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1. THE ROLE OF TELEVISION AND DISCUSSANT GROUP IN POLITICAL OPINION PROCESS\: UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECT OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION, TELEVISION, AND POLITICAL EFFICACY IN THE EDUCATED YOUTH.........................................................................................3

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THE ROLE OF TELEVISION AND DISCUSSANT GROUP IN POLITICAL OPINION PROCESS: UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECT OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION, TELEVISION, AND POLITICAL EFFICACY IN THE EDUCATED YOUTH
Pengarang: Rahman, Bushra H, PhD; Saeed, Shazia. Info publikasi: Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business 4.9 (Jan 2013): 584-602. Link dokumen ProQuest Abstrak: This study explored the various complexities involved in the relationship between television, interpersonal communication and political opinion formation among educated Pakistani youth. Drawing upon filter hypothesis, this research determined the role of interpersonal communication, political efficacy, and television consumption in the political opinion formation. University students were the targeted population of the survey. Sample was drawn through multi-stage sampling. Findings revealed that though educated youth use television most for political information, no significant relation was found between television exposure and political opinion. At the same time findings also showed that interaction with the discussant group is also not a significant factor in their opinion making process, as the interaction with their discussant group is very nominal. However, their political efficacy has a strong relationship with their interaction with the discussant group. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]

Teks lengkap: Headnote Abstract This study explored the various complexities involved in the relationship between television, interpersonal communication and political opinion formation among educated Pakistani youth. Drawing upon filter hypothesis, this research determined the role of interpersonal communication, political efficacy, and television consumption in the political opinion formation. University students were the targeted population of the survey. Sample was drawn through multi-stage sampling. Findings revealed that though educated youth use television most for political information, no significant relation was found between television exposure and political opinion. At the same time findings also showed that interaction with the discussant group is also not a significant factor in their opinion making process, as the interaction with their discussant group is very nominal. However, their political efficacy has a strong relationship with their interaction with the discussant group. Keywords: ROLE ; TELEVISION AND DISCUSSANT GROUP ; POLITICAL OPINION PROCESS; UNDERSTANDING ; EFFECT ; INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION; TELEVISION; POLITICAL EFFICACY ; EDUCATED YOUTH Introduction Over a period of time news media is established to be an important requisite of democratic society. The importance of the media in the context of opinion and meaning making has become manifold. Hence, research on the quality of news contents and its possible influence on politics and political opinion has become a major concern for the scholars of communication. The view we are making of other people, nations and societies is mostly in the light of the information we are receiving from the media (Lippman,1922 cited in Stockwell, 2006). Along with mass media, much of what we know and opine of the local, national, and global politics and political systems around us is gathered from other sources of communications including interpersonal and group communication. The comparative effectiveness of these mediums of communication regarding opinion formation has been argued by many scholars. There are a number of studies testifying that mass media has a 15 July 2013 Page 3 of 14 ProQuest

