These needs diverge as the stakeholders will have different views. Therefore, it is important to consider that what is finally established as a need is a matter of agreement and judgment not discovery (Brindley, 1989: 39). Similarly, the interpretation of the needs is a matter of concern. The interpretation of the needs identified by the teaching staff may not coincide with what the students actually perceive as their needs, a point also raised by Bacha & Bahous (2008).

It is underscored that a needs analysis ought to include more than the objective aspects or objective needs, which focus on factual information about learners, their use of the language in real-life communication situations as well as their current language proficiency and possible language difficulties. A complete needs analysis merits an understanding of and takes into consideration the subjective needs such as the cognitive and affective needs of the learner in the learning situation. These needs derive from information about affective and cognitive factors such as the personality, confidence, attitudes, learners wants and expectations with regard to the learning of ESP/EAP and their individual cognitive style and learning strategies. Brindley, (1989: 65) talks about objective and subjective needs; Berwick (1989: 55) makes a case for perceived and felt needs. A more in depth and complete gathering of needs will be accomplished if ethnographic and qualitative methods are used (Gimenez, 2001). The use of oral interviews and written introspection will further enhance the reliability of the results of

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the needs. This triangulation approach to needs analysis (cf. Gilabert, 2005; Long, 2005) should become common practice among ESP/EAP teachers. Looking at the learner as a needs analyst (cf. Holme & Chalauisaeng, 2006) will also prove useful as it will shed further light on the pragmatic needs of the ESP/EAP learners and will give the learners a sense of empowerment as they actively take part in the identification of their needs a form of participatory appraisal as it is often termed in the relevant literature.

According to Dudley-Evans & St John (1989), there are three general types of needs analysis: a target situation analysis (TSA), a learning situation analysis (LSA) and finally a present situation analysis (PSA). A TSA includes objective, perceived and product-oriented needs; an LSA includes subjective, felt and process-oriented needs; a PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills, learning experiences. Holliday & Cooke (1982) suggest yet another important type of analysis. They refer to means analysis as the environment in which a given course will take place. More specifically, a means analysis takes into account both the classroom culture and the wider learning environment the ESP/EAP course will take place in. Sifakis (2008: 241) states that this analysis is carried out before any TSA, PSA as classroom culture features have to be determined before course design decisions are made (ibid.). Holliday (1994) cited in Sifakis (2008: 241) claims that the means analysis approach allows sensitivity to the situation and prevents the imposition of models alien to the situation. In essence, a needs analysis should take into account all the above varieties and variables if it is to serve its purpose. To complement the aforementioned analyses, it would be valuable to add Basturkmens (2009) discourse, learner factor, and teacher context analysis (see Chapter

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2). The ESP/EAP teacher should strive to sketch, as much as possible, a complete profile of the learners needs by performing all the analyses previously mentioned. Unfortunately, the interviews held with the ESP/EAP instructors reveal that they do not engage in any needs analyses prior to the commencement of the course (see responses to question 2, section 6.2.2), despite their well-documented value in any ESP/EAP course.

Pilbeam (1979) contends that needs analyses should be concerned with establishing both a target profile of language skills (TSA) and a profile of students abilities where their abilities in various areas at work are evaluated (PSA). Such a language analysis is particularly relevant and useful in a company environment. However, in the present situation where students have not in the vast majority of cases- been exposed to their future professional and thus language environment (as is the case of the ESP/EAP context of this study), they are not in a position to offer insight into the part of the analysis that seeks to record the exact needs in their respective professional fields. Evidently, a needs analysis, no matter how well conducted, is not a panacea for the ESP/EAP teacher. It is merely a device to secure some congruence between what is taught and learnt in the real world. Information on students level of language proficiency, their professional goals and aspirations, and their contact with the language outside the classroom setting are a few of the pieces of information gathered. Moreover, asking students to identify some key areas they would like to concentrate on helps create the impression in students that they are actively participating in the decisions involving their own learning a need that is important to fulfill as it is related to the theories of self-defining (Kokkos, 2000).

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Furthermore, it is argued that needs analyses carried out should take into account three groups of people which are involved: the learners (a profile of the learner, his/her learning style), the teachers teaching the course at hand, and the sponsors (the universitys administration and policy).

Taking the aforementioned elements into account is only one parameter that has to be accounted for in a conglomeration of a series of parameters. The other important parameter involves the type of needs analysis employed. It is important for the instructor to employ all three types if he/she wants to keep abreast of the constantly changing needs. More specifically, these three types of analyses are according to West (1994: 5): 1) an off-line analysis (the analysis is carried out before the course commences; 2) an online/first day analysis (analysis is carried out at the initial stage of the course) and 3) on-going analysis (analysis is conducted as the course proceeds). This dynamic aspect of needs analysis as an ongoing process from the pre-course needs analysis to the revision of the course design is an element advocated by Basturkmen (2010). She emphasizes the fact that the needs analysis also evolves as constant revision is made. This ongoing process provides the ESP/EAP practitioner with the knowledge and the capacity to adapt or change materials and teaching approaches as they occur.

A final issue that is of importance is that of metalanguage in connection to needs analysis. As mentioned in earlier chapters (Chapters 2 and 5), the awareness of metalanguage is vital in reporting results in a meaningful way. By the same token, the stakeholders, describing the needs that resulted from a needs analysis, may lack

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awareness of metalanguage so as to be in a position to describe the needs in a concrete way. This lack may lead to misinterpretations of the needs at hand. Hence, the ensuing issue is that needs may not appropriately be addressed and fulfilled.

If these considerations regarding a needs analysis are implemented, its use will provide accurate guidelines for the scope and breadth of the ESP/EAP course. The course will foster specific objectives and aims, take into account the learners factors analyses, account for affective needs and hence produce specific outcomes. These objectives and outcomes will be perceived and interpreted by students as an ESP/EAP course that has substance and meaning for their studies and that their learning factors are accounted for and catered to.

7.4.4 Task-Based Learning

Apart from a needs analysis, which is the cornerstone of any ESP/EAP course and which will dictate the designing of the course, the teaching methodology or approach employed is also of great value. The teaching methodology/approach used must be carefully considered. Possibly none of the prescribed methodologies/approaches in the ELT literature may suffice on their own. A combination of various aspects of each method may be used. ESP/EAP students have to be actively engaged in the classroom, and their learning has to be purposeful. The tasks have to be challenging and engaging so that the ESP/EAP students levels of motivation are kept high. An approach that is proposed in this thesis and that arguably will help ESP/EAP learners engage in more motivating

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classroom activities is that of TBL85 -a notion that is also maintained by Willis (1996), one of the leading scholars in TBL.

According to Simpson (2004), TBL refers to activities designed for learners doing authentic tasks. A task is an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose in order to achieve an outcome as Willis (1996: 26) states. Kavaliauskien (2005) contends that teaching through tasks creates favorable learning conditions for tertiary-level ESP/EAP students as TBL involves students in performing tasks relevant to their future profession. One of the reasons TBL has become a popular approach to EFL teaching lies on the premise that language learning is done through solving a problem or doing a task without concentrating on linguistic elements such as grammar or vocabulary. Learners can experiment with language as the language is not prescribed by the teacher or a textbook. TBL puts emphasis on language only during the last stage language focus. Hence, learners have performed the task and depending on their emerging needs during this task, specific linguistic items may be addressed. The tasks are associated with the learners subject matter (e.g. writing a business report which is a task connected to a business class). In doing so, students are able to achieve language learning through the content of subject matter, which is a crucial goal of any ESP/EAP class.

Aside from being a motivating approach to language learning, TBL seems to grant meaningful use of language and can promote autonomous learning as Kavaliauskiens

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TBL is an approach to language teaching that consists of three main stages: 1) Pre-task, 2) Task Cycle, 3) Language Focus (see Prabhu, 1987; Nunan, 1989; Willis, 1996). 265

(2005) research, which focused on ESP courses, shows. Moreover, TBL helps students cope with FLA as, according to Kavaliauskien (2005), TBL provides an unthreatening environment for learning. This information is valuable insight for all ESP/EAP teachers and it further supports the need to train ESP/EAP teachers in areas of language pedagogy and methodology because as the demographic information of the ESP/EAP instructors interviews reveal, none of them had any formal training in the area of ESP/EAP teaching.

7.4.5 Content and Language Integrated Learning

The interviews with the ESP/EAP instructors revealed that there is no cooperation with content specialists. Thus, an equally promising approach may be to introduce Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) in cooperation with faculty members which would be beneficial for students as CLIL, according to Eurydice (2006: 8), involves teaching a curricular subject through the medium of a language other than that of students L1 (e.g. teaching microeconomics through the medium of English instead of Greek in a Greek university class). The beneficial outcome of CLIL is attributed to the fact that ESP/EAP students acquire the subject content, the language and other practical skills such as problem solving or critical thinking skills at the same time. In addition, CLIL increases motivation as language is used to fulfill real purposes as Dalton-Puffer (2007) argues. CLIL also helps ESP/EAP turn into a means rather than be seen as an end. To this end, and with reference to the use of the internet in the ESP/EAP class, Chuchalin and Danilova (2005: 133) state that ESP can be seen as a means or a tool that can be utilized to solve or further understand something [and that such] a shift in language application refines students abilities to learn English, as they overcome the psychological barrier to deal with a foreign language. It is no
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longer learned as a subject, but rather utilized as a tool to deal with professional tasks.

It has been noted that increasing ones communicative competence requires procedural knowledge (see Chapter 4). Hence, L2 teaching approaches need to provide opportunities for learners to engage in meaningful communicative activities. The ESP/EAP instructor has to bear this principle in mind when devising activities for his/her lesson. Meaningful communicative activities could be designed and implemented through the TBL approach. A specific example integrating TBL and CLIL is the one that follows. Business students with an advanced level of English could be asked to engage in a task whereby they create a business plan for a new business they are interested in setting up. Likewise, students with lower language skills may be assigned to write a report on a company, an example of a task which requires a somewhat lower linguistic repertoire. The content specialist could provide support regarding the layout and content of the business plan or report as well the specific technical information it ought to contain (capital, sales forecasts etc), whereas the ESP/EAP teacher could focus on the necessary linguistic support the students will require during the drafting stages.

7.4.6 Information and Communications Technologies

These days, the use of computers and the internet is not a utopia since all departments of Economics and Business Administration have computer laboratories which are at the disposal of students. Therefore, another suggested medium that could be used to increase students motivation and involvement is Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) and more specifically Computer-Assisted Language Learning (CALL), which has
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proven a powerful tool in the teaching of languages as it integrates the precepts of language learning and technology. ICT use, of course, presupposes that the teachers themselves are knowledgeable of such media of teaching and are willing to stay abreast of the ever-evolving field of ICT. It should be noted that rapid changes in the technological area challenge educational traditions in teaching and as Vaiinien and Upalien (2010) claim, ICT application for teaching/learning purposes is becoming one of the major issues of contemporary education. Moreover, Vaiinien and Upalien (ibid) adopt the view that the use of technology enhances student motivation for language study by enabling them to choose activities, media sources and content topics most appropriate to their interests and learning styles. Obviously, ICT is not a panacea but a mere tool to enhance teaching and increase motivation in students. To this end, Bates (2000) talks about the fact that technology will never save bad teaching, but instead it can make it worse. McGrath (1998) makes a case for the fact that the use of technology can give language learning tasks a sense of being more real-world and relevant to the students interests and needs. Meloni (1998) also makes a case for the use of technology as it plays a crucial role in ESP/EAP teaching since it seems to increase student motivation which, in turn, has a positive impact on language use and consequently leads to improved proficiency.

An example of ICT application in an ESP/EAP lesson may involve the preparation of a PowerPoint presentation. Students could be assigned to prepare a PowerPoint presentation based on a topic that pertains to their area of study and that is of interest to them. Such a task gives students the opportunity not only to practice and enhance their

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oral presentation skills, but also to engage in more pragmatic activities as they will see the relevance of what they are doing to their future professional endeavors. According to King (2002), oral presentations offer the advantage of bridging the gap between language study and language use. Hence, oral presentations provide learners with a beneficial learning experience and a variety of advantages. Overall, I must highlight the fact that the use of ICT can offer a new perspective to ESP/EAP teaching, which is much needed in the Greek ESP/EAP context and may help change this overall indifferent attitude ESP/EAP learners reported in this study. 7.4.6.1 The Internet One of the most important applications of ICT in the ESP/EAP class is the use of the internet. The use of the internet, in conjunction with traditional learning, has created an approach to learning called blended learning which is basically the integrated combination of traditional learning with web based online approaches (Oliver & Trigwell 2005: 17). Its importance lies mainly in the fact that it is updated constantly whereas printed materials date very quickly. Especially with fields such as technology and business the internet is continuously updated as these fields developments are ongoing. Moreover, with reference to reading skills, Berardo (2006) contends that the internet is more visually stimulating and interactive, therefore promoting a more active approach to reading rather than a passive one as it gives learners immediate access to a plethora of texts covering literally any field. To this end, Guariento and Morley (2001) believe that extracting information from a real text in a foreign language can be extremely motivating, thus increasing students motivation for learning by exposing them to authentic language.
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The internet has a strong effect on ESP/EAP teaching and learning as, according to Chuchalin and Danilova (2005), the use of the internet in such a teaching/learning context, helps because of its authenticity, literacy, interaction, vitality and empowerment. More specifically, Chuchalin and Danilova (ibid) argue that the internet provides students access to vast amounts of authentic material on any topic and it also gives opportunities for authentic communication, which is rewarding and motivating. Authentic resources in technology-based ESP/EAP learning context according to Vaiinien & Upalien (2010) promote a more active approach to autonomous and constructive learning as there is an approximation to what students will encounter in their real professional lives. The internet also provides students with the necessary tools (e.g. online dictionaries and electronic reference books) to assist in language comprehension.

