Blast Design and Assessment for Surface Mines and Quarries

Authors: Alan Cameron P.Eng (Author), Bill Forsyth P.Eng (Author), Dr. Tom Klein e P.Eng. (Author)
This is a practical course that provides a review of blasting theory and blasting products, and emphasizes the design, assessment, optimization and safety of blasting practices for open cast mining and quarrying. Topics are presented in an applied manner and address the impact of blasting on mine design and mining efficiency.

Course Summary
Introduction
This is a practical course that provides a review of blasting theory and blasting products, and emphasizes the design, assessment and optimization of blasting practices. The course focuses on drilling and blasting as it is applied in surface mines and quarries. Design methodology for safe and efficient blasting is provided. Monitoring and assessment to improve blast performance and reduce blast vibrations are discussed and examples of optimization programs are provided to illustrate the process. Topics are presented in an applied manner and address the impact of blasting on mine design and overall mining efficiency. Topics covered by the course include:

Explosives and Charging Systems Initiating Devices and Systems Production Bench Blasting Overbreak Control and Secondary Blasting Damage Control Safety and Accident Prevention

Course Content
Blast Design and Assessment for Surface Mines and Quarries consists of 36 viewing sessions of 30 - 60 minutes each with supporting figures, tables and examples, a glossary of blasting and excavation terminology, and interactive course reviews. The course includes several short video clips on production blasting, interactive blasting tools, and integration with the Dictionary of Mining, Mineral and Related Terms. Course duration is equivalent to approximately 30 hours of viewing content.

Learning Outcomes

Discuss the principles of explosive / rock interaction and the influence of rock properties. Discuss the principles and applications of different types of detonator-sensitive explosives and blasting agents and their selection. Discuss the principles and applications of detonators, detonating cords, delays, primers and initiating systems. Apply the knowledge gained to the design of bench blasting, including explosives and priming system selection, blasthole and blasthole pattern design, and initiation sequencing and delay allocation.

Discuss the principles of overbreak mechanisms, blast redesign, smoothwall blasting and secondary blasting. Discuss the principles of vibration damage and control, flyrock, airblast and noise control, and safety and accident prevention. Apply the knowledge gained to practical, efficient and safe production bench blasting.

Course Requirements
A degree in mining engineering, engineering geology or related discipline or a diploma in mining technology. Dr. Alan Cameron

Alan Cameron grew up in Sudbury, Ontario and graduated from the Queen's University with a degree in Mining Engineering in 1977. He worked at Iron Ore Company of Canada in Labrador City then returned to Queen's (1980-1981) to complete an M.Sc. degree also in Mining Eng. He then moved to Tom Price, Western Australia to work at Hamersley Iron Pty. Ltd. This was followed by a two year secondment to the Western Australia School of Mines, Kalgoorlie, W.A. as a Senior Lecturer in Mining Engineering with a focus on Blasting and Slope Stability. Alan moved to Brisbane, Queensland, Australia in 1986 as a project leader with the Julius Kruttschnitt Mineral Research Centre (University of Queensland) where for seven years he managed applied research projects in explosives and blasting for the mining industry, conducted consulting assignments as well as completed a part time PhD degree (Mining Eng.).

In 1993 Alan joined Golder Associates Ltd. as a Senior Blasting Consultant and opened a new office in Sudbury, Ontario, Canada. In 1995 he was made an Associate and in 2001 a Principal partner. Alan works in the mining group with a specialty in slope stability and blasting. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the province of Ontario and a member of the International Society of Explosives Engineers.

Alan has undertaken numerous international consulting assignments as well as been involved in presenting annual blasting courses for the past nine years. He has published numerous technical papers on the subject of blasting and the impact of blasting on mining operations.

Bill Forsyth P.Eng Bill Forsyth was born in northern Manitoba and graduated from the University of Manitoba with a degree in Geological Engineering in 1987. He began working for Golder Associates Ltd., an international consulting company, in 1987 as a Geotechnical Engineer. In 1994 he was made an Associate and in 2001 a Principal partner. Bill works in the mining group with a specialty in underground rock mechanics and blasting. He is a Registered Professional Engineer in the province of British Columbia and a member of the International Society of Explosives Engineers.

For the past six years he has taught drilling and blasting at the University of British Columbia as a Sessional Lecturer in the mining engineering department. In addition, he has been a co-leader of

a number of blasting courses at other universities, colleges and mine sites. He has published numerous technical papers on the subject of blasting and blast induced damage.