strong influence on people' opinions (Boomgaarden &Vliegenthart, 2007; Chan A. 2007; Robbennoltl &Studebaker, 2003; Robinson, 1976 ), particularly when media coverage is overwhelmingly one-sided (Entman, 2003) Nevertheless there are also a number of other researches and particularly experimental studies which do not confirm that mass media have strong power to change people's attitudes (Avery, 2009). Findings in the media effects literature also indicate that individuals are not passive consumers of political news, rather their existing political dispositions moderates the influence of media messages. It is argued that individual views are not as much influenced by the media as by the general attitudes towards an issue (Brettschneider; Mair, &Mair, 2003). Political conversation can exert influence on voting decision as a force that can intervene in the process of influence exerted by distant sources of political information i.e. mass media (Schmitt and Beck, 2003). The Columbia studies posed interpersonal communication as an alternative to mass media influence (Lazarsfeld et al., 1948 cited in McLeod, Kosicki &McLeod, 2008). Many researchers called it "synthetic competition", as media and interpersonal channels have convergent or corresponding relationships. What people watch in the media can inspire interpersonal discussions. Although not very efficient in conveying information about issues, the media do seem to stimulate interpersonal discussion and interest in the campaign (McLeod et al., 2008). Interpersonal discussion helps people decide how to vote and may stimulate turnout except where the others in the conversational network are of the opposite party. Even discussion with strangers may affect voting. More substantial progress over the past decade has been made in research on macro - systemic to microindividual effects. The structure of the person's discussion network influences participation (Huckfeldt &Sprague, 1995; McLeod, Daily, et al., 1996). Size of discussion networks influence traditional participation not only directly but also indirectly by stimulating public affairs media use, issue discussion and reflection about the content of news, and issue talk (McLeod et al., 2008). The diversity or heterogeneity of network composition also affects these communication processes and knowledge of local affairs (McLeod et al., 2008; Sotirovic &McLeod, 2001). This study explores whether for the educated youth, exposure to television has an effect on the political opinion making process on the youth and what role does interpersonal communication has on their opinion climate. Political efficacy relation with the political opinion, television news exposure and interaction with discussant group is also studied. Literature Review Researchers in the domains of mass media and interpersonal communications' effects have sought to analyse their impact mainly in political sphere emphasizing election campaigns (Goidel, Shields &Peffley, 1997; Boer, 2001; Tsfati, 2003; Cho, 2005; Kwak, Williams, Wang, &Lee, 2005; Sietman, 2005; Hoffman, 2007; Liu, 2008; Southwell &Yzer, 2009; David, 2009). Other major areas of investigation revealed by literature review were health (Dohnt &Tiggemann, 2006; Hyang-Sook &Donna, 2009; Woelfel, Hernandez &Allen, n.d.) and advertising (Horner, 2008). Mostly previous studies have either compared interpersonal and media influence separately or in terms of their interaction with each other to create or reinforce an impact. Various theoretical perspectives have been utilized to analyze this phenomenon including filter hypothesis of media influence, MacKuen's game theory (Kim, Wyatt &Katz, 1999), two-step flow of communication by Paul Lazarsfeld (Weimann, Tustin, Vuuren &Joubert, 2007), Zeller's theory of public opinion dynamics (De Vreese &Boomgaarden, 2006; Hofrman et al, 2007), selective exposure, and Noelle-Neumann's spiral of silence theory etc. It has been generally assumed that interpersonal influence contributes as a major source of reinforcing existing opinions along with information flow from mass 15 July 2013 Page 4 of 14 ProQuest

media. Methodologically, most commonly used method of research was telephonic survey and at times, researchers also declared it incapable of establishing causal relationship between the variables addressed. Drawing upon the concepts of public sphere, theory of spiral of silence by Nolle - Neumann and MacKuen's Game theory, Kim, Wyatt &Katz (1999) examined the conditions that encourage conversations about the public affairs and the kind of effects conversations have on the quality of opinions. Research revealed that the frequency of media exposure to general and issue specific information is closely related with the frequency of political conversation. Willingness to argue with those who have different opinions is influenced not only by majority perception but also and more by news media use and political conversation. This tends to negate the concept of spiral of silence. News media use and political conversation have positive effects on quality of opinion both separately and together. News media use and political conversation were closely associated with participatory activities, but more so with campaigning type of political participation than complaining type. Scheufele (2002) found that political talk helps citizens to extract certain information from mass media which ultimately influence their ability and willingness to participate in politics. Research revealed significant interactions between interpersonal discussions on politics and media use on political participation. The impact of newspaper hard news on political knowledge was higher for participants who more frequently engaged in political discussions than television hard news use. On the other hand, Schmitt-Beck (2003) contends that political conversation can exert influence on voting decision as a force that can intervene in the process of influence exerted by distant sources of political information i.e. mass media. Moreover, political predispositions including partisanship and ideological identifications function as mental devices for screening and filtering the inflow of political information conveyed through mass media. This study tested contingent condition of media influences. The researchers found that personal communication in homogenously concordant discussant networks reinforced the media influence. And if the discussants gave no advice or if no discussant was available, the likelihood of accepting media messages was much reduced. Media influences whose direction contradicted the prevailing political climates in voters' personal environment were almost always weaker. Readers of newspapers perceived media's favoritism towards particular parties and candidates more than TV viewers. In another study, Yang &Stone (2003) comparatively analyzed agenda of people more reliant on mass media for news &public affairs information and less media-reliant audience. They found that 80% respondents relied mostly on mass media for news and public affairs information and 20% on Interpersonal communication. However, their agenda remained the same. McDevitt addressed adolescent interest in election campaign, and found that once stimulated by news media use, motivates them to engage parents in political conversations. By initiating discussion, adolescents can generate information from parents as a basis of comparison reflection and debate that may foster party and ideological identity (2005). Theorizing on Family Communication Pattern (FCP), the researcher tested a model of developmental provocation that asserts that adolescents when exposed to an upsurge of political stimulation initiate identity formation. The study also found that the amount of news exposure and active processing of news significantly related to child-initiated discussions with parents whereas school discussion and debate viewing fails as a predictor. De Vreese &Boomgaarden (2006) tested Zaller's theory of public opinion dynamics and found that exposure and attention to news affected politically less sophisticated individuals due to their one-sided leanings. There were no media effects amongst highly politically sophisticated audience. No media effects were demonstrated of two-sided information flow. Interpersonal communication affected individuals with a high level of political 15 July 2013 Page 5 of 14 ProQuest