With regards to literacy, the internet gives ESP/EAP students opportunities to use all four major language skills. Speaking and listening, for example, could be easily practiced through special interest group chat rooms, which incidentally have emerged as new forms of literacy that are required in the students future professions or advanced academic studies. Along the same lines, the internet offers students opportunities to interact among themselves or with other students/professionals around the world. Moreover, Chuchalin and Danilova (2005: 131) make a case for the element of liveliness that the internet can add to the lesson and claim that the internet can inject an element of vitality into teaching and motivate students as they communicate in a medium that is flexible, multimodal, constantly changing and connected to real life needs. Finally, as mentioned, the internet gives students a sense of empowerment. Students can take control of their
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learning as they can use efficient searching techniques that are required when they need to find something to satisfy their personal interest or professional demands, a point stressed by Warschauer, Shetzer, and Meloni, (2000) as cited in Chuchalin and Danilova (2005).

The internet is undoubtedly a valuable tool, but its successful implementation and integration in the lesson requires skillful tactics by the ESP/EAP teacher, who should be in a position to recognize when and how the use of the internet is appropriate. The internet offers an abundance of information and resources thus selecting what is actually needed is perhaps the biggest challenge for the ESP/EAP instructor. To this end, Warschauer, Shetzer, and Meloni (2000) as cited in Chuchalin and Danilova (2005: 135) say characteristically that the use of the internet for teaching is like trying to get a drink of water from a gushing fire hydrant. 7.4.6.2 Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Another very interesting avenue to explore is Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL), which may indeed become a sine qua non in foreign language teaching. Mobile learning refers to a particular context when the learner is not at a fixed, predetermined location (e.g. classroom) and uses the learning opportunities offered by mobile technologies (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005). MALL compared to CALL, offers enhanced mobility and thus more flexibility to the learners. Various mobile devices such as the iPhone or other smart phones and the iPad can offer the learner the possibility to further practice various language skills literally on the go meaning that learning can continue to take place outside the particular confines of the time and place of the ESP/EAP
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classroom. Already universities have been experimenting with such applications. For instance, at Stanford University they investigated the use of audio in language teaching by using synchronous conversation and voice-controlled grammar and vocabulary quizzes and found a promising potential (Palalas, 2010: 3). MALL also increases the opportunities of online learning and distance learning, which appear to be in high demand nowadays (Palalas, 2010).

Many advantages of using MALL have been reported in the literature. Rosell-Aguilar (2007) summarizes the advantages of MALL as being mainly those of attactiveness, motivation and accessibilty to learning resources inside and outside the classroom. However, caveats of MALL do cause some limitations. Mobile devices are usually expensive, they have technical limitations (e.g. quality of sound production, cameras with low resolution etc) as well limited Wi-Fi access in certain places. These limitations, nevertheless, will probably be overcome as technology improves and the devices become more affrodable. 7.4.6.3 Hybrid Instruction In essence, approaching ESP/EAP teaching and learning from various angles is perhaps the most effective way to engage the learners. The term often used for such an approach is hybrid instruction. According to Kraemer (2008), hybrid instruction uses a blend of attractive traditional classrooms and online activities. Kraemer (ibid) also makes a very interesting statement in saying that hybrid instruction moves away from the teacher as it shifts its focus on the learner. In any case, one could summarize the above suggestions by saying that ESP/EAP will benefit by striving to integrate language learning and
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technology with task-based, and authentic-content approaches within a student-centred philosophy.

Having looked at the practical and pedagogical implications and having offered some suggestions for the ESP/EAP courses within a Greek context, it is important to address implications and consider suggestions for the ESP/EAP student, which are addressed in the following section.

7.5 Implications and Suggestions for the ESP/EAP Student

Similar to taking steps to ensure the creation of an ESP/EAP course that is professionally and scientifically set up in that it applies all the criteria previously outlined and which meets the demands of current teaching trends, it is important to look at the practical and pedagogical implications as well as suggestions that derive from the findings of this study as they pertain to the ESP/EAP student. Hence, the sections that follow focus on the learner as they revisit areas such as adult learners characteristics and the various characteristics that differentiate one learner from the other.

7.5.1 ESP/EAP Involves Adults

The first issue that should be addressed is the fact that ESP/EAP students are adults and thus the notions and principles raised in Chapter Two regarding adult education should be seriously considered when teaching such groups of learners. Principles which entail the adults need to know the reason they are learning and the benefits of learning before the learning process is activated are fundamental. Adults also need to be looked upon as
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being responsible and capable of self-direction. Moreover, adults come to class with accumulated previous knowledge and a multitude of experiences to draw upon. In an effort to expand on these characteristics, I adopt Knowles et al. (2005) six core principles of adult education and apply them to ESP/EAP in particular (a brief outline of these principles were put forward in section 2.13).

1. The need to know. Adult learners need to know the reason they are learning and the benefits of learning before the learning process is activated. If the ESP/EAP learner perceives the language input as valuable, his/her motivation to learn increases (as seen in Chapter 3). Therefore, ESP/EAP students must be informed about the objectives and contents of the course either prior to its inception or at the very beginning of its commencement. They also need to know what it expected of them and how they will be assessed.

2. The learners self-concept. Adults have the need to be looked upon as being responsible and capable of self-direction. Becoming an adult means that one is moving from dependency to self-directness. ESP/EAP learners expect the teacher to respect this aspect and to offer them guidance throughout the ESP/EAP course. Learners at this age resent having an authoritative figure dictating them what to do. On the contrary, they have a need to function as autonomous beings. Being autonomous means taking charge of ones learning (Holec, 1981: 3). This definition implies that the responsibility of ones success in learning lies within him/her (see point 6 Motivation below for more on learner autonomy).

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3. The role of the learners experience. Adults come to class with accumulated previous knowledge and a multitude of experiences to draw upon. As noted earlier in this chapter, ESP/EAP students have knowledge of their subject which may exceed that of their ESP/EAP teacher. The learners have a certain set of learning strategies they use, certain learning styles, and certain expectations from their ESP/EAP teachers. It is very important for the ESP/EAP teacher to use these learners wealth of experience and knowledge and, for example, engage them in group discussions/work regarding case studies or problem-solving activities. In essence, an ESP/EAP instructor often needs to solicit these experiences and manipulate them so as to use them to promote learning. The ESP/EAP teacher should try to create a learning environment that will foster and encourage the use of learning strategies and learning styles while at the same time taking into account the learners affective needs, for example, increased levels of language anxiety or low self-confidence.

4. Readiness to learn. Another characteristic of adult learners is that they usually decide to start learning on their own accord and when they feel the need to improve skills or qualifications or to acquire new knowledge to be able to cope more effectively with reallife situations. In the context of this thesis, this is not always the case, as the ESP/EAP course(s) is often a compulsory component of the students undergraduate program so volition does not come into play here as the students may not choose to take this course(s). Hence, if this need is not inherent in the learner, the ESP/EAP tutor is faced with the challenging task of convincing him/her that the need to improve skills or

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qualifications or to acquire new knowledge to be able to cope more effectively with academic and professional tasks is critical and pressing.

5. Orientation to learning. Adult learners are task-centered or problem-focused. The adult has a need to see the applications of what he/she is learning in real-life situations. The ESP/EAP learner needs to understand the relevance of what is being learnt in relation to his/her specific studies or current/future professional endeavors. The ESP/EAP teacher has to try to present any new knowledge in the context that the learners are likely to deal with in either their academic sphere (present or future courses, post-graduate courses) or professional sphere (future profession). To this end, acquiring knowledge and skills that are immediately applicable is a powerful motivating force. Learning takes place more effectively if the learner feels that the new knowledge is applicable to the real world. Very few adults learn for the sake of learning, a view that becomes especially relevant to ESP/EAP as all learning should be connected to their future real world or to immediate pragmatic circumstances. In addition, I would fervently support the suggestion made by Jendrych & Wisniewska (2010) that tasks should not only be cognitively demanding but should also require communicative behavior that is typical for performing real-life language tasks. The ESP/EAP teacher then needs to bear this notion in mind and be cautious of selecting classroom tasks that reflect such communicative behavior.

6. Motivation. One of the most powerful denominators that permeates through all the suggestions presented herein is that of motivation. A challenging task ESP/EAP teachers are constantly faced with is how to capture the students interest and stimulate their

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motivation to learn as Vaiinien and Upalien (2010) claim. Katsaras (2008c) study of motivation among university ESP/EAP students in a Greek context also clearly revealed that there are motivational problems within this context. In connection to motivation, various suggestions are made whose underlying aim is to increase the motivation among ESP/EAP students. As seen in Chapter 3, adults may be intrinsically or extrinsically motivated. Both types of motivation are detrimental to the learning process. The ESP/EAP teacher can play a role in helping the learners increase their motivation.

Drawing on the last principle motivation- it should be pointed out that research uncovers a related but distinguishable relationship between motivation and autonomy in learning (see also sections 2.11 and 3.3.1). Borrowing Noels et al. (1999) view of autonomy as an antecedent to intrinsic motivation, I would claim that this indicates that autonomy can predict L2 intrinsic motivation which is in direct contrast to Cotteralls (1999) view that autonomous learning is the descendant of motivation. Along the same lines is Littlewoods (1996) claim that autonomy does not lead to motivation, but the opposite -in other words, that motivation leads to autonomy and Spratt et als (2002) study revealed that lack of motivation impeded learner autonomy.

Whether or not motivation is a precursor of or antecedent to autonomy may not still be clear, nevertheless their interdependence has become apparent by the above-mentioned studies. In line with this link between motivation and autonomy are Littles (2009) words: [learner autonomy is] nourished by, and in turn nourishes, our intrinsic motivation, our proactive interest in the world around us. This explains how learner autonomy solves the problem of learner motivation: autonomous learners draw on their intrinsic motivation when they accept responsibility for their
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own learning and commit themselves to develop the skills of reflective selfmanagement in learning; and success in learning strengthens their intrinsic motivation. Littles statement clearly implies that autonomous learners are motivated and reflective learners. Reflecting on ones learning presupposes metacognitive possessing on his/her part and the learners involvement may cater to his/her affective side. Apart from an autonomous learner being more intrinsically motivated, developing learner autonomy leads to improved learning achievement as (Yanjun, 2004) argues, which should be the ultimate goal of any learning situation.

In connection to learner autonomy, the ESP/EAP teacher has a specific role to play in this context of adult education. His/her role is to be a guide and an advisor in choosing appropriate tasks, an evaluator of task performance, provider of feedback and assessor of the outcome when tasks have been completed, a source of additional information if such is needed. Wus (2003) belief that when L2 learners are provided with adequate control in their learning in terms of their objectives, processes and outcomes, perceived autonomy increases further stresses the importance of the role of the ESP/EAP instructors in the degree to which they make such provisions for their students.

The important role the ESP/EAP teachers play regarding the learning environment they create for their students is also reflected in Wus (ibid) research on the effect of environmental variables on L2 intrinsic motivation. Wus (ibid) study showed that providing L2 learners with a predictable learning environment in which challenging tasks and a significant amount of instructional support are offered as well as providing students

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the liberty to contribute to the choice of the content of the course enhance autonomy. Insofar, the importance of autonomy has been illuminated as a learner who works and learns independently is able to become more successful and proficient (Drnyei, 2005) and, hence, the goal of achieving a higher linguistic outcome in the ESP/EAP class may be achieved.

In light of the educational profile of an adult sketched above, it should be noted that he/she is not bound by all the aforementioned characteristics as the cultural and social milieu of each person as well as various personality traits determine to what extent these characteristics apply to each adult learner. These determinants are not static as each person evolves over time as he/she gathers experiences.

7.5.2 Accounting for ESP/EAP Students Learning Styles

As noted in the ESP/EAP students and teachers responses, no effort is made to accommodate the various learning styles of the students. Nonetheless, similar to LLS, learning styles do play a significant role in teaching, regardless of age, level or subject. For Stebbins (1993: 115) educators have to have knowledge of their students learning styles as well as their own, as this knowledge can guide the selection and implementation of effective instructional methods and materials for creating comfort zones to ease ESL students adjustment. Clearly, teachers with an understanding of their students learning styles are better able to adapt their teaching methods appropriately and consequently motivate and engage students in learning.

Acknowledging the importance of learning styles can help ESP/EAP teachers become

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more sensitive to the differences students bring to the classroom and can serve as a guide to the design of meaningful learning experiences. The notion of learning styles is very complex and a very powerful concept incorporating a wide range of both psychosocial and cognitive variables which seek to encapsulate the way in which these are translated into concrete learning behaviors and preferences. As such, the ESP/EAP instructor need not carry out complex learning style preference inventories and do an in-depth analysis of his/her students learning styles which in any case may require specialized knowledge and training. However, he/she need only take into account basic perceptual preferences of students (e.g. visual, auditory, tactile) and not more complex ones (e.g. sociological, analytic/field independent, relational/field sensitive) in order to create a learning environment that offers opportunities for students to learn through these sensory preferences.