Dr. Tom Kleine Dr. Tom Kleine is an Associate and Specialist Engineer in Golder Associates' Seattle office. Tom's specialty is in blast design and the prediction of blast performance in fractured rock. He is responsible for the design and evaluation of blasting programs, vibration control, and damage avoidance. He has developed a suite of blast design and assessment programs.

Tom has worked in engineering computing since 1979, earning first his Masters degree in 1983 and PhD degree in 1988 for numerical simulations of process plants (MSc) and blasting (PhD). He was awarded the international Roca Medal in 1991 for his PhD thesis. His diverse computing experience includes developing: a robust "edutainment" mining simulation game for 'World Expo 88' (which had to work unattended 24/7 for six months); equipment monitoring software (signal analysis); three-dimensional engineering design software; image based size analysis; blast simulators; and enterprise level information systems for the US Department of Energy. He has also worked in underground and surface mines in the course of his research. He is currently responsible for managing and leading the Web/database development team at Golder Associates Inc. who as a team develop and support web based applications for public and private organizations.

His relevant programming skills include: Visual Basic, VBScript, Active Server Pages (ASP), ADO/RDO, VBA, JavaScript, Microsoft Access, Transact-SQL, and HTML. System level experience includes: Windows NT 4, Windows 2000, MS SQL Server, and utilities such as IIS and MTS.

Part 1: Introduction

Introduction
Neither EduMine nor the authors of this course accept responsibility for the results of application or usage of theory, practice, technique or reference material presented in this course. No warrantee is made with respect to the accuracy of information presented General (See Summary for main points)

Surface mining and quarrying operations usually require the use of blasting for the preparation of rock for excavation. As urban areas spread and as the mines become deeper, the constraints on blasting increases. This has resulted in an increased requirement for well trained and experienced personnel for the design and implementation of the blasts. When appropriate precautions and safety procedures are implemented, blasting can be safe. The cost efficiency of blasting is often greater than that of mechanical methods such as ripping by a dozer or removing rock with hydraulic breakers. Blasts need to be designed and implemented so as to minimize:

the risk of damage to nearby structures disturbance of people who live and/or work near the blast area

This course describes methods of rock blasting and how they may be safely and cost efficiently employed. Included are the following topics:

Types of Explosives Initiators and Initiating Systems Mechanisms of Rock Fracture by Explosives Fundamentals of Production Bench Blasting Blasting Techniques for Producing Stable Rock Slopes Preventing Damage From Ground Vibration, Air Blast and Flyrock

Safety Procedures

Also included is a list of references (from which more details of the products and techniques described in this manual can be obtained), and a glossary of blasting and excavation terms. Blasting Applications in Surface Mining and Quarrying (See Summary for main points) The following is a brief description of some of the types of blasts commonly used in surface mines and quarries: Production Bench Blasts This is the most common type of blasting. The goal is to fragment and loosen the rock in preparation for excavation by front end loaders, shovels, draglines or dozers. The amount of preparation or conditioning of the rock, to be done by the blasting, depends on the rock mass characteristics as well as the type, size and mode of operation of the excavation equipment. Wall Control Blasts These blasts are designed to break the rock near or up to the final pit or quarry limit while causing minimal damage to the rock beyond this limit. A number of techniques are used to achieve this including: line drilling (?), presplitting (?), trim blasting (?), cushion blasting (?) and buffer blasting (?). Throw/Cast Blasts

In many surface coal mines there is an economic incentive to move a significant portion of the overburden material to its final position by blasting. The throw or cast blasts are designed in such a way as to maximize the horizontal movement of the rock in the desired direction. Sinking Cut Blasts These blasts are usually the first blast in a new bench where a vertical free face is not available. They are designed to break and loosen the rock volume using the surface as the only free face. A ramp is dug through the muckpile to the floor of the new bench and a free face established. Non-Explosive Methods of Rock Breakage (See Summary for main points) There are some circumstances where nonblasting methods of rock breakage should be employed. For example, in locations where there is nearby equipment or structures which are extremely sensitive to vibrations, or in areas of soft rock where it is more economical to rip than to blast. The following is a brief description of some non-explosive methods of rock breakage. Ripping Weak rock can often be broken by ripping using an excavator or, in harder rock, a bulldozer. The most commonly used criterion for determining whether ripping is possible, and for selecting the appropriate equipment, is the seismic velocity of the rock. The Caterpillar Equipment Handbook provides information on seismic velocities and the required ripping equipment.