sophistication. Eveland &Thomson (2006) investigated aspects of political discussion beyond overall frequency, might contribute to knowledge of politics. It found political interest was a significant predictor of knowledge, such as greater interest produced greater knowledge. Among media variables, only newspaper use was positive predictor, neither TV nor news elaboration. The frequency with which individuals talk about politics with others increases knowledge. The degree, to which respondents reported making mental connections with information from their political discussions, increases knowledge. Taking others' perspectives during conversations does not increase knowledge. Hoffman et al (2007) contend that the process of public opinion formation is dynamic and complex affected by multiple factors including relevant political predispositions, media use, interpersonal discussions, and perceptions of community opinion etc Relevant predispositions were found to be a strong predictor of favourability towards the ballot issue and a marginally important predictor of opinion strength. The overall influence of time at the intrapersonal filters appeared to be minimal. More exposure to media led the respondents to have less favourable opinion however, strong. No interaction was found between time and media use. Frequency of discussion was not a significant predictor of issue favourability. Discussion frequency was significantly associated with opinion strength as those who talked more about the issue held stronger opinions. The association between discussion frequency and perception of community support was marginal. Each of three filters impacted overall opinion strength. Feldman &Price (2008) explained general political knowledge as the strongest predictor of election candidate issue knowledge followed by political interest and partisanship. Those who are more engaged and politically sophisticated are most likely to be more knowledgeable about candidates and issue positions. Newspaper and TV news use fail to explain a significant amount of variance in issue knowledge. Garrett (2009) contends that reinforcement seeking and challenge avoidance have consequences for attitude formation and opinion strength. Individuals are more likely to read listen to, or view a piece of information the more it supports their opinion, and less likely to attend to it the more it challenges their position. Control over opinion exposure is inversely correlated with exposure to opinion-challenging information. Moreover, individual's social networks are unlikely to be a source of exposure to cross-cutting political attitudes. Candidate strong support levels do seem to influence use of sites favouring the preferred candidate. In contrast, strength of candidate support does not seem to have much influence of the use of website favouring the candidate opposed. Strong supporters are more likely to use opinion-reinforcing websites than weaker supporters. Strong support is less likely to deter use of opinion-challenging sources than to promote use of opinion-reinforcing sources. It also showed that control over the information environment promotes exposure to opinion-reinforcing information and the tendency to avoid opinion challenges is comparatively weaker. Garrett (2009) None of the above mentioned studies analyzed content and tone of interpersonal communication that are claimed to be the main source of influencing opinions. Secondly, it has been recommended by De Vreese &Boomgaarden (2006) that future research should integrate interpersonal communication patterns and media use in one model along with contents of both and when and why their effects occur as stated. Hoffman et al (2007) suggest that future research should apply model discussed in their paper to broader events and more heterogeneous communities to test whether these finding hold true. Theoretical framework The role of mass media in making political decisions though has been widely researched; the role of the 15 July 2013 Page 6 of 14 ProQuest