7.5.3 Differentiated Learning

Contemporary student populations are becoming increasingly academically diverse (McCoy & Ketterlin-Geller, 2004). Hence, accounting for the students different learning styles, for example, is part of a general teaching philosophy ESP/EAP teachers should adapt to and adopt. To further serve this adaptability to teaching, they may also look into what has come to be known as differentiated instruction (DI) and learning. According to Tomlinson (2004c: 188), DI is a process of ensuring that what a student learns, how he/she learns it, and how the student demonstrates what he/she has learned is a match for that students readiness level, interests, and preferred mode of learning. At the base of DI lies the assumption that differences among how learners learn, their learning

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preferences and interests do exist. Translated into practice, DI involves providing students with a multitude of avenues to acquire the content at hand by processing, constructing and making sense of it as well as trying to tap the interest of the students. These aspects are more likely to be rewarding and the student becomes a more autonomous learner, a stance also supported by Allan & Tomlinson (2000).

In essence, engaging in a single-paced mode of teaching and using a single instructional delivery strategy in the ESP/EAP class will not suffice in such diverse environments that ESP/EAP teachers are required to teach in, especially since students come to class with various linguistic levels, learning styles, levels of FLA and frequency of LLS use. As a result, it is imperative for ESP/EAP instructors to embrace this diversity, and cultivate a learning environment where they will be able to tailor their instructional approaches and adjust the curriculum accordingly rather than expect learners to modify themselves so as to fit the curriculum prescribed by the former. In doing so, this will help unravel the conundrum of diverse classes.

7.5.4 Increasing ESP/EAP Students Self-esteem and Lowering their Inhibition

Learners inhibitions and self-esteem ought to be taken into account. With regards to selfesteem, it has been argued (see section 3.3.2) that task self-esteem is more specific and concrete compared to situational self-esteem. Hence, increasing ESP/EAP learners task self-esteem should become the concern of the ESP/EAP teacher. Tasks which are challenging, yet not difficult to do, will give the students a sense of empowerment, an

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essential ingredient to boosting self-esteem. Again, TBL can foster such an approach. With regards to inhibition, it was noted (see section 3.3.3) that it is not independent of self-esteem. One must bear in mind that adult students often employ ego defense mechanisms (A. Rogers, 1996) and come to the ESP/EAP classroom with great defenses due to their need to protect their self-image. Mistakes that ESP/EAP learners make in the classroom can be experienced as threats to the self. The role of the ESP/EAP instructor is vital as his/her attitude towards mistakes can help the learner overcome high levels of inhibition.

Having considered the practical and pedagogical implications of the research findings of this study and having presented some suggestions regarding the ESP/EAP student, the following section (7.6) considers these implications and makes suggestions for the ESP/EAP instructor.

7.6 Implications and Suggestions for the ESP/EAP Instructor

The pedagogical and practical implications also involve the ESP/EAP instructor, especially in the case of ESP/EAP in Greece where it is evident that many ESP/EAP teachers are not trained in this particular field. The issues discussed below emanate from Dudley Evans and St. Johns (1998) five key roles for the ESP/EAP practitioner (Teacher, Course Designer and materials provider, Collaborator, Researcher, and Evaluator.) discussed in Chapter Two. These roles are not seen in isolation, but rather

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they are pieced together into one puzzle and are addressed in broad terms in conjunction with other issues raised.

7.6.1 Coping with Subject-specific Content

One of the key challenges ESP/EAP instructors face is the fact they are inundated with an endless amount of subject-specific knowledge pertaining to the field they teach. A skill they need to develop is handling this new knowledge in a way that becomes meaningful to them and their students. Equally important is knowing what to teach. ESP/EAP teachers need to avoid teaching ESP/EAP content that is linked to simplistic or elementary subject-specific content so as to avoid redundancy and consequently bore their students. This aim may be achieved by incorporating broader disciplinary material.

Another point tied in with the abovementioned challenge is the fact that the ESP/EAP instructor also faces one major disadvantage in relation to his/her students which becomes more pronounced as the ESP/EAP level of content increases and becomes more specialized (see also section 2.10.1). The ESP/EAP instructor is not in the position of being the primary knower of the carrier content of the material (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998: 13). It is often the case that the ESP/EAP students know more about the content than the teacher. So as to overcome this barrier and gain face validity, the ESP/EAP instructor ought to approach subject-specific work through close collaboration with subject specialists, who will be able to provide him/her with more insight into the subject matter. Dudley-Evans (2001) suggests a cooperation that may be approached on various levels. Simply finding out about the subject syllabus in an academic context or

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the various skills the learner has to acquire for his/her future professional or academic situation is a starting point (cooperation). On another level, there may be collaboration with the subject specialist to combine the specialist studies or activities and the specific language needed to be taught to complement these particular studies or activities and develop materials and devise tasks (Dudley-Evans & St John, 1998; Dudley-Evans, 2001). A further more radical approach would be for the subject specialists and ESP/EAP teachers to team-teach, where one would provide content support and the other language support respectively. This adjunct model could ensure that an ESP/EAP instructor helps with the issues pertaining to language while the subject expert oversees and delivers the technical content of the course. There have been instances of such successful cooperations mentioned in the literature, for example, between legal English specialists and legal specialists (cf. Northcott & Brown, 2006).

Despite the fact that this interdisciplinary nature of ESP/EAP is quite challenging, if handled methodically and systematically by the ESP/EAP instructor, he/she can promote the profile of the course. Raising the course profile will on the one hand make it much more attractive for the students as they will easily identify more meaningful and purposeful learning and on the other hand subject specialists will view ESP/EAP instructors as opportunities for constructive and productive collaboration that will benefit everyone involved and especially the students

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7.6.2 ESP/EAP Instructors as Trained Professionals

Another critical point that could be legitimately raised is the lack of formal training that many ESP/EAP instructors have in the area of ESP/EAP. As it becomes apparent from the qualitative research of this thesis, often teachers who engage in ESP/EAP teaching have not received any specialized training in ESP/EAP and by implication in AE which is commonly included in ESP/EAP teacher education and training. General EFL teachers often get involved in ESP/EAP bringing with them experience from teaching EFL to young learners in primary and secondary education. This prior experience, though valuable, often creates obstacles in the understanding of how adults learn. Hence, it seems that many ESP/EAP instructors teach on the basis of their experience or, worst yet, on an intuitive, ad hoc basis. Early on, Widdowson (1983: 1) made this point very clear in saying that on the whole, practical work of ESP has tended to proliferate without the benefit of theoretical reflection, and much of it is makeshift. This lack of training, which also leads to a lack of a theoretical construct on the part of the instructor, are inefficiencies that appear to be encouraged by the state itself since ESP/EAP vacant positions do not require applicants to have any formal training in ESP/EAP. The ESP/EAP teacher needs to raise his/her awareness of matters related to LSP pedagogy, language acquisition and learning (Basturkmen, 2006). It is very common to find ESP/EAP instructors who only possess an undergraduate degree in English studies or a post-graduate degree which is not connected to the teaching of ESP/EAP, but other areas such as literature or translation studies. Lifelong learning is an integral part of any teachers profession, especially for a teacher of ESP/EAP where developments and progress in both methodological approaches and the respective content are constant.

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Seeking opportunities for life long learning is an ESP/EAP teachers responsibility. However, the state and universities could raise the existing minimal requirements in the hiring procedures of ESP/EAP teachers and scrutinize the applicants so as to ensure the most well-equipped, knowledgeable and experienced applicant is hired. Likewise, university English studies programs ought to offer at least an introductory course in teaching ESP/EAP in their undergraduate programs to familiarize prospective English language teachers with the rudimentary principles of ESP/EAP and what this specialized field entails. Further life long learning opportunities could be offered through means of seminars, workshops, special interest groups and conferences which could be organized by ESP/EAP teachers under the auspices of their institutions86.

7.6.3 Keeping Abreast of ESP/EAP Evolving Trends

ESP/EAP instructors must keep abreast of the evolving trends in ESP/EAP, as described by Collinson et al (2009). One such emerging trend is encouraging ESP/EAP teachers to use universal ESP/EAP skills (in Business English teaching negotiation skills or presentaiton skills would be examples of universal skills) in a more adapted way to suit the needs of any given ESP/EAP teaching milieu.

Mentoring87 is another emerging trend in the realm of ESP/EAP. ESP/EAP teachers should be seen and percieved as mentors to their ESP/EAP students. This is a relationship

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It should be mentioned, however, that in Greece, the Hellenic Open University (HOU) has been offering a module in ESP through their Masters in TEFL program. 87 According to Weinstein (1998), mentoring is a power-free partnership between two individuals who desire mutual growth. One of these individuals usually has greater skills, experiences, and wisdom (in this case the ESP/EAP teacher).

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that ESP/EAP teachers could aim at developing with their students. A process of nurturing and encouraging ought to be reinforced so that the students do not see their ESP/EAP teacher as merely another member of the academic/teaching staff, but as someone who is willing to share knowledge in a meaningful and constructive way and who has a genuine interest in his/her students cognitive, affective and social development.

7.6.4 Empowering the ESP/EAP Teacher

The lack of empowerment ESP/EAP teachers feel in their working environment (see sections 2.10 and 3.3.2.1) is another major issue that arose from the interviews and which appears to result in considerable disillusionment. ESP/EAP teachers are seldom looked upon as professionals who have something major to contribute to their respective academic departments88. This lack of empowerment may lead to low professional selfesteem (Sifakis, 2009). They are rarely consulted by heads of departments on matters that concern their course, for example, decisions regarding the amount of ESP/EAP courses the department should offer to adequately cover the material or which semesters these courses should be taught in or even how many teaching hours per week the course should include. This lack of authority assigned to ESP/EAP teacher may lead him/her and the head/faculty of the academic department to tension. Walker & Kushner (1991: 202) maintain the view that if the ESP/EAP teacher is to seek empowerment he/she has to resolve the common tensions between management and curriculum. Decisions are often

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It should be noted that in most cases in Greek universities ESP/EAP teachers are considered special teaching staff and not academic/research staff as in the case of professors. There are instances, however, where ESP/EAP practitioners are part of the academic/research staff and thus are part of the departments decision making process. 287

made in favor of management which emphasizes the need to survive above the urge to learn and to develop.

7.6.5 Establishing and Defending an ESP/EAP Niche

In line with the issue of empowerment is the need for the establishment and the defense of an ESP/EAP niche on the part of the ESP/EAP teacher. Although this is not the case for the majority of the subject specialists, ESP/EAP teachers have to constantly prove their worth and the value of their professional existence. This niche can be defended by constantly addressing needs and trends (e.g. many students now pursue postgraduate studies in the UK and English-medium universities in other countries thus offering courses in, for instance, academic writing or how to prepare a university application form may prove to be popular among students). Moreover, what Shanker (1986: 399) has stated fervently, that at the root of many ill-conceived panaceas of the past is that teachers have been taken for granted and have been treated as classroom furniture rather than as thinking human beings, may be felt by ESP/EAP teachers who may feel that they often have to negotiate their role with their respective department or institution at large.

ESP/EAP teachers should try to offer their students an experience that will be perceived as unique and indispensable. This experience will be reinforced if ESP/EAP teachers offer their students knowledge and skills that they cannot receive elsewhere and reinforce elements that subject specialists are not trained to cover (Sifakis, 2009). Adopting a more genre-sensitive approach (teaching specialist genre), teaching less obvious micro skills,

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encouraging the use of ICT and other digital resources are some basic examples of ways the learning experience can be more unique and meaningful for the students.

7.6.6 The ESP/EAP Teacher as Facilitator

In the final analysis, the ESP/EAP instructor should become a facilitator in his/her students learning process (Cohen, 1998, Underhill, 1999). It is essential for the ESP/EAP teacher to adopt the tripartite model (lecturer, teacher, and facilitator) of Underhill (1999). In other words, the ESP/EAP teacher ought to gain some knowledge of the subject matter (lecturer); be aware of and skilled in using teaching methods and techniques that promote autonomous and meaningful learning and encourage the use of LLS, for example through SBI (teacher); and, finally, the ESP/EAP teacher should take into account the affective and cognitive needs of the students in his/her teaching practices so as to create a learning/teaching environment that is pleasant, encouraging and nonthreatening (facilitator). All these ingredients are prerequisites in creating an environment that is conducive to learning.

7.7 Summary of the Chapter and Concluding Remarks

This chapter discussed and considered the practical and pedagogical implications of the findings and offered some pragmatic suggestions as to how to improve ESP/EAP teaching within the Greek tertiary educational context. These pedagogical and practical implications, as well as the suggestions outlined, were based on three pillars: the ESP/EAP course, the ESP/EAP student and finally the ESP/EAP teacher.