The advantage of ripping over blasting in weak rock is that ripping can be carried out to close tolerances, and there is virtually no damage to the rock in the sides of the excavation. Ripping can also be done after dusk. Hydraulic Splitting For small excavations in brittle rock, an hydraulically powered splitter or wedge can be used to create a tensile fracture between closely spaced drillholes. This is a slow but highly controlled method of rock breakage. It is most often used for breaking concrete and in dimensional stone quarries, or heavily loaded foundation areas where overbreak from blasting would reduce the bearing capacity of the rock. Hydraulic Breakers Hydraulically powered breakers, often mounted on excavator boom, can be used to break both strong and weak rock. This method of rock breakage can be carefully controlled, and is sometimes used in conjunction with ripping where lenses of harder rock are encountered. Disadvantages of this equipment are that it is noisy, and not effective in very hard bedrock with few cracks or discontinuities. Chemicals Another product on the market is a cement-like compound that expands when mixed with water. The expansion pressure is sufficient to break rock when the material is placed in a row of closely spaced holes. While this is a highly controlled method of breaking rock, it has the disadvantages that the material is

costly and the expansion process takes 10 to 20 hours.

Explosive / Rock Interaction

Background (See Summary for main points) The interaction of the explosive and the surrounding rock mass during and immediately after detonation is a function of the detonation (?) properties of the explosive and the dynamic physical properties of the adjacent rock mass. The theories of rock breakage and the mechanisms of muckpile formation are based on the interaction of the detonating explosive and the surrounding rock. An understanding of the mechanism of rock breakage by explosives enables the blast designer to fragment the rock mass economically, while minimizing the damage caused by the blast beyond the excavation perimeter. The mechanisms by which rock is fractured by explosives are fundamental to the design of blasting patterns. They also relate to the damage that can be suffered by surrounding rock and structures and to the reactions of people living in the vicinity of a blast.

Theories of Rock Breakage (See Summary for main points) There are many theories and models that attempt to describe the process that occurs during and after the detonation of an explosive charge in a rock mass. In

general terms this process involves the rapid release of energy by the explosive, the application of the energy to the rock and the subsequent response of the rock to the application of the energy. It is complicated by such things as the rate, type and amount of energy released by the explosive, the design of the blast and the properties of the rock mass. The mechanisms of rock breakage that have been identified (Hagan (1967), Hagan (1973) and Mercer (1980)) are:

crushing relative radial motion release of load spalling gas extension of strain wave-generated and/or natural cracks flexural rupture shear fracturing along natural and strain wave generated cracks in-flight collisions

These mechanisms cause varying amounts of breakage depending on the characteristics of the explosive, rock properties and geometry of the rock mass and explosive charge. They can be split into two categories, those caused by the shock component of the energy from the explosive and those resulting from the gas energy (Brown (1956)). Shock Energy Breakage Mechanisms (See Summary for main points)

When an explosive is detonated, it is converted within a few thousandths of a second into high-temperature gases. When confined in a blasthole, this very rapid reaction causes pressures that usually exceed about 1800 GPa (approximately 260 kips/in2) to be exerted against the blasthole wall. This energy is transmitted into the surrounding rock mass in the form of a compressive strain wave, or shock wave, which travels at a velocity of 2000 6000 metres per second (6500 - 20000 ft/sec) through the rock. The rock breakage mechanisms that can be attributed to the shock component of the energy released by an explosive are crushing, relative radial motion, release of load and spalling. Crushing occurs around a blasthole wall when the pressure in the detonation front exceeds the dynamic compressive strength of the rock (Hagan (1973) and Bauer (1978)). The out-going strain pulse generated by the high pressure detonation front disperses and loses energy rapidly. Crushing ceases when the strain level in the pulse drops below the elastic limit of the rock. This is usually very close to the blasthole wall. The rock that forms the wall of the blasthole outside the crushed zone is subjected to very sudden compression due to the dispersing strain pulse as illustrated in Figure 1. This compression (i.e. relative radial motion) results in tangential stresses which can cause cracks to develop radially from the blasthole (see Figure 1). The radial cracks initially develop in all directions from the blasthole wall and are not influenced by a local free face.

The mechanism of fracturing caused by release of load occurs immediately after the strain or compression pulse passes, resulting in a local decrease in density with subsequent tensile stresses. These tensile stresses produce fractures aligned perpendicularly to the direction of travel of the strain pulse (Clay et al. (1965)). Spalling occurs when a compression or strain pulse is reflected by a free surface. At this point two waves are generated, a tensile wave and a shear wave. The tensile wave may cause cracking and the rock to spall in the region of the free surface. Both the tensile and shear waves may extend pre-existing or new (i.e. formed by the initial out-going strain pulse) cracks.