intervening variables which play an important role in mitigating the influence of mass communication on audience is very complex and multi-faceted. It is problematic to bring into one study all the intervening variables that engage in opinion making process. However for the present study Elihu Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld's pioneer investigation of 'Personal influence' in which personal communication, within the micro-context of political discussants networks is seen as a factor influencing the messages coming from mass media political reporting. Katz and Lazarsfeld's 'filter hypothesis' maintains that personal communication mediates the influence of mass communication on individual voters, reinforcing or blocking the impact of media information, depending on the evaluative implications of that information and on the political composition of voters' discussant networks. (Cited in Schmitt-Beck, 2003). According to the filter hypothesis, for individuals political conversation is more than just an alternative channel for receiving political information, supplementing the mass media. It also fulfils a crucial 'meta-communicative' function by telling them whether or not media messages are valid, and whether or not they should therefore be accepted. Personal communication thus assumes a role that is functionally equivalent to the role of political predispositions. Taking the cue from Katz and Lazarsfeld, study examines the relationships of political efficacy, discussant group and television exposure in the political opinion making process in the educated youth of Pakistan. Seen from the perspective of political mass communication this study contributes to the understanding of the conditions which mitigates the influences of mass communication. From the perspective of personal communication the study aims to see the influence of personal communication on the political opinion. Hypotheses HI. There is a significant relationship between the discussant group and political opinion? H2. The relationship between television exposure and political opinion is weak or insignificant. H3. There is a significant relationship between political efficacy and political opinion. Research Questions RQ1. Is there a relationship between media exposure and political efficacy? RQ2. Is there a significant relationship between political efficacy and discussant group? RQ3. There is a significant relationship between media exposure and discussant group? Methodology A survey was conducted from university students of Punjab. A list of public sector universities of Punjab was prepared using the list of HEC. The sample was drawn through multistage sampling technique. A total of 650 questionnaires were sent through post to randomly selected public universities. Our collaborators from these universities returned 470 filled questionnaires that made the response rate 70.8%. Demographic composition of these students as well as their age and educational background were rather homogenous hence they constituted a representative sample of university students of public sector in Pakistan. A questionnaire was developed as an instrument for data collection. Independent variables Respondents were asked about the components of the proposed filters, including demographic variables, media use, exposure to television news channels, frequency of discussion within their discussant group, as well as their belief about their understanding of political affairs. Since the study considered only the youth the demographic details of age and education were statistically controlled. It ranged from 18 to 20 years of age who had completed either 14 or 15 years of education. In addition to standard demographic question regarding gender, age and years of schooling, researchers evaluated the use of media for political exposure. And to 15 July 2013 Page 7 of 14 ProQuest

assess the television exposure, the number of hours spent in front of television and the kind of programme they preferred to watch. The respondents who watched television for news and information more than other reasons were graded as high users of television. The other predictor interpersonal discussant group, was based on non-summated items. The aim of this variable was to elicit the characteristics of the interpersonal environment of the respondents where they usually discussed political information for the sake of opinion formation and consolidation. It was based on the frequency and the network of their discussant network. The researchers measured respondents 'political efficacy' on a six item scale allowing for a composite score construction for the sake of consequent analysis. It comprised of the selfevaluation of their confidence in understanding political affairs. Questions were asked on how much they qualified themselves to participate in politics; understanding of political affairs of the country; the ability to be effective in public office; a comparative better understanding of politics than others. Response options were ranged on four point scale, with higher values representing more political efficacy. Dependent variable The outcome variable, political opinion, measured how favourable respondents were toward the US policies for Pakistan with reference to Hilary Clinton's visit to Pakistan. Response options ranged on four point scale from 'to great extent' to 'not at all' with higher values representing more unfavourablity (Scale: 1-4; M=3.14; SD=.610). In other words if the respondents said 'to great extent' held strong opinions about the US policies towards Pakistan. Because this issue reached its culmination during Hilary Clinton's visit it seemed appropriate to use the opinion towards the US as the criterion variable. This criterion is referred to as political opinion. This issue was taken as the dependent variable, for the period in which the study was conducted US policies towards Pakistan were hot topics in the television news and talk shows. Results The survey method of 470 university students was conducted. Fifty six percent were female respondents and forty four percent were male respondents. In comparative media wise use out of 470 respondents 309 (65.7%) used television for political information whereas radio was used least (1.1)% for political information. Newspaper is used as a source of information by 84% respondents and internet by 15.3%. In the Pearson's correlation test between the television exposure and political opinion the relationship is not significant. The findings (Table 1) indicate that the exposure to television had no relation with the opinion on political issues. Similarly, there is hardly any relation between television exposure and interaction with the discussant group. Even between the discussant group and political opinion there is hardly any relationship. It indicates that interaction with the discussant group had more or less no relation with the political opinion projected by television. However, in the relationship between political efficacy and discussant group a strong relationship was found. In other words it means that youth who considered themselves well qualified in politics tends to interact with their discussant group. Findings in Table 1 also show that weak relationship exists between political efficacy and political opinion, which means that those who considered themselves to be well aware of the political affairs were not particularly influenced by the political opinion projected by the television. Interestingly, political efficacy and television exposure has a negative correlation. It indicates that respondents which considered themselves to be more politically aware exposed themselves less to television. First hypothesis stated that discussant group would be associated with favourability toward the political opinion. Linear Regression analysis was conducted to evaluate the prediction of discussant group index from the overall strength index of political opinion. Results show that discussant group does not predict, the political opinion. First hypothesis is partially accepted as there is a moderate relationship between political discussant group and 15 July 2013 Page 8 of 14 ProQuest