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It is apparent that the need for more structured and coherent ESP/EAP courses that will be meticulously set up and delivered is imperative. ESP/EAP instructors and students alike must realize that it is not enough to simply be able to decode the contents of a professional journal or text book written in English. More specialized knowledge is required to be able to perform highly-demanding tasks in the English language. This end will be met if a more scientific approach to the teaching of ESP/EAP is adopted and if the contribution of other department faculty members is sought after.

The final chapter (Chapter 8) provides a summary of the entire thesis. It reports the key findings of the research and states the contributions made by this thesis to the existing body of research conducted in the field of ESP/EAP. Moreover, the final chapter makes suggestions for further research while pointing out certain limitations of the present study. Finally, Chapter Eight draws up an overall conclusion.

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Chapter 8 Concluding Remarks

8.0 Introduction
Chapter Eight provides a summary of this thesis and restates the key findings and contributions made by the results. Additionally, it considers the limitations of the study and provides recommendations for further research before it makes some final remarks.

8.1 Summary of Key findings Contribution made by results

This thesis strived to give a theoretical integration of the key notional frameworks, as well as to provide methodological rigor in measurement and attempted to synthesize the research findings into these conceptual frameworks. More specifically, it sought to explore the interrelationship between foreign language anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies in the Greek university ESP/EAP class environment. In doing so, it addressed three main research questions. The first aimed to identify and measure the reported levels of foreign language anxiety found in the sample group of ESP/EAP students in Greece. Secondly, it sought to measure the frequency of affective language learning strategies employed by these ESP/EAP students. Lastly, the third question investigated any association that may exist between the reported levels of language anxiety and the use of affective language learning strategies. In order to provide answers to these questions, both qualitative and quantitative research tools were used in an effort to employ a triangulation process to achieve more accurate, reliable, and valid results.

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The data gathered from the respondents who participated in the study (N=365) revealed that they exhibited low (75,3%) to moderate (22,4%) levels of anxiety, a fact that does not correspond with other international studies mentioned in this thesis. Only a small number of participants (2,2%) reported high levels of language anxiety. In addition, their frequency of affective language learning strategy use was reported as being low for 69,7% of the respondents and moderate for 28,2% of respondents.

In terms of the relationship of reported FLA, affective LLS use and the individual differences variables, some statistically significant differences were found. More specifically, the study revealed that there is a statistically significant difference between male (M=2,43) and female (2,62) students in the levels of anxiety reported but not in the number of affective LLS, where male and female respondents reported mean scores of M=2,55 and M=2,57 respectively. Similarly, there were differences connected with academic performance: the grade students received in a previous ESP course appears to have an impact on the level of FLA reported (M=2,87 for respondents with low/failing grades and M=2,44 for respondents who had achieved high grades), but not on the frequency of affective LLS use (M=2,56 for respondents with low/failing grades and M=2,70 for respondents who had achieved high grades). In connection to language learning experience, the results indicated that students who had studied more than one foreign language had lower levels of FLA (M=2,68 compared to those who had not studied a second foreign language M=2,44), but did not use more affective LLS (M=2,58) compared to those who had only studied EFL (M=2,56). Statistically significant correlations were found with regards to the language level the participant had

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attained and their reported level of FLA (for example B1 learners had a mean score of M=2,99 while C2 learners mean score was M=2,20), but no statistically important links with affective LLS were evident (B1 learners mean score was calculated at M=2,62 while C2 learners mean score was M=2,54). Moreover, there were no significant differences among students who came from different academic departments. In terms of FLA, the mean scores of the University of Patras Economics, and Business Administration students and those of the University of Macedonia Economics students were M=2,53, M=2,57 and M=2,59 respectively. Likewise, in connection to affective LLS use the mean scores for the aforementioned categories were M=2,50, M= 2,65 and M=2,56. Finally, the year a student was in (freshman or sophomore) did not reveal any statistically important differences regarding FLA as the mean scores of M=2,55 and M=2,56 show and nor did it prove to be a determining factor for affective LLS use which the respective mean scores of M=2,58 and 2,46 reveal.

The statistical correlation of the two elements (language anxiety and affective language learning strategies) is also not significant and so is not verified, which does not lend any credence to the assumption that there may be a substantial connection between FLA and affective LLS use in that low language anxiety is likely to be the result of systematic and effective use of affective LLS. Finally, the qualitative findings obtained illuminated the quantitative results and yielded valuable input for the qualitative investigation and finally provided further understanding of ESP/EAP and its current state.

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The findings stemming from both the quantitative and qualitative research shed some light on the situation of ESP/EAP in the academic departments of the Greek universities investigated. With regards to affective LLS in the educational context of ESP/EAP in Greece, this study further contributes to the existing body of research already conducted. Furthermore, this study is the first to examine the issue of FLA exhibited by Greek ESP/EAP students, thus providing insight into this uninvestigated area. Taking all these variables into account, it becomes obvious that the situation of ESP/EAP in Greece is rather discouraging and problematic. Consequently, steps (as suggested in Chapter 7) must be taken if any progress is to be made in this very pivotal field of tertiary education and EFL. In summation, and with reference to FLA, it is indicatively mentioned that ESP/EAP instructors ought to increase facilitative anxiety among their learners and decrease any instances of debilitating anxiety. Likewise, with regards to LLS, ESP/EAP teachers ought to firstly raise ESP/EAP students awareness of their learning process and of the various LLS and secondly encourage them to employ these strategies throughout their ESP/EAP learning experience. A multitude of further practical and pedagogical implications were considered and applicable classroom practices were proposed in line with current foreign language educational and methodological trends.

8.2 Limitations of the study

Any study conducted does have its limitations. Consequently, caution should be practiced when making broad generalizations or drawing broad inferences from particular observations based on the results put forward. However, generalizations are often not the intent of a study. To this effect, Khan and VanWynsberghe (2008: 25) as cited in Richards (2010: 215) vehemently claim that It is far easier, and more
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epistemonologically sound, simply to give up on the idea of generalization. Bearing this stance in mind and following Richards (ibid) approach to research, which avoids going from a representative sample to generalizable findings, this study, or any study of similar nature for that matter, should not make generalizable claims across all populations or in all educational contexts. Partial generalizations may be possible to similar populations, as, according to Adelman et al. (1980), the knowledge yielded by qualitative research may be significant in its own right as tendencies do emerge and in this case, the results do offer some insight into the terrain of ESP/EAP in Greece and may be generalized to other similar ESP/EAP contexts in this country. It is important to reflect on these findings since the quantitative findings might form the basis for extrapolations.

The FLCAS and SILL are instruments designed using the English language. In this study both instruments were translated and pre-tested. Nonetheless, the results of the first-time use of these translated versions89 ought to be interpreted with some caution and awareness despite the fact that the instruments are considered reliable in their Greek version due to their internal consistency (the Cronbach =0.90 for the SILL and =0.91 for the FLCAS). Moreover, the respondents personal interpretation of the items may also lead to inaccurate responses on the one hand, while on the other hand they may be providing answers which are socially/academically acceptable rather than those which mirror their true feelings, attitudes and behavior.

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A translated Greek version by Psaltou-Joycey & Kantaridou (2009b) of the SILL has also demonstrated internal consistency.

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It ought to be noted that there is inherent difficulty in measuring such variables as affective language learning strategies and foreign language anxiety even under the most favorable circumstances and interpretive penetration is often difficult. In addition, affective factors in particular are very difficult to research as there are varying and intricate specificities which are not easily measurable and even after triangulating the results, questions as to their accuracy and validity may arise. Generic properties should not be assumed, and thus this conceptually complex emotion should be approached from diverse angles and looked upon through various lenses.

As mentioned in the introduction of this thesis (section 1.7), these limitations do not undermine the study as its redeeming suggestive rather than conclusive findings provide a rich, contextualized understanding of some aspect of ESP/EAP in the Greek tertiary-level context and the knowledge claims give justification and merit to this study.

8.3 Directions for further research

Multiple issues stemming from this study can be explored in future research. As in the case of ESP/EAP, foreign language anxiety and affective language learning strategies are also confounded by many variables. Hence, there are many areas that are conducive to further research, which can lead to a proliferation of research pertaining to the study of the correlation between language anxiety and affective language learning strategy use within an ESP/EAP context in Greece.

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More empirical studies using qualitative instruments such as personal observation, retrospective interviews or journal entries with subjects may yield more information on the correlational value of exhibited language anxiety and affective language learning strategy use. Also more studies investigating FLA and the use of affective LLS, in particular, in a tertiary educational context in Greece need be carried out to have more generalizable results.

What could be further explored is whether the year in which the ESP/EAP course is taught plays any role in the development of language anxiety. In other words, if ESP/EAP courses are taught during the final year (4th-5th) of studies, instead of the first and/or second, where students perhaps are more conscious of the usefulness of English in their professional lives, would the results yielded in this case be any different. Along the same lines, a noteworthy investigation could involve the extent to which facilitative anxiety among students would increase if the previously mentioned techniques (see Chapter 7) on deliberately increasing levels of classroom anxiety were implemented. Moreover, it would be of interest to investigate if this plausible increase in levels of anxiety would have any positive outcomes in terms of language performance.

Similarly, it may be of interest if this study instigated an inquiry of FLA in a different specialist area where English plays a more important role as it is taught throughout the entire degree program or where the demands for a good command of English may be higher, for example departments of international studies, media and communication etc. In this case, the hypothesis regarding levels of FLA may go both ways: increased levels

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of FLA may be present due to the higher linguistic demands of the particular specialist area or conversely because of the frequent contact of the students with English, a comfort level may emerge thus alleviating any instances of FLA.

It would be of use to conduct research in the use of strategy-based instruction or learner training among ESP/EAP students in Greek universities and observe the results this study may render as studies (see Chapter 4) pertaining to the Greek context only profile general LLS among Greek learners, but do not actually investigate strategy-based instruction. Similarly, future inquiries into FLA could look into the extent of which teaching practices are responsible for the appearance of FLA and how much is actually attributed to the intrinsic nature of language learning.

In addition, research into more learner characteristics, such as self-efficacy, attitude, inhibition, and learning styles, could result in a more comprehensive portrayal of the variables which affect ESP in Greek tertiary education contexts.

What may be of interest are also results that derive from the investigation of the reported levels of FLA and affective LLS use in another language for specific purposes context among Greek university students. Such contexts may include courses where students are studying, for example, Turkish or Arabic as a foreign language in tertiary-level context (e.g. at the University of The Aegean, where students can study Turkish or Arabic). Would the results obtained from these contexts be any different when compared to those produced by this study?

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Another challenging aspect worthy of investigation would be the professional relationship between the ESP/EAP teachers and subject specialists in a university setting. Also how would creating and strengthening collaborations in and outside the classroom change the perceived quality of instruction of ESP/EAP? In Greece, as it was reported from the ESP/EAP teachers responses, it is very rare to have any sort of collaboration between these two professionals: i.e. the ESP/EAP teacher and subject specialist.

Finally, I suggest a longitudinal study be conducted to examine whether the results yielded in this study are time sensitive or constant over time.

In any case, this line of enquiry is expected to remain a priority since affectivity plays a decisive role in language learning and the use of language learning strategies has been deemed crucial. Scholarship should constantly be reexamining and discussing theories that pertain to the affective side of the learner.

8.4 Conclusion
The prominence of languages and especially English in the globalizing world is unquestionable and the influence that globalization exerts on the market competition and education is tremendous. Likewise, knowledge of specialized language and the development of specific language skills are equally important. It is the development and transmission of this knowledge that is the responsibility of the ESP/EAP instructors/classes in tertiary level education.

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ESP/EAP instructors face a serious and laboring task and that is on the one hand to offer a fertile environment for their students to develop as personalities, and on the other hand to provide their students with all the necessary language skills for competitiveness in the job market. Both tasks will be dealt with more effectively if the ESP/EAP instructor places emphasis on the use of language learning strategies by actively engaging students in tasks that will slowly foster their use. Similarly, it is crucial that the ESP/EAP instructors adopt a more facilitative stance towards ESP/EAP teaching a stance that will take into account the affective needs of the students. Facilitation means that attention is being paid to feelings, thoughts, attitudes, manners, expectations, quality of attention, degree of openness, honesty, and physical presence, only to name a few. If these cognitive and affective aspects in conjunction with a well organized and meaningful syllabus are implemented in the teaching of ESP/EAP, then one can expect very promising results from the ESP/EAP students, who should always be the center of focus.

ESP/EAP will gain prominence and establish itself in the Greek University if it is approached in a more professional and scientific manner rendering it an academic course of increased value since it will equip students with the necessary tools, skills and a framework to face professional tasks and situations where needed. This raising in status of the ESP/EAP course may be achieved also through a closer collaboration with the academic subject specialists. A substantial part of responsibility lies with the ESP/EAP teacher who needs to take a proactive approach in order to activate a chain effect in an effort to achieve change and redress any negative connotation ascribed to ESP/EAP in Greek universities.

