Electropanting (penyaduran) Electroplating is a process that uses electrical current to reduce dissolved metal cations so that they form

a coherent metal coating on an electrode. The term is also used for electrical oxidation of anions onto a solid subtrate, as in the formation silver chloride on silver wire to make silver/silver-chloride electrodes. Electroplating is primarily used to change the surface properties of an object (e.g. abrasion and wear resistance, corrosion protection,lubricity, aesthetic qualities, etc.), but may also be used to build up thickness on undersized parts or to form objects by electroforming. The process used in electroplating is called electrodeposition. It is analogous to a galvanic cell acting in reverse. The part to be plated is the cathodeof the circuit. In one technique, the anode is made of the metal to be plated on the part. Both components are immersed in a solution called anelectrolyte containing one or more dissolved metal salts as well as other ions that permit the flow of electricity. A power supply supplies a direct currentto the anode, oxidizing the metal atoms that comprise it and allowing them to dissolve in the solution. At the cathode, the dissolved metal ions in the electrolyte solution are reduced at the interface between the solution and the cathode, such that they "plate out" onto the cathode. The rate at which the anode is dissolved is equal to the rate at which the cathode is plated, vis-a-vis the current flowing through the circuit. In this manner, the ions in the electrolyte bath are continuously replenished by the anode.[1] Other electroplating processes may use a non-consumable anode such as lead or carbon. In these techniques, ions of the metal to be plated must be periodically replenished in the bath as they are drawn out of the solution.[2] The most common form of electroplating is used for creating coins such as pennies, which are small zinc plates covered in a layer of copper [3] Electroplating changes the chemical, physical, and mechanical properties of the workpiece. An example of a chemical change is when nickel plating improves corrosion resistance. An example of a physical change is a change in the outward appearance. An example of a mechanical change is a change in tensile strength or surface hardness which is a required attribute in tooling industry.[5] Electroplating is a useful process. It is widely used in industry for coating metal objects with a thin layer of a different metal. The layer of metal deposited has some desired property, which metal of the object lacks. For example chromium plating is done on many objects such as car parts, bath taps, kitchen gas burners, wheel rims and many others. Pengekstrakan logam (Extraction of metal) Metals are often extracted from the Earth by means of mining, resulting in ores that are relatively rich sources of the requisite elements. Ore is located by prospecting techniques, followed by the exploration and examination of deposits.

Mineral sources are generally divided into surface mines, which are mined by excavation using heavy equipment, and subsurface mines. Once the ore is mined, the metals must be extracted, usually by chemical or electrolytic reduction. Pyrometallurgy uses high temperatures to convert ore into raw metals, while hydrometallurgyemploys aqueous chemistry for the same purpose. The methods used depend on the metal and their contaminants. When a metal ore is an ionic compound of that metal and a non-metal, the ore must usually be smelted heated with a reducing agent to extract the pure metal. Many common metals, such as iron, are smelted using carbon as a reducing agent. Some metals, such as aluminium and sodium, have no commercially practical reducing agent, and are extracted using electrolysis instead.[8][9] Sulfide ores are not reduced directly to the metal but are roasted in air to convert them to oxides. Penulenan logam (Purification metal)

In most cases, metals and their ores occur in the ground as part of complex mixtures that also contain rocks, sand, clay, silt and other impurities. The first step in producing the metal for commercial use, therefore, is to separate the ore from waste materials with which it occurs. The term ore is used to describe a compound of a metal that contains enough of that metal to make it economically practical to extract the metal from the compound. A steel worker sampling the quality of "hot steel" during production. Photograph by John Olson. Stock Market. Reproduced by permission. One example of the way in which an ore can be purified is the froth flotation method used with ores of copper, zinc, and some other metals. In this method, impure ore taken from the ground is first ground into a powder and then mixed with water and a frothing agent such as pine oil. Then a stream of air is blown through the mixture, causing it to bubble and froth. In the frothing process, impurities such as sand and rock are wetted by the water and sink to the bottom of the container. The metal ore does not adsorb water but does adsorb the pine oil. The oil-coated ore floats to the top of the mixture, where it can be skimmed off.