political opinion (Table 2). Second hypothesis stated that there is a weak or no relationship between television exposure and political opinion. Findings show that a very weak relationship exists in the two variables (Table 1) and in the linear regression analysis applied on television exposure as predictor for political opinion, results show that television exposure does not predict the political opinion (Table 3). In other words it means that youth were not influenced in their political opinion by the extent of which they exposed themselves to television news channels. Third hypothesis stated that a significant relation exists between political efficacy and political opinion. This hypothesis was also rejected. Findings in Table 4 show that political efficacy is also not a strong predictor of political opinion. Researchers also posed three research questions. First research question explored whether political efficacy was a strong predictor to media exposure? Results show that there is a weak negative relationship between political efficacy and television exposure (Table 3). Linear Regression analysis was applied on political efficacy for predictor on television exposure. Results (Table 5) show that political efficacy is a weak negative predictor of television exposure. Hence, findings show that more the youth feels that they are politically aware, less they are viewing television. This finding also correlates with the finding that television viewing is not a strong predictor of political opinion. Second research question explored whether a significant relationship existed between political efficacy and discussant group? Results show that though there is a strong relationship between political efficacy and discussant group (Table 3), in the linear regression analysis (Table 6) applied on political efficacy for predictor on discussant group, political efficacy is a predictor of discussant group. Hence, findings show that youth who considered themselves to be politically qualified to understand political affairs preferred to interact with their discussant group. Third question explored whether a significant relationship existed between television exposure and discussant group. Findings show that a weak relationship exists in the two variables (Table 1) and in the linear regression analysis applied on television exposure as predictor for discussant group, results show that television exposure does not predict the discussant group interaction (Table 7). In other words it means that youth who interacted with their discussant group on politics did not heavily expose themselves to television. Discussion The study examined political opinion at three key points in the university students of Punjab. Students' age and educational level were kept as controlled variables. Using linear regression for the analysis, researchers examined three filters that contributed to political opinion. The filters examined were television exposure, discussant group and political efficacy. It proposed to particularly study the role of discussant group in the political making process,for a sizeable studies indicate that active and critical role played by the audience in their interaction with news plays a vital role in the opinion formation of the audience.The implications of each of the three filters are detailed below. Findings show that youth preferred television for information on political issues compare to other means of communication. However, in examining the discussant group, television exposure and political efficacy as predictors for the criterion political opinions it was found out that neither of them had a strong association. Television exposure and political efficacy had a very insignificant relationship and was not a predictor of the political opinion. In the linear regression analysis the discussant group had a weak relation and was also a weak predictor of political opinion. Question that posed to see the relationship between political efficacy and television exposure showed that a 15 July 2013 Page 9 of 14 ProQuest