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Appendices

333

Appendix 1

Questionnaires English Version

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)
Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) Name___________________________(optional) Institute_________________________ Year of Study___________________ Language Proficiency Level (B1, B2, C1, C2)_____________ Years of studying English__________ Grade obtained in previous ESP course Other languages spoken_____________ Gender M____ F_____ 1-Strongly Disagree 2-Disagree 3-Neither Agree or Disagree 4-Agree 5-Strongly Agree _____ 1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my foreign language class. ______2. I dont worry about making mistakes in language class. ______3. I tremble when I know that Im going to be called on in language class. ______4. It frightens me when I dont understand what the teacher is saying in the foreign language. ______5. It wouldnt bother me at all to take more foreign language classes. ______6. During language classes, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with the course. ______7. I keep thinking that the other students are better at languages than I am. ______8. I am usually at ease during tests in my language class. ______9. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in language class. ______10. I worry about the consequences of failing my foreign language class. ______11. I dont understand why some people get so upset over foreign language classes. ______12. In language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know. ______13. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my language class.

334

______14. I would not be nervous speaking the foreign language with native speakers. ______15. I get upset when I dont understand what the teacher is correcting. ______16. Even if I am well prepared for language class, I feel anxious about it. ______17. I often feel like not going to my language class. ______18. I feel confident when I speak in a foreign language class. ______19. I am afraid that my language teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make. ______20. I can feel my heart pounding, when Im going to be called on in my language class. ______21. The more I study for a language test, the more confused I get. ______22. I dont feel pressure to prepare very well for language class. ______23. I always feel that the other students speak the foreign language better than I do. ______ 24. I feel very self-conscious about speaking the foreign language in front of other students. ______25. Language class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind. ______26. I feel more tense and nervous in my language class than in my other classes ______27. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my language class. ______28. When I am on my way to language class, I feel very sure and relaxed. ______29. I get nervous when I dont understand every word the language teacher says. ______30. I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak a foreign language. ______31. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak the foreign language. ______32. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of the foreign language. ______33. I get nervous when the language teacher asks questions which I havent prepared in advance.

335

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

Version 7.0 (ESL/EFL) R. Oxford, 1989 Read the items, and choose a response (1 through 5 below), and write it in the space after the item. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Never or almost never true of me Usually not true of me Somewhat true of me Usually true of me Always or almost always true of me 2 3 4 5

Items 1 1. I think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English. 2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them. 3. I connect the sound of a new English word and an image or picture of the word to help me remember the word. 4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used. 5. I use rhymes to remember new English words. 6. I use flashcards to remember new English words. 7. I physically act out new English words. 8. I review English lessons often. 9. I remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign. 10. I say or write new words several times. 11. I try to talk like native English speakers. 12. I practice the sounds of English. 13. I use the English words I know in different ways. 14. I start conversations in English. 15. I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or go to movies spoken in English. 16. I read for pleasure in English. 17. I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English. 18. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully. 19. I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English. 20. I try to find patterns in English. 21. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it

336

into parts that I understand. 22. I try not to translate word-for-word. 23. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English. 24. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses. 25. When I cant think of a word during conversation in English, I use gestures. 26. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English. 27. I read English without looking up every new word. 28. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English. 29. If I cant think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the same thing. 30. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English. 31. I notice my English mistakes and use that information to help me do better. 32. I pay attention when someone is speaking English. 33. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English. 34. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English. 35. I look for people I can talk to in English. 36. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English. 37. I have clear goals for improving my English skills. 38. I think about my progress in learning English. 39. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English. 40. I encourage myself to speak even when I am afraid of making a mistake. 41. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English. 42. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying English. 43. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary. 44. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning English. 45. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again. 46. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk. 47. I practice English with other students. 48. I ask for help from English speakers. 49. I ask questions in English. 50. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.

337

Questionnaires Greek Version

____________________________() _____________________ _______________ 1____2____C1____C2____ ______ ___________ ____________

Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS)

Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986)

1= 2= 3= 4= 5= .
No 1 2 3 4 5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

. . . . . , . . . .

338

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33

. . , . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . / . . . .

339

Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)

Version 7.0 (ESL/EFL) R. Oxford, 1989

B 1= 2= 3= 4= 5=

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 . . . . (.. ) . . . . , . . . . . .

1 2

340

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41

. . , , . . . . . . . , . , . . . , . , . . . . / . . . . . . . .
341

42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50

. . . , . . . . .

342

Appendix 2
Extra Statistical Results Table A1 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by sex .................. 344 Table A2 Ranks of TA and AECAI split by sex ............................................................ 344 Table A3 Mann-Whitney Test Statistical of TA and AECAI by sex ............................ 345 Table A4 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances ........................................................ 345 Table A5 Independent Samples t-test for CA, FNE, q1mean by sex ............................ 345 Table A6 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of the SILL split by sex ................ 345 Table A7 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances of the SILL factors by sex ............. 346 Table A8 Independent Samples t-test for the SILL factors by sex ................................ 346 Table A9 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Year of study .. 346 Table A10 Independent Samples Test for CA and q1mean by year of study ................ 347 Table A11 Ranks of TA, FNE and AECAI split by year of study ................................ 347 Table A12 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of TA, FNE and AECAI by year of study ... 347 Table A13 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of the SILL split by Year of study ...................................................................................................................... 348 Table A14 Independent Samples Test for the SILL means by year of study ............... 348 Table A15 Ranks of AS split by year of study .............................................................. 348 Table A16 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of AS by year of study ................................ 349 Table A17 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Knowledge of other language .............................................................................................. 349 Table A18 Independent Samples Test for CA, FNE and q1mean by Knowledge of other language ....................................................................................................... 349 Table A19 Ranks of TA and AECAI split by Knowledge of other language................ 350 Table A20 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of TA and AECAI by Knowledge of other language ....................................................................................................... 350 Table A21 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by Knowledge of other language ....................................................................................................... 350 Table A22 Independent Samples Test for CA, FNE and q1mean by Knowledge of other language ....................................................................................................... 351 Table A23 Ranks of AS split by Knowledge of other language .................................... 351 Table A24 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of AS by Knowledge of other language ...... 351 Table A25 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Institution ..... 352 Table A26 ANOVA test for FLCAS by Institution ....................................................... 352 Table A27 Mean Ranks of TA by Institution ................................................................ 353 Table A28 Kruskal Wallis Test Statistics of TA by Institution ..................................... 353 Table A29 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by Institution ......... 353 Table A30 ANOVA test for SILL by Institution ........................................................... 354 Table A31 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS by Language level ..... 355 Table A32 ANOVA test of FLCAS by Language level ................................................ 355 Table A33 Ranks of TA by Language level .................................................................. 356 Table A34 Kruskal Wallis Test of TA by Language level ............................................ 356 Table A35 Scheffe tests for FLCAS by language level ................................................. 356
343

Table A36 Kruskal-Wallis pairwise tests of TA by language level............................... 357 Table A37 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL by Language level ......... 359 Table A38 ANOVA test of SILL by Language level .................................................... 360 Table A39 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by previous grades ......................................................................................................................................... 361 Table A40 ANOVA test of FLCAS by previous grades................................................ 361 Table A41 Ranks of TA by previous grades.................................................................. 362 Table A42 Kruskal Wallis test of TA by previous grades ............................................. 362 Table A43 Scheffe tests for FLCAS by previous grades ............................................... 362 Table A44 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by previous grades 363 Table A45 ANOVA test of SILL by previous grades.................................................... 363 Table A46 Scheffe tests for SILL by previous grades ................................................... 364 Table A47 Correlations of all factors of FLCAS and SILL........................................... 365 Table A48 Table of Frequencies and main descriptive measures of all questions of FLCAS ......................................................................................................... 366 Table A49 Table of Frequencies and main descriptive measures of all questions of FLCAS ......................................................................................................... 367 Table A1 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by sex Sex CA TA FNE AECAI q1mean Female N 190 197 196 192 201 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z 1,068 2,489 ,996 1,441 ,737 p-value ,204 ,000 ,274 ,032 ,650 Male N 130 137 135 127 137 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z ,911 2,179 ,919 1,054 ,586 p-value ,377 ,000 ,367 ,217 ,882 Table A2 Ranks of TA and AECAI split by sex Mean Rank 175,92 155,40 164,78 152,77 Sum of Ranks 34655,50 21289,50 31638,50 19401,50

Test Anxiety

Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues

Sex Female Male Total Female Male Total

N 197 137 334 192 127 319

344

Table A3 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of TA and AECAI by sex Test Anxiety Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues Mann-Whitney U 11836,500 11273,500 Wilcoxon W 21289,500 19401,500 Z -1,955 -1,141 p-value ,051 ,254 a. Grouping Variable: Sex Table A4 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F p-value Communication Apprehension 2,522 ,113 Fear of Negative Evaluation q1mean ,029 1,073 ,865 ,301

Table A5 Independent Samples t-test for CA, FNE, q1mean by sex t-test for Equality of Means t df p-value Communication Equal variances assumed 3,827 318 ,000 Apprehension Fear of Negative Equal variances assumed 3,176 329 ,002 Evaluation q1mean Equal variances assumed 3,194 336 ,002

Table A6 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of the SILL split by sex Mem Comp q2mean Sex S CogS S MetaS AS SS Female N 200 199 198 192 192 192 200 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z ,940 1,101 1,113 ,933 1,326 1,031 ,740 p-value ,340 ,177 ,168 ,349 ,060 ,239 ,644 Male N 135 134 132 127 126 126 135 Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z ,707 1,307 1,176 ,803 1,204 ,783 ,828 p-value ,700 ,066 ,126 ,539 ,110 ,572 ,500

345

Table A7 Levene's Test for Equality of Variances of the SILL factors by sex F MemS CogS CompS MetaS AS SS q2mean ,025 1,244 1,578 2,109 ,911 1,864 1,197 p-value. ,874 ,265 ,210 ,147 ,340 ,173 ,275

Table A8 Independent Samples t-test for the SILL factors by sex t-test for Equality of Means t df p-value MemS Equal variances assumed 2,777 333 ,006 CogS Equal variances assumed ,694 331 ,488 CompS Equal variances assumed -,654 328 ,513 MetaS Equal variances assumed 1,166 317 ,245 AS Equal variances assumed ,346 316 ,729 SS Equal variances assumed 2,120 316 ,035 q2mean Equal variances assumed 1,540 333 ,125 Table A9 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Year of study Anxiety of Communicati English on Fear of Classes/ Apprehensio Test Negative Academic q1mea Year of study n Anxiety Evaluation Issues n 1 N 208 219 215 203 220 Kolmogorov1,182 2,677 1,409 1,475 1,190 Smirnov Z p-value ,122 ,000 ,038 ,026 ,118 2 N 68 69 68 64 70 Kolmogorov,401 1,401 ,536 ,720 ,527 Smirnov Z p-value ,997 ,040 ,936 ,677 ,944

346

Table A10 Independent Samples Test for CA and q1mean by year of study Levene's Test for Equality of t-test for Equality of Variances Means F Sig. T df p-value Communication Apprehension ,485 ,487 -,336 274 ,737 q1mean ,456 ,500 -,100 288 ,920

Table A11 Ranks of TA, FNE and AECAI split by year of study Year of Mean Sum of study N Rank Ranks Test Anxiety 1 219 144,24 31588,50 2 69 145,33 10027,50 Total 288 Fear of Negative 1 215 140,36 30178,00 Evaluation 2 68 147,18 10008,00 Total 283 Anxiety of English 1 203 134,70 27345,00 Classes/Academic 2 64 131,77 8433,00 Issues Total 267

Table A 12 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of TA, FNE and AECAI by year of study Test Fear of Negative Anxiety of English Anxiety Evaluation Classes/Academic Issues Mann-Whitney U 7498,500 6958,000 6353,000 Wilcoxon W 31588,50 30178,000 8433,000 0 Z -,097 -,600 -,266 p-value ,923 ,548 ,790 a. Grouping Variable: Year of study

347

Table A13 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of the SILL split by Year of study Year of study 1 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value 2 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value Comp MemS CogS S MetaS 215 214 211 203 1,014 ,849 1,224 ,942 ,255 70 ,752 ,624 ,466 70 ,989 ,282 ,100 70 ,699 ,712 ,337 70 1,345 ,054 AS 202 1,437 ,032 70 ,950 ,327 q2mea SS n 202 215 ,931 ,865 ,351 70 ,693 ,723 ,443 70 ,613 ,847

Table A14 Independent Samples Test for the SILL means by year of study Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means Sig. (2F Sig. t df tailed) MemS Equal variances ,579 ,447 -,338 283 ,736 assumed CogS Equal variances ,215 ,643 ,532 282 ,595 assumed Comp Equal variances 1,800 ,181 ,499 279 ,618 S assumed MetaS Equal variances 1,084 ,299 ,522 271 ,602 assumed SS Equal variances ,007 ,932 ,730 270 ,466 assumed q2mea Equal variances ,010 ,921 ,946 283 ,345 n assumed

Table A15 Ranks of AS split by year of study Year of Mean Sum of study N Rank Ranks AS 1 202 140,37 28354,50 2 70 125,34 8773,50 Total 272

348

Table A16 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of AS by year of study AS 6288,500 8773,500 -1,384 ,167

Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z p-value

a. Grouping Variable: Year of study

Table A 17 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Knowledge of other language Communicati on Apprehension 134 ,726 ,667 183 1,120 ,162 Anxiety of Fear of English Test Negative Classes/Aca Anxiety Evaluation demic Issues q1mean 140 138 131 142 2,416 1,301 1,441 ,805 ,000 190 2,296 ,000 ,068 189 1,000 ,270 ,031 181 1,298 ,069 ,536 192 ,620 ,837

Knowledge of other language No N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value Yes N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value

Table A 18 Independent Samples Test for CA, FNE and q1mean by Knowledge of other language Levene's Test for t-test for Equality of Equality of Variances Means Sig. (2F Sig. t df tailed) Communication Equal variances ,065 ,798 3,508 315 ,001 Apprehension assumed Fear of Negative Equal variances ,478 ,490 4,255 325 ,000 Evaluation assumed q1mean Equal variances 1,040 ,308 3,708 332 ,000 assumed
349

Table A19 Ranks of TA and AECAI split by Knowledge of other language Knowledge of other Mean Sum of language N Rank Ranks Test Anxiety No 140 172,84 24197,00 Yes 190 160,09 30418,00 Total 330 Anxiety of English No 131 176,60 23134,50 Classes/Academic Yes 181 141,95 25693,50 Issues Total 312

Table A20 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of TA and AECAI by Knowledge of other language Anxiety of English Test Classes/Acad Anxiety emic Issues Mann-Whitney U 12273,000 9222,500 Wilcoxon W 30418,000 25693,500 Z -1,226 -3,355 p-value ,220 ,001 a. Grouping Variable: Knowledge of other language

Table A21 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by Knowledge of other language Mem Comp Meta q2me S CogS S S AS SS an 139 138 136 133 133 133 139 ,564 1,067 ,811 ,687 ,873 1,143 ,951 ,908 ,205 ,526 ,734 ,431 ,147 ,326 191 190 189 183 182 182 191 ,974 1,052 1,266 1,013 1,584 1,184 ,813 ,299 ,219 ,081 ,256 ,013 ,121 ,523

Knowledge of other language No N Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z P-value Yes N Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z P-value a. Test distribution is Normal. b. Calculated from data.