Penyediaan bahan kimia (Manufacture of chemicals)

There has been a rapid growth in the development of the chemicals that are used for various industrial applications in the last few decades. These chemical products are used for different purposes like engine fuels, paints and dyes, cosmetics, soaps, insulators, detergents and so on. They are also used vastly for various research purposes in military

warfare. It is the way that these chemicals are put to use that determines whether they can be regarded as industrial chemicals or otherwise. Variety of industrial chemicals: There are numerous varieties of chemicals that are being put to use for the manufacture of different commercial chemical products that are highly useful to man. Some of these chemicals include: Phosphoric acid: It is a very commonly used chemical that is necessary for the manufacture of fertilizers and several food items like soft drinks and others. Sulphuric Acid: This useful chemical is used for the removal of dangerous substances and disables the effects of alkaline substances. Chlorine: Another popular chemical used widely for the manufacture of the bleaching agents. Sodium carbonate: This chemical is used in large numbers for the manufacture of commercial chemical products like cleaning agents and glass as well. Oxygen: This is a very necessary chemical used an oxidizer in the reaction mixtures. Urea: A very common chemical used for the production of fertilizers and cattle feed. Methanol: This chemical produced from carbon monoxide and hydrogen is used mainly as a reactant for the manufacture of formaldehyde, methyl terbutyl ether (MTBE) and acetic acid. Aluminium Sulphate: It is used for the treatment of waste waters in the industries and also as a pH buffer in the paper industries. Nitrogen: A very useful chemical that is necessary for the prevention of the

combination of Oxygen with vapor so as to avoid the risk of explosions. Potash: This is another widely used industrial chemical that aids in the manufacture of ceramics, glass and soaps. Some other commonly used chemicals and their uses: Some of the other commonly used chemicals that help in the production of various chemical productspropylene oxide, ethylene oxide, acetone, vinyl chloride, carbon black and many others. These industrial chemicals have really wide spread uses in numerous sectors of economy that include manufacturing of the consumer goods, service sectors, agriculture, construction and so on. These chemicals have huge number of consumers spread all over the world who put them to a varied range of uses.

Penyaduran plastik (Electroplating plastic)

Use of Plastics
Since the end of the Second World War the use of plastics has increased remarkably due to a systematic exploitation of their principal advantages, i.e. lightness, flexibility and toughness, ease of fabrication of complex components, and excellent surface quality as fabricated. This has led, in a very wide range of applications, to the replacement of metals with plastics as materials of construction.

Applications of Electroplated Plastics The Automotive Industry

The initial motivation for the development of processes for electroplating on to plastics came from the automotive industry and this market sector has consistently been by far the largest user of the product. Once a successful process had been developed it rapidly became accepted by the industry, and by the early 1970s large areas of nickel/chromium plated plastics trim were appearing on vehicles. A whole range of components were produced in plated plastics, including radiator grilles, window trim, name badges, front/rear lamp units, mirror housings, interior trim, and auxiliary lamp units. This trend was particularly evident with vehicles manufactured in North America, where bright trim has always been more popular than in Europe. The use of plated plastics in the car industry reached a peak in the late 1970s and early 1980s. After that time the use of all types of bright trim declined as the design of cars changed in order to achieve a more aerodynamic profile to improve fuel consumption. This was particularly evident with European cars where nickel/chromium exterior trim was almost completely eliminated except on luxury models. This eventually produced a generation of cars that were very similar in appearance. So by the early 1990s designers were seeking ways of creating a degree of visual individuality and of restoring marque identity. It is perhaps ironic that one of the most effective ways in which this has been achieved has been by restoring bright trim, albeit within the constraints of good aerodynamic shape. This has been used particularly in high profile areas of the vehicle such as the radiator grille. This resurgence of application in the motor industry has produced a remarkable expansion of the plating on plastics industry over the last three to four years. It is estimated that in Europe as a whole the industry has grown by 50% since 1993, whilst in the UK in particular the increase has been even more dramatic, producing a doubling of capacity over that period.

Domestic Fittings
After the automotive market, the next most important application for plated plastics is for domestic fittings where the hygienic qualities of the finish and ease with which it can be kept clean are important factors. Items commonly produced in plated plastics include

bath and wash basin taps, sink wastes, shower fittings, bathroom accessories, and kitchen accessories. Other significant uses include knobs and buttons for the electronics and white goods industry. In France in particular the production of high quality perfume bottle caps in very large numbers represents a very important sector of the market. A new application appearing recently in the UK is for bar fittings and drinks dispenser units.