weak relationship existed between the two. It was found out that more the respondents felt that they have a good understanding of political affairs lesser they exposed themselves to television. However, a significant relationship existed between political efficacy and discussant group. In other words respondents who had a strong belief that they are well aware of political affairs preferred to interact with their discussant group. Another significant finding was that hardly any relation existed between television exposure and discussant group. It shows that youth who interacted within their discussant group did not expose themselves excessively to television. As discussed earlier that political opinion is a complex process with many variables at work. The findings of the survey show that in the political opinion one cannot with certainty say that any one variable plays an important role. It can vary from situation to situation and from place to place. As the present study findings show the young educated respondents were hardly discussing the political, economic, or religious issues with their discussant group, so the question of mitigating the effect of the media in the political opinion making process does not arise. CONCLUSION The present study tried to examine the association of three variables on political opinion. Finding revealed that none of them has a strong relation with the political opinion. Results indicate that education and age are also important variables when it comes to understanding the relationship between media exposure, interaction with discussant group and political opinion. Finding also show that though the educated youth of Pakistan watch television for news and interact with their discussant group, they do not have any significant relationship with the way they form their political opinion. It shows that there are other intervening variables which play a role in political opinion making process. Seen from the perspective of mass communication and personal communication, this study contributes to the understanding that there are myriad varied variables which affect the political opinion process. Findings also suggest that influence of television, in the educated youth, in the political opinion is not necessarily affected by interaction with the discussant group. It is not just television alone or interaction with the discussant group that influence the political opinion; education and age are other variables which affect the political opinion process. Though in a number of studies it shows that interpersonal communication does mitigate the influence of mass communication on audience, the education and age are important intervening variables. These variables affect the political discussant networks influence on political opinion process. In other words, the filter hypothesis which states that for individuals discussions on political issues is just not a source of political communication but also a way of telling them to accept the messages from media as valid and thus be accepted, cannot be taken as same for everyone, the age and education of the political discussant group are significant intervening variables which affects the way in which interpersonal communication may or may not mitigate the influence of the political messages from the mass media. References References Avery, J. M. (2009). Videomalaise or virtuous circle?: The influence of the news media on political trust. The international journal of press/politics , 410-431. Berkowitz,D; Y.Limor, L; SingerJ. (2004). Across cultural look at serving the public interest. Journalism and mass communicaiton quarterly 82 (3) , 159-181. Boer, D. C. , Velthuijsen, A. (2001). Participation in conversation about news. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 13 (2). 140-158 Retrieved from Francis &Taylor online journals database 15 July 2013 Page 10 of 14 ProQuest

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Tsfati, Y. (2003). Debating the Debate : The Impact of Exposure to Debate News Coverage and Its Interaction with Exposure to the Actual Debate. The International Journal of Press/Politics, 8(3):70-86 DOI: 10.1177/1081180X03253458 Weimann, G., Tustin, D. H. , Vuuren, D. V., &Joubert. F. P. R. (2007). Looking for opinion leaders: traditional vs. Modern measures in traditional societies. International Journal of Public Opinion Research, 19(2). 173-190. DOI: 10.1 093/ijpor/edm005 Woelfel, J., Hernandez, D., &Allen, R. L. (n.d). Media and interpersonal effects on attitude and behaviour. Retrieved November 15, 2010 from http ://www.galileoco . com/literature/mediaandinterpersonal.pdf Yang, K., &Stone, G. (2003). The powerful role of interpersonal communication in Agenda Setting. Mass Communication &Society, 6 (1), 57-74 DOI: 10.1207/S15327825MC0601 5 Patricia A. Hurley (1994)The Journal of Politics, Vol. 56, No. 2 (May, 1994), pp. 528531 Published by: Cambridge University Press on behalf of the Southern Political Science AssociationStable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2132159 .Accessed: 26/05/2011 04:12 AuthorAffiliation Bushra H Rahman (Ph.D) Assistant Professsor Institute of Communication Studies University of the Punjab Shazia Saeed Assistant professor Head of Mass Communiction Department Kinnaird College for Women

Subjek: Studies; Interpersonal communication; Impact analysis; Opinions; University students; Politics Lokasi: Pakistan Klasifikasi: 9130: Experiment/theoretical treatment; 9179: Asia & the Pacific; 8306: Schools and educational services; 1210: Politics & political behavior Judul: THE ROLE OF TELEVISION AND DISCUSSANT GROUP IN POLITICAL OPINION PROCESS: UNDERSTANDING THE EFFECT OF INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION, TELEVISION, AND POLITICAL EFFICACY IN THE EDUCATED YOUTH Pengarang: Rahman, Bushra H, PhD; Saeed, Shazia Judul publikasi: Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research In Business Volume: 4 Edisi: 9 Halaman: 584-602 Jumlah halaman: 19 Tahun publikasi: 2013 15 July 2013 Page 13 of 14 ProQuest

Tanggal publikasi: Jan 2013 Tahun: 2013 Penerbit: Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research Tempat publikasi: Belleville Subjek publikasi: Business And Economics ISSN: 20737122 Jenis sumber: Scholarly Journals Bahasa publikasi: English Jenis dokumen: Feature Fitur dokumen: Tables; References ID dokumen ProQuest: 1316270620 URL Dokumen: http://search.proquest.com/docview/1316270620?accountid=25704 Hak cipta: Copyright Institute of Interdisciplinary Business Research Jan 2013 Terakhir diperbarui: 2013-03-16 Basis data: ABI/INFORM Global; ProQuest Psychology Journals

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