350

Table A22 Independent Samples Test for CA, FNE and q1mean by Knowledge of other language Levene's Test for Equality of Variances F p-value ,683 ,409 ,363 ,954 ,424 1,341 ,556 ,547 ,329 ,516 ,248 ,456

MemS

Equal variances assumed CogS Equal variances assumed CompS Equal variances assumed MetaS Equal variances assumed SS Equal variances assumed q2mean Equal variances assumed

t-test for Equality of Means t df p-value -,514 328 ,607 -2,327 -,319 -2,211 -1,537 -1,728 326 323 314 313 328 ,021 ,750 ,028 ,125 ,085

Table A23 Ranks of AS split by Knowledge of other language Knowledge of other language No Yes Total N 133 182 315 Mean Rank 161,92 155,13 Sum of Ranks 21535,50 28234,50

AS

Table A24 Mann-Whitney Test Statistics of AS by Knowledge of other language AS 11581,500 28234,500 -,656 ,512

Mann-Whitney U Wilcoxon W Z p-value

351

Table A25 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by Institution Communic ation Apprehensi on 93 ,999 ,271 76 ,859 ,451 173 ,685 ,735 Anxiety of English Fear of Classes/Ac Test Negative ademic q1mea Anxiety Evaluation Issues n 101 97 94 101 2,006 ,990 ,854 ,951 ,001 79 1,398 ,040 178 2,370 ,000 ,280 80 ,759 ,612 175 1,012 ,258 ,459 77 1,186 ,120 167 1,290 ,072 ,326 81 ,683 ,740 180 ,772 ,590

Institution Econ N Patras KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value Econ N Maced KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value BA Patras N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value

Table A26 ANOVA test for FLCAS by Institution Sum of Mean Squares df Square Communication Between 1,439 2 ,719 Apprehension Groups Within Groups 136,001 339 ,401 Total 137,440 341 Fear of Negative Between 1,047 2 ,523 Evaluation Groups Within Groups 179,539 349 ,514 Total 180,586 351 Anxiety of English Between ,712 2 ,356 Classes/Academic Groups Issues Within Groups 110,959 335 ,331 Total 111,671 337 q1mean Between ,133 2 ,066 Groups Within Groups 121,719 359 ,339 Total 121,852 361

F p-value 1,793 ,168

1,017

,363

1,074

,343

,196

,822

352

Table A27 Mean Ranks of TA by Institution Institution Econ Patras Econ Maced BA Patras Total N 101 79 178 358 Mean Rank 172,26 197,56 175,59

Test Anxiety

Table A28 Kruskal Wallis Test Statistics of TA by Institution Test Anxiety 3,298 2 ,192

Chi-Square df p-value

Table A29 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by Institution Institution Econ N Patras Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z P-value Econ N Maced Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z P-value BA N Patras Kolmogorov-Smirnov Z P-value Mem Com Meta S CogS pS S AS 95 95 93 88 86 ,553 ,790 1,031 ,729 ,796 ,920 ,561 ,238 ,663 ,550 83 83 83 79 79 ,879 ,682 ,706 1,097 ,958 ,423 ,741 ,701 ,180 ,317 180 178 178 175 175 ,944 1,081 1,182 1,423 1,060 ,335 ,193 ,122 ,035 ,212 SS 88 ,808 ,531 78 ,816 ,518 175 ,849 ,467 q2me an 96 ,766 ,600 83 ,750 ,628 180 ,568 ,904

353

Table A30 ANOVA test for SILL by Institution Sum of Squares ,979 149,692 150,671 ,183 128,438 128,621 1,341 190,426 191,767 1,363 155,855 157,218 ,985 128,497 129,482 ,711 200,667 201,378 ,310 76,646 76,955 df 2 355 357 2 353 355 2 351 353 2 339 341 2 337 339 2 338 340 2 356 358 Mean Square ,489 ,422 ,092 ,364 ,670 ,543 ,681 ,460 ,492 ,381 ,355 ,594 ,155 ,215 ,719 ,488 ,599 ,550 1,292 ,276 1,482 ,229 1,236 ,292 ,252 ,777 F p-value 1,160 ,315

MemS

Between Groups Within Groups Total CogS Between Groups Within Groups Total CompS Between Groups Within Groups Total MetaS Between Groups Within Groups Total AS Between Groups Within Groups Total SS Between Groups Within Groups Total q2mean Between Groups Within Groups Total

354

Table A31 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS by Language level Communica tion Apprehensi on 37 ,808 ,531 178 ,744 ,638 43 ,764 ,603 68 ,770 ,593 Anxiety of Fear of English Test Negative Classes/Aca Anxiety Evaluation demic Issues q1mean 41 38 37 41 1,165 ,504 ,697 ,702 ,132 184 2,354 ,000 47 1,292 ,071 69 1,563 ,015 ,961 182 1,076 ,197 46 ,793 ,556 69 ,763 ,605 ,716 175 1,260 ,083 46 ,968 ,305 66 ,910 ,379 ,708 187 ,564 ,909 47 ,622 ,833 70 ,897 ,397

Language level 1 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value 2 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value C1 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value C2 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value

Table A32 ANOVA test of FLCAS by Language level Sum of Squares 14,928 118,369 133,297 13,249 153,235 166,484 17,960 90,799 108,759 df 3 322 325 3 331 334 3 320 323
355

Communication Apprehension

Fear of Negative Evaluation

Anxiety of English Classes/Academic Issues

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total

Mean Square 4,976 ,368

F 13,536

pvalue ,000

4,416 ,463

9,540

,000

5,987 ,284

21,099

,000

q1mean

Between Groups Within Groups Total

18,451 99,779 118,230

3 341 344

6,150 ,293

21,019

,000

Table A33 Ranks of TA by Language level Language level 1 2 C1 C2 Total Mean Rank 222,38 181,45 170,15 113,18

N 41 184 47 69 341

Test Anxiety

Table A34 Kruskal Wallis Test of TA by Language level Test Anxiety 38,636 3 ,000

Chi-Square df p-value

Table A35 Scheffe tests for FLCAS by language level Scheffe test for CA by language level Language level C2 C1 2 1 p-value Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 3 2,4029 2,4729 2,4729 2,7584 3,1081 ,945 ,101 1,000

N 68 43 178 37

356

Scheffe test for FNE by language level Language level C2 C1 2 1 p-value Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 3 2,2367 2,4819 2,4819 2,6712 2,6712 2,8684 ,284 ,518 ,482

N 69 46 182 38

Scheffe test for AECAI by language level Language level C2 C1 2 1 p-value. Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 3 2,2879 2,4652 2,4652 2,7360 3,0676 ,366 ,062 1,000

N 66 46 175 37

Scheffe test for q1mean by language level Subset for alpha = 0.05 Language level N 1 2 3 C2 70 2,1970 C1 47 2,4405 2,4405 2 187 2,6330 1 41 2,9894 p-value. ,104 ,277 1,000

Table A36 Kruskal-Wallis pairwise tests of TA by language level Ranks of TA by B1 and B2 Language level 1 2 Total Mean Rank 136,29 107,81

N 41 184 225

Test Anxiety

357

Kruskal Wallis of TA by B2 and C1 Test Anxiety 6,760 1 ,009

Chi-Square df p-value.

Ranks of TA by B2 and C1 Language level 2 C1 Total N 184 47 231 Mean Rank 117,60 109,73

Test Anxiety

Kruskal Wallis of TA by B2 and C1 Test Anxiety ,546 1 ,460

Chi-Square df p-value

Ranks of TA by B2, C1 and C2 Language level 2 C1 C2 Total N 184 47 69 300 Mean Rank 166,14 156,18 104,92

Test Anxiety

Kruskal Wallis of TA by B2, C1 and C2 Test Anxiety 26,400 2 ,000

Chi-Square df p-value

358

Ranks of TA by C1 and C2 Language level C1 C2 Total N 47 69 116 Mean Rank 70,45 50,36

Test Anxiety

Kruskal Wallis of TA by C1 and C2 Test Anxiety 10,419 1 ,001

Chi-Square df p-value

Table A37 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL by Language level Language level 1 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value 2 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value C1 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value C2 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value MemS 40 ,802 ,540 184 1,182 ,122 48 ,693 ,722 69 ,850 ,465 CogS CompS MetaS 40 40 38 ,895 ,950 ,535 ,399 183 ,886 ,412 48 ,652 ,789 69 ,905 ,385 ,327 180 1,066 ,206 48 ,797 ,548 69 ,782 ,574 ,937 171 1,283 ,074 47 ,726 ,668 69 ,997 ,274 AS 38 ,781 ,576 170 1,209 ,108 47 ,688 ,731 69 ,973 ,301 SS q2mean 38 40 ,797 ,760 ,548 171 ,793 ,556 47 ,525 ,945 68 ,797 ,548 ,610 184 ,628 ,825 48 ,492 ,969 69 ,893 ,403

359

Table A38 ANOVA test of SILL by Language level Sum of Squares ,879 140,153 141,032 2,685 116,280 118,965 3,000 175,201 178,201 2,815 145,404 148,220 ,343 123,051 123,394 1,000 190,839 191,839 ,517 70,266 70,783 df 3 337 340 3 336 339 3 333 336 3 321 324 3 320 323 3 320 323 3 337 340 Mean Square ,293 ,416 ,895 ,346 1,000 ,526 ,938 ,453 ,114 ,385 ,333 ,596 ,172 ,209 ,826 ,480 ,559 ,642 ,298 ,827 2,072 ,104 1,900 ,129 2,586 ,053 F ,705 p-value ,550

MemS

Between Groups Within Groups Total CogS Between Groups Within Groups Total CompS Between Groups Within Groups Total MetaS Between Groups Within Groups Total AS Between Groups Within Groups Total SS Between Groups Within Groups Total q2mean Between Groups Within Groups Total

360

Table A39 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of FLCAS split by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value 5-7 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value >7 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value CA 8 ,640 ,807 40 ,771 ,592 9 ,500 ,964 TA 8 ,679 ,745 40 1,058 ,213 9 1,377 ,045 FNE AECAI 8 8 ,542 ,378 ,931 40 ,773 ,588 9 ,447 ,988 ,999 40 ,488 ,971 9 ,936 ,345 Q1MEAN 8 ,865 ,443 40 ,446 ,989 9 ,614 ,845

Table A40 ANOVA test of FLCAS by previous grades Sum of Squares 2,071 8,038 10,109 5,976 28,966 34,942 ,543 6,085 6,628 1,309 4,575 5,884 df 2 54 56 2 54 56 2 54 56 2 54 56 Mean Square 1,036 ,149 2,988 ,536 ,272 ,113 ,655 ,085 7,725 ,001 2,410 ,099 5,570 ,006 F p-value 6,959 ,002

CA

Between Groups Within Groups Total FNE Between Groups Within Groups Total AECAI Between Groups Within Groups Total Q1MEA Between N Groups Within Groups Total

361

Table A41 Ranks of TA by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 5-7 >7 Total N 8 40 9 57 Mean Rank 21,31 30,89 27,44

TA

Table A42 Kruskal Wallis test of TA by previous grades TA 2,456 2 ,293

Chi-Square Df p-value

Table A43 Scheffe tests for FLCAS by previous grades Scheffe test of CA by previous grades Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 2,3333 2,7600 3,0083 1,000 ,312

Category of previous grades >7 5-7 <5 p-value

N 9 40 8

Scheffe test of FNE by previous grades Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 1,9815 2,8250 3,0000 1,000 ,849