Penganodan (Anodizing)

Applications

A few of the more important applications are described below, as well as new nanotechnology applications that may grow in importance.
Clear anodize

Clear anodize usually means sulfuric acid anodize followed by hot water seal. This is the most widely used anodize coating. It is used on some aluminum alloys as the surface finish for automotive trim. It is also the surface for commercial photolithography plates. The photoemulsion adheres to the anodize coating, and the printing pattern is made by selective dissolution of emulsion. Printing ink adheres to the emulsion and water adheres to exposed oxide. The oxide surface is wear resistant and stands the rigors of high speed printing presses. Immersing the anodize coating in a dye solution before sealing creates an attractive colored surface for consumer products.
Hard anodize

Hard anodize is generally made by anodizing in sulfuric acid at low temperature. This produces a coating with large cells and small diameter pores. The coating is extremely hard and durable and is used for engineering applications such as bearing surfaces. A thin phosphoric acid anodize coating is used as an adhesive bonding primer coat on aircraft and aerospace alloy sheets. This is an excellent surface for the epoxy adhesive and also improves corrosion resistance. Chromic acid anodize is used for optimum corrosion resistance for severe applications, such as aerospace and military use, but because chrome, in some form, is a carcinogen this process is being phased out.

Architectural applications

Architectural applications for anodized aluminum include door and window trim and exterior structural panels. These surfaces must be stable for many years under harsh atmospheric conditions. Neither clear nor dyed coatings are satisfactory. Coatings ranging in color from gold to dark bronze are made by "integral coloring" that is achieved by using certain organic acids in the anodizing bath. The organic anions become incorporated in the oxide and cause it to darken. Similar hues are produced by a two-step anodizing process in which an ac anodizing follows the dc sulfuric acid step. In the ac step a metal, usually tin or nickel, is deposited at the bottom of the pores. The metal deposit changes the optical properties of the coating and the thickness of the metal deposit is controlled to produce the desired color by optical interference. These coatings have superior long term stability compared with integral colored coatings.
Nanotechnology applications

The importance of surface texture in the development of pores has recently been dramatically demonstrated, and the results open new applications for anodized structures. A hexagonal array of nanoscale (on the order of billionth of a meter) depressions was impressed on an aluminum surface using a silicon carbide die fabricated using electron beam lithography. Feature interval was 70-500 nm, feature depth was 200 nm, and feature width was of similar magnitude. This sequence is illustrated in the sketch in Figure 8. In this particular experiment, anodization in oxalic acid solution produced perfectly ordered arrays of pores corresponding to the patterned texture. This is shown in Figure 9, Fig. 8. Process for fabrication of where the oxide on the left grew on the patterned ideally ordered porous oxide. Black structure is SiC (silicon carbide) mold surface, in contrast to the oxide on the right that grew on a surface that was not patterned. used to make ordered array of convex dimples in aluminum surface Adjustment of process conditions produces prior to anodization (From Asoh et precisely ordered pore arrays with dimensions al., seeBibliography). suitable for use as 2-D (two-dimensional) photonic crystals in the visible wavelength.

Pores can be used as templates to make structures such as nanowires and nanotubes. To make nanowires the pores are filled with a metal, or other material, bycathodic deposition or electroless deposition. Tubes are made by coating the pore walls; addition of functional groups to the tube interior wall creates tubular nanoreactors. The wires and Fig. 10. Carbon tubes prepared by pyrolytic tubes are recovered by dissolving the deposition of carbon in porous aluminum oxide (From T. Kyotani, L. Tsai, and A. Tomita, Chemistry alumina (aluminum oxide) template in a reagent that does not attack the of Materials, Vol. 8, p 2109, 1996). nanostructures. Figure 10 shows pyrolytic carbon tubes created by o flowing propylene at a temperature of 800 C (1472oF) through a porous alumina membrane that had been separated from its metal substrate. The alumina was then dissolved in hydrofluoric acid solution.

Rawatan sisa (Effluent treatment)