Category of previous grades >7 5-7 <5 p-value

N 9 40 8

362

Scheffe test of Q1MEAN by previous grades Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 2,4398 2,8519 2,8708 1,000 ,988

Category of previous grades >7 5-7 <5 p-value

N 9 40 8

Table A44 One-Sample Kolmogorov-Smirnov Test of SILL split by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value 5-7 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z p-value >7 N KolmogorovSmirnov Z P-value MemS 8 ,476 ,977 39 ,692 ,725 9 ,552 ,921 CogS CompS MetaS 8 8 8 ,423 ,562 ,627 ,994 39 ,518 ,951 9 ,433 ,992 ,911 39 ,862 ,447 9 ,457 ,985 ,826 37 ,539 ,934 9 ,687 ,733 AS 8 ,557 ,915 39 ,554 ,919 9 ,493 ,968 Q2MEA SS N 8 8 ,832 ,668 ,493 39 ,577 ,894 9 ,412 ,996 ,763 37 ,635 ,815 9 ,595 ,871

Table A45 ANOVA test of SILL by previous grades Sum of Squares ,737 14,031 14,768 2,545 19,347 21,892 df 2 53 55 2 53 55 Mean Square ,368 ,265 1,273 ,365 3,486 ,038 F p-value 1,392 ,258

MemS

CogS

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total

363

CompS

MetaS

AS

SS

q2 MEAN

Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total Between Groups Within Groups Total

1,443 16,206 17,649 4,668 25,739 30,407 ,085 19,605 19,690 ,751 24,453 25,204 ,464 8,777 9,241

2 53 55 2 51 53 2 53 55 2 53 55 2 51 53

,722 ,306 2,334 ,505 ,042 ,370 ,375 ,461 ,232 ,172

2,360

,104

4,625

,014

,115

,892

,814

,449

1,347

,269

Table A46 Scheffe tests for SILL by previous grades Scheffe test of CogS by previous grades Category of previous grades <5 5-7 >7 p-value Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 2,5536 2,8791 2,8791 3,3175 ,441 ,231

N 8 39 9

Scheffe test of MetaS by previous grades Subset for alpha = 0.05 1 2 2,8529 2,9583 2,9583 3,6543 ,939 ,074

Category of previous grades 5-7 <5 >7 p-value

N 37 8 9

364

Table A47 Correlations of all factors of FLCAS and SILL Anxiet y of Comm Englis unicati Fear of h on Negati Classes Appre Test ve /Acade hensio Anxie Evalua mic q1m Me Cog Co Met q2m n ty tion Issues ean mS S mpS aS AS SS ean Communica Pearson 1 ,539** ,774** ,696** ,882 ,043 - ,036 ** tion Correlation ,218 ,157 ,012 ,125 ,098 ** ** * Apprehensi on p-value ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,432 ,000 ,517 ,005 ,829 ,024 ,071 N 342 339 335 322 342 337 336 335 325 323 324 338 Test Pearson ,539** 1 ,459** ,597** ,802 ,018 - ,025 - ,027 ** Anxiety Correlation ,201 ,149 ,018 ,064
** **

Fear of Negative Evaluation

p-value N Pearson Correlation p-value N Pearson Correlation

,000 339 358 ** ,774 ,459** ,000 ,000 335 348 ,696** ,597** ,000 ,000 322 334 ** ,882 ,802** ,000 342 ,043 ,432 337 -,218** ,000 336 ,000 358 ,018 ,733 351 ** ,201 ,000 349

,000 348 1

,000 ,000 ,733 ,000 ,642 ,006 ,625 ,740 ,232 334 358 351 349 347 335 333 334 352 ,633** ,846 ,117 - ,020 - ,072 ** * ,128 ,042 ,046 ,010
*

Anxiety of English Classes/Aca demic p-value Issues N q1mean Pearson Correlation p-value N Pearson Correlation p-value N Pearson Correlation p-value N

352 ,633** ,000 331 ,846** ,000 352 ,117*

,000 ,000 ,030 ,017 ,711 ,445 ,190 ,402 ,859 331 352 346 344 343 331 329 330 347 1 ,847 - ,075 - ,023 ** ,014 ,222 ,196 ,142 ,114
** ** * *

,000 ,804 ,000 ,172 ,000 ,690 ,012 ,038 338 338 333 331 329 317 316 316 333 ,847** 1 ,054 - ,042 - ,047 ,218 ,153 ,077 ,071
** **

MemS

,000 ,308 ,000 ,431 ,005 ,387 ,158 ,182 338 362 355 353 351 339 337 338 356 -,014 ,054 1 ,528 ,207 ,462 ,349 ,330 ,688
** ** ** ** **

**

CogS

,030 ,804 ,308 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 346 333 355 358 356 353 341 340 340 358 -,128* -,222** - ,528 1 ,240 ,572 ,391 ,485 ,772 ** ** ** ** ** ** ,218
**

,017 344

,000 ,000 ,000 331 353 356

356

,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 353 341 340 340 356

365

CompS

MetaS

Pearson Correlation p-value N Pearson Correlation

,036 ,517 335 -,157**

,025 ,642 347 ,149**

,020

,075 ,042 ,207 ,240

**

**

1 ,055 ,226 ,097 ,488

**

**

,711 ,172 ,431 ,000 ,000 ,314 ,000 ,074 ,000 343 329 351 353 353 354 342 340 341 354 -,042 -,196** - ,462 ,572 ,055 1 ,464 ,525 ,751 ** ** ** ** ** ,153
**

p-value ,005 ,006 ,445 ,000 N 325 335 331 317 AS Pearson -,012 ,027 ,072 ,023 Correlation p-value ,829 ,625 ,190 ,690 N 323 333 329 316 * SS Pearson -,125 -,018 -,046 -,142* Correlation p-value ,024 ,740 ,402 ,012 N 324 334 330 316 q2mean Pearson -,098 -,064 -,010 -,114* Correlation p-value ,071 ,232 ,859 ,038 N 338 352 347 333 **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *. Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).

,005 ,000 ,000 ,314 ,000 ,000 ,000 339 341 341 342 342 340 341 342 ,047 ,349 ,391 ,226 ,464 1 ,453 ,695
** ** ** ** **

**

,387 337 ,077 ,158 338 ,071 ,182 356

,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 340 340 340 340 340 339 340 ,330 ,485 ,097 ,525 ,453 1 ,721
** ** ** **

**

,000 ,000 ,074 ,000 ,000 ,000 340 340 341 341 339 341 341 ,688 ,772 ,488 ,751 ,695 ,721 1
** ** ** ** ** **

,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 ,000 358 356 354 342 340 341 359

Table A48 Table of Frequencies and main descriptive measures of all questions of FLCAS % 31,2% 19,8% 26,2% 25,4% 31,9% 27,1% 20,7% 32,3% 30,4% 19,3% 29,4%

Mean 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 1.10 1.11 2,84 2,99 2,38 2,60 3,20 3,16 2,45 3,31 2,68 2,91 3,26 St. Deviation 1,084 1,165 1,117 1,196 1,206 1,160 1,151 1,097 1,085 1,284 1,135 % 9,9% 8,2% 24,0% 21,8% 11,8% 7,2% 21,8% 6,9% 14,6% 17,4% 7,1% % 31,2% 33,2% 35,0% 27,3% 14,0% 24,6% 37,7% 14,6% 31,2% 24,3% 19,0%

% 20,5% 28,6% 9,1% 19,3% 27,2% 27,1% 13,8% 32,3% 19,1% 28,2% 30,2%

% 7,1% 10,2% 5,8% 6,1% 15,1% 14,1% 6,1% 13,8% 4,7% 10,8% 14,3%
366

1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33

2,28 2,56 3,07 2,68 2,51 3,01 2,94 2,60 2,58 1,93 3,44 2,62 2,67 2,35 1,95 2,54 3,21 2,57 2,64 2,32 3,13 2,72

1,197 1,052 1,184 1,083 1,178 1,283 1,050 1,073 1,170 ,933 1,088 1,117 1,131 1,105 1,068 1,072 1,077 1,057 1,119 1,085 1,076 1,040

32,5% 15,7% 10,5% 15,5% 22,9% 13,9% 8,3% 14,5% 19,4% 36,6% 4,5% 15,8% 14,8% 23,5% 43,6% 15,8% 6,9% 14,1% 14,2% 25,5% 7,2% 11,1%

31,1% 37,1% 24,7% 29,4% 32,1% 24,2% 25,2% 37,3% 33,3% 42,7% 17,0% 35,5% 34,6% 39,4% 31,6% 39,3% 17,5% 39,6% 37,5% 37,4% 20,8% 33,6%

17,9% 26,1% 23,0% 30,2% 21,2% 24,5% 38,0% 26,7% 23,9% 13,6% 24,3% 25,8% 25,4% 20,1% 13,4% 24,1% 33,9% 26,3% 26,1% 19,7% 33,5% 32,5%

13,2% 18,1% 31,3% 21,3% 18,7% 21,7% 20,8% 16,7% 16,7% 5,5% 38,0% 17,2% 18,7% 12,6% 9,2% 16,6% 30,6% 15,2% 15,0% 15,0% 28,8% 17,8%

5,2% 3,0% 10,5% 3,6% 5,0% 15,6% 7,8% 4,7% 6,7% 1,7% 16,2% 5,8% 6,4% 4,5% 2,2% 4,2% 11,1% 4,7% 7,2% 2,5% 9,7% 5,0%

Table A49 Table of Frequencies and main descriptive measures of all questions of FLCAS Row N % Row N % 38,2% 31,7% 33,1% 28,9% 24,2% 25,4% 20,6% 32,7% 18,5% 20,2% 12,7% 6,8% 17,5% 11,1% 33,7% 13,4% 22,2% 21,3% 28,4% 21,3% 30,4% 19,3% 30,4% 31,3% 34,2% 17,8%

2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13

Mean St. Deviation 3,24 1,040 3,14 1,115 3,02 1,294 3,14 1,255 2,75 1,297 1,92 1,115 2,14 1,117 2,58 1,059 2,74 1,295 2,76 1,155 2,79 1,178 3,17 1,151 2,76 1,094

Row N % Row N % 7,4% 12,7% 9,0% 18,5% 16,1% 20,0% 13,0% 20,3% 19,0% 30,5% 46,8% 29,6% 35,6% 32,7% 16,6% 31,7% 21,6% 24,4% 15,6% 27,8% 15,9% 25,9% 10,4% 16,5% 13,3% 28,2%

Row N % 9,9% 10,6% 14,4% 13,5% 11,8% 4,2% 3,2% 4,6% 10,4% 6,8% 8,5% 11,3% 6,5%
367

2.14 2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20 2.21 2.22 2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26 2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31 2.32 2.33 2.34 2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38 2.39 2.40 2.41 2.42 2.43 2.44 2.45 2.46 2.47 2.48 2.49 2.50

2,34 3,59 2,52 2,48 3,16 2,83 2,50 2,77 3,08 2,29 2,77 2,57 2,31 3,17 2,60 3,75 3,08 3,38 3,54 3,31 2,37 2,45 2,46 2,93 2,88 3,14 3,37 2,69 2,66 1,60 1,92 3,48 2,67 2,36 2,47 2,84 2,38

1,183 1,272 1,243 1,243 1,271 1,255 1,149 1,268 1,151 1,128 1,249 1,203 1,265 1,176 1,142 1,081 1,109 1,078 1,053 1,077 1,037 1,085 1,118 1,057 1,080 1,128 1,087 1,135 1,144 ,962 1,142 1,137 1,192 1,131 1,191 1,144 1,245

30,0% 9,4% 25,4% 25,5% 12,8% 16,6% 21,9% 19,1% 9,2% 28,6% 19,1% 21,6% 34,7% 9,4% 18,2% 5,6% 9,4% 5,9% 5,1% 6,5% 20,6% 18,5% 20,5% 9,1% 11,5% 10,1% 6,5% 16,3% 17,3% 64,1% 49,3% 6,5% 19,8% 26,5% 24,6% 14,2% 30,4%

29,1% 11,4% 27,4% 31,7% 19,1% 27,4% 31,6% 26,5% 22,2% 34,3% 24,5% 30,7% 27,4% 19,6% 32,3% 7,9% 19,6% 12,9% 10,4% 14,4% 38,9% 41,1% 36,4% 23,9% 22,4% 17,5% 13,6% 29,9% 29,9% 20,5% 24,9% 13,3% 25,7% 31,9% 31,1% 25,2% 28,6%

23,3% 18,6% 25,4% 20,7% 23,4% 24,0% 25,9% 23,4% 32,0% 20,6% 27,1% 24,7% 17,5% 30,4% 27,0% 16,8% 34,5% 33,8% 26,8% 33,8% 26,3% 23,2% 26,1% 39,5% 40,7% 30,0% 30,8% 27,8% 28,1% 9,2% 14,2% 24,8% 29,3% 25,4% 23,1% 30,0% 21,2%

12,1% 31,7% 13,3% 13,6% 28,5% 20,6% 15,1% 20,5% 24,2% 12,6% 19,1% 15,3% 13,4% 26,3% 16,4% 45,6% 26,6% 31,8% 40,5% 32,1% 10,6% 12,0% 10,9% 19,5% 17,4% 32,9% 34,9% 20,4% 18,8% 4,2% 7,4% 36,3% 17,8% 11,5% 15,1% 23,7% 12,1%

5,5% 28,9% 8,6% 8,5% 16,2% 11,4% 5,4% 10,5% 12,4% 4,0% 10,3% 7,7% 7,0% 14,3% 6,2% 24,1% 9,9% 15,6% 17,3% 13,2% 3,5% 5,3% 6,2% 8,0% 8,0% 9,5% 14,2% 5,6% 6,0% 2,1% 4,2% 19,2% 7,4% 4,7% 6,2% 6,8% 7,7%

368

Appendix 3

Language Teaching Approaches/Methodologies that cater to the Learners Affectivity. Currans Community Language Learning
Community Language Learning (CLL) or Counseling-Learning, as it is known, was developed by Curran (1976) and is rooted in Carl Rogers view of education. It follows Krashens Monitor Theory (Affective Filter Hypothesis -a theory addressed below) and the Cognitive Theory. It was created especially for adult language learners who appeared to be more apprehensive than their younger counterparts. The role of the affective domain is stressed. At the base of this approach lies the view that the learner needs to be understood and helped to fully explore his/her potential and goals. One of the most conspicuous features it that the teacher becomes a language counselor per se and in doing so a community atmosphere is created and interpersonal communication enhanced. Through this approach the student maintains autonomy and becomes responsible for his/her learning. Thus anxiety caused by the educational context is decreased and learning consequently takes place more effectively.

Gattegnos Silent Way

The Silent Way is the pedagogical approach created by Gattegno for teaching mathematics originally and then foreign languages. The approach has frequently been labeled humanistic. The main objective is for students to work as autonomous language learners while the teacher remains an observer and interferes only when needed. Gattegno
369

(1972) advocated that learners should develop responsibility, independence and autonomy. These three words became the pivotal point around which evolved his whole philosophy. The learner has to work with his own resources and use the resources available to him/her in the classroom (e.g. rods, spelling and word charts etc.). In this approach, learners are given the opportunity to explore and capitalize on their mistakes which encourages confidence. Mistakes are seen as the gifts of the student to the class" as Gattegno characteristically said. Looking at mistakes in a non-threatening way was a key feature in catering to the learners affective side. The Silent Way approach could be summarized in the following four steps (Stevick, 1990):

At first, the teacher helps the student form a tentative mental representation of what resources the student already has available.

The teacher provides the student with some minimal new information that will help him/her build the next appropriate resource for him/herself.

Plenty of time is provided to the student to do whatever internal processing is necessary to build that next resource.

Based on the students performance, the teacher updates his/her image of what resources the student has available and repeats the above steps.

Lozanovs Suggestopedia
This method was introduced by Lozanov (1979) and is also known as SuggestiveAccelerative Learning and Teaching (SALT) or the Lozanov method. At the root of this method lies the notion that students ought to learn a language in a comfortable, non-

370

threatening, and unencumbered way. Again, this approachs main tenet is the holistic view to second/foreign language learning as it looks at the learner as a whole person. The primary aim of Suggestopedia is to enhance memory and decrease any unconscious barriers to learning (affective filter-a theory addressed below). This aim is something stressed by Papaconstantinou (1991) in her seminal work on Suggestopedia and, as she stresses, to achieve this aim relaxing music (usually Baroque) and other forms of art (e.g. drama) as well as large size teaching material ought to be used. Also students are requested to adopt fictional identities (often these characters are glamorous) so that there is a disassociation between the real identity the student bears and any uncomfortable situations that may arise due to, for example, language mistakes that may occur during the lesson on the part of this student or even due to obedience to a traditional or rigid teacher. In applying the above techniques, a relaxed state of mind is achieved and anxiety is decreased and consequently more effective language learning takes place. It is apparent that Lazanov, too, saw anxiety as a hindrance to learning.

In essence, Suggestopedia emancipates the learner from uncomfortable physical surroundings present in the classroom; liberates the learner from any need to memorize copious information; and finally, as the term suggests, sets students free from the limiting and often negative suggestions that permeate many classrooms (Stevick, 1990: 135)

371

Appendix 4 Categorization of the FLCAS items

Communication Apprehension (CA),
1. I never feel quite sure of myself when I am speaking in my English language class. 2. I dont worry about making mistakes in English language class

Test Anxiety (TA),

Fear of Negative Evaluation (FNE),

7. I keep thinking that the other students are better at languages than I am. 10. I worry about the consequences of failing my English language class. 15. I get upset when I dont understand what the teacher is correcting. 19. I am afraid that my language teacher is ready to correct every mistake I make. 31. I am afraid that the other students will laugh at me when I speak the English language. 33. I get nervous when the language teacher asks questions which I havent prepared in advance.

Anxiety of English Classes and Academic Issues (AECAI)

5. It wouldnt bother me at all to take more English language classes. 6. During English language classes, I find myself thinking about things that have nothing to do with the course. 11. I dont understand why some people get so upset over English language classes. 16. Even if I am well prepared for English language class, I feel anxious about it. 17. I often feel like not going to my English language class. 22. I dont feel pressure to prepare very well for English language class.

8. I am usually at ease during tests in my English language class.

21. The more I study for a language test, the more confused I get.

3. I tremble when I know that Im gong to be called on in English language class. 4. It frightens me when I dont understand what the teacher is saying in the English language. 9. I start to panic when I have to speak without preparation in English language class. 12. In English language class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know. 13. It embarrasses me to volunteer answers in my English language class. 14. I would not be nervous speaking the English language with native speakers.

25. English language class moves so quickly I worry about getting left behind. 26. I feel more tense and nervous in my English language class than in my other classes

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18. I feel confident when I speak in a English language class. 20. I can feel my heart pounding, when Im going to be called on in my English language class. 23. I always feel that the other students speak the English language better than I do. 24. I feel very selfconscious about speaking the English language in front of other students. 27. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking in my English language class. 29. I get nervous when I dont understand every word the language teacher says. 32. I would probably feel comfortable around native speakers of the English language.

28. When I am on my way to English language class, I feel very sure and relaxed. 30. I feel overwhelmed by the number of rules you have to learn to speak a English language.

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Appendix 5 Categorization of the SILL items

Memory Strategies
1. I think of relationships between what I already know and new things I learn in English. 2. I use new English words in a sentence so I can remember them. 3. I connect the sound of a new English word and an image or picture of the word to help me remember the word. 4. I remember a new English word by making a mental picture of a situation in which the word might be used. 5. I use rhymes to remember new English words. 6. I use flashcards to remember new English words.

Cognitive Strategies
10. I say or write new words several times.

Compensation Metacognitive Affective strategies Strategies Strategies

24. To understand unfamiliar English words, I make guesses. 30. I try to find as many ways as I can to use my English. 39. I try to relax whenever I feel afraid of using English

Social Strategies
45. If I do not understand something in English, I ask the other person to slow down or say it again. 46. I ask English speakers to correct me when I talk.

11. I try to talk like native English speakers.

25. When I cant think of a word during conversation in English, I use gestures. 26. I make up new words if I do not know the right ones in English.

31. I notice my English my mistakes and use that information to help me do better. 32. I pay attention when someone is speaking English.

12. I practice the sounds of English.

40. I encourage myself to speak even when I am afraid of making a mistake. 41. I give myself a reward or treat when I do well in English.

47. I practice English with other students.

13. I use the English words I know in different ways.

27. I read English without looking up every new word.

33. I try to find out how to be a better learner of English.

42. I notice if I am tense or nervous when I am studying English.

48. I ask for help form English speakers.

14. I start conversations in English.

28. I try to guess what the other person will say next in English. 29. If I cant think of an English word, I use a word or phrase that means the

34. I plan my schedule so I will have enough time to study English. 35. I look for people I can talk to in English.

15. I watch English language TV shows spoken in English or

43. I write down my feelings in a language learning diary. 44. I talk to someone else about how I feel when I am learning

49. I ask questions in English.

50. I try to learn about the culture of English speakers.

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7. I physically act out new English words. 8. I review English lessons often.

go to movies spoken in English. 16. I read for pleasure in English. 17. I write notes, messages, letters, or reports in English. 18. I first skim an English passage (read over the passage quickly) then go back and read carefully. 19. I look for words in my own language that are similar to new words in English. 20. I try to find patterns in English. 21. I find the meaning of an English word by dividing it into parts that I understand. 22. I try not to translate word-forword. 23. I make summaries of information that I hear or read in English.

same thing. 36. I look for opportunities to read as much as possible in English. 37. I have clear goals for improving my English skills. 38. I think about my progress in learning English.

English.

9. I remember new English words or phrases by remembering their location on the page, on the board, or on a street sign.

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Appendix 6 Interview Questions to ESP Students

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS to ESP STUDENTS 1 2 Could you please talk about your feelings regarding your ESP class? Are you ever given the opportunity to address any feelings you may have about your ESP class during the lesson? 3 What do you think may stress you or cause anxiety during your ESP classes? Can you describe a situation or event in which you felt anxiety during an ESP lesson? 4 Do you personally do anything to help you cope when you feel some anxiety in your ESP class? 5 6 Would you say that you enjoy your ESP class overall? When you make mistakes in class, how do your classmates react and how do these reactions make you feel? 7 8 How do you react when the ESP teacher corrects you? Do you believe that the ESP teacher plays a role in creating a comfortable atmosphere in the classroom? 9 What recommendations would you make to your ESP instructor to create a more comfortable, stress-free environment? 10 How do you feel about this interview? Do you think it will help you in any way? 11 Do you think Greek ESP students exhibit language anxiety? Why or why

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not? 12 13 What are your strengths and weaknesses in English? Are there any specific techniques you use to help you learn English more quickly and effectively? 14 Are you aware of your own learning styles? If so, do you think that they are catered to during the ESP class? 15 Do you think that renaming the ESP course (which in your department is referred to as English or Foreign Language), having more appropriate content and receiving a grade that would affect your overall GPA would make a difference in the way you see the course? 16 Do you think that English for Specific Purposes is a useful course in your university studies?

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Appendix 7 Interview Questions to ESP Instructors

INTERVIEW QUESTIONS to ESP INSTRUCORS 1 2 Do you feel the ESP course content reflects the real needs of students? Do you conduct a needs analysis prior to the commencement of your course, and if not what criteria do you use to decide about the needs of the students and the content of the course? 3 Do you collaborate with the subject specialists (professors) during the academic term? 4 5 6 Do you take into consideration your students learning styles? Do you try to employ techniques that will help your students employ LLS? Do you think renaming the ESP course (which in your department is referred to as English or Foreign Language), having more appropriate content and receiving a grade that would affect the overall GPA would make a difference in the way your students see the course? 7 Do you think it would be better for the sake of your ESP course to belong to the department you teach in rather than the Center for Foreign Language Teaching? 8 9 Have you had any formal training in the areas of ESP/EAP? What is your opinion about this studys results? (a summary of results of the study was presented to the interviewees). 10 What do you perceive as being the biggest challenge in teaching ESP?

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Appendix 8

Indicative Research on Anxiety

Summaries of some studies carried out in connection to language anxiety and their findings are presented below in chronological order.

Horwitz (1986) conducted a study so as to validate the FLCAS. The results of her study showed that about 25% of the variance in final grades was due to FL anxiety. The study suggested that a strong connetion might exist between FL anxiety and language proficiency.

Chapelle and Roberts (1986), found that there was no significant relationship between English class anxiety and beginning of semester proficiency. On the contrary, a negative relationship was found between class anxiety and end of semester proficiency.

Saito and Samimy (1996) investigated the role of language learner anxiety in relation to students language performance. Their findings showed that as educational level increases, anxiety plays a more important role.

Casado and Dereshiwsky (2001) studied the reported levels of anxiety among beginning foreign language students. The findings showed that there was no

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change in the levels of the anxiety of beginner students as their educational level increased.

Elkhafaifi (2005) chose an Arabic course and looked at the effects of general FL learning anxiety on achievement and the influence of listening anxiety on students' listening comprehension were examined. The study revealed that FL anxiety and listening anxiety negatively correlated with achievement. The study indicated significant negative correlations between FL learning anxiety and listening anxiety. The researcher concluded that lowering students' anxiety and tension helps to improve students' listening comprehension proficiency and their overall course performance.

Frantzen and Magnan (2005) conducted a study on true beginners and false beginners in first-semester university Spanish and French classes. The goal of the study was to find out whether there were any significant differences between true beginners and false beginners concerning their anxiety, grades, and intention to continue their language study. They also tried to identify those factors which increase anxiety or comfort. The FLCAS was used in this study as a quantitative instrument to measure the levels of anxiety students experience during their language classes. The study revealed that there were statistically significant differences between true beginners and false beginners in that the former were more anxious than the latter although none of them were considered highly

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anxious. It was also found that more true beginners planned to continue language study in comparison to false beginners.

In a study carried out by Meihua (2006) on anxiety in Chinese (non-English majors) undergraduate students who were at three different proficiency levels. The findings revealed that when speaking English in class, many subjects at each proficiency level experienced anxiety. The highest level of anxiety was reported when the students were responding to their teacher and the lowest level of anxiety when they were doing pair work. Less anxiety was also observed among more proficient learners.

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