Interaction - Figure 1

Explosive / Rock

Figure 1. First stages of explosive / rock interaction showing expanding strain wave (after Mercer (1980)). Gas or Heave Energy Breakage Mechanisms (See Summary for main points) The mechanisms of fracturing described above are caused by the initial strain or

compression pulse from the detonating explosive charge. A zone of very high pressure and temperature gases occupies the blasthole behind the detonation front. These gases penetrate the crushed zone around the blasthole and flow into the radial or naturally occurring cracks. The gas pressure tends to wedge open the cracks and cause them to extend. The pressure on the blasthole walls caused by the explosive generated gases and the stress field due to the pressurised cracks displaces the rock mass between the blasthole and the free face. Because of the geometry of the explosive charge and the rock mass (see Figure 2) the rock at the face bends causing fracturing by flexural rupture (Mercer (1980)). This has been observed in high-speed films and still photographs of experimental and production blasts. An example is shown in Figure 3.

Rock Interaction - Figure 2

Explosive /

Figure 2. Later stages of explosive/rock interaction showing gas penetration and burden movement (after Mercer (1980)).

Figure 3. Photograph of a free face immediately after detonation of a long cylindrical explosive charge.

Shear fracturing occurs when adjoining rock is displaced at different times or at different rates. The displacement is caused by the high pressure gases. Some fracturing occurs when rock particles which are in motion collide. The amount of fracturing resulting from this mechanism depends on the geometry of the explosive charges, their order and relative time of initiation plus the physical properties of the rock. The previous four mechanisms of rock fracturing are a result of the high pressure and temperature gases acting on the rock mass. This gas energy also plays an important role in the displacement of the muckpile. Mechanics of Muckpile Displacement (See Summary for main points) The movement of material in a blast is primarily a result of the high pressure gases produced by the detonation of explosive charges (Edl (1983)). These high pressure gases flow into the cracks surrounding the blasthole forming a hydrostatically stressed region. The shape of this region depends on the geometry of the explosive charge and the blasthole, though in most mining applications the explosive charge is in the form of a long cylinder creating a cylindrically shaped hydrostatically stressed region. The high pressure gases in this region exert a force in all directions with material movement occurring in the direction of least resistance. The amount of displacement of material in a blast is a function of the physical properties of the material, blasthole

orientation, burden distance, spacing between blastholes, sequence and relative time of initiation of charges, amount and distribution of the explosive and the properties of the gas generated by the detonating explosive. These factors all influence the length of time the high pressure gases are contained within the rock mass and therefore determine the amount of work performed by them (Lownds (1986) and Brinkmann (1990)). When these gases vent to the atmosphere they stop doing useful work.

Influence of Blast Design on Explosive/Rock Interaction (See Summary for main points) The fragmentation achieved by the process is highly dependent upon the degree of confinement and coupling (?) of charges within the blastholes, the amount of burden (?) and the sequencing of the blast. If confinement of the charges by stemming is inadequate, some energy will be lost from the blastholes. Inadequate coupling results in poor transmission of the strain wave to the rock mass. Excessive burdens result in choking and poor movement of the rock, whereas inadequate burden results in a waste of explosive energy and excessive throw of blasted rock. Effective delaying of individual blastholes ensures maximum development and utilization of free surfaces by reducing effective burden, provides freedom for the rock to move toward the free face, and reduces the extent of damage to surrounding rock.

Rock Properties
Introduction (See Summary for main points) Blasting results are greatly influenced by properties of the intact rock and the rock mass. Fragmentation, displacement and blasting damage can, in some instances, be more influenced by the rock than by the blast design. Intact Rock Properties The primary intact rock properties commonly applied in blast design are:

Elastic constants (Young's Modulus, E and Poisson's Ratio, ) Strength (uniaxial compressive c and tensile, t) Density () P-Wave Velocity (Vp)

Definitions (See Summary for main points)

Young's Modulus is the ratio of axial stress to axial strain in uniaxial compression (typically expressed in GPa). Poisson's Ratio is the ratio of lateral to axial strain magnitudes (dimensionless). Compressive strength is the ratio of peak load to the cross-sectional area of

a test sample in uniaxial compression (typically expressed in MPa).

Tensile strength is the peak load per cross section area at the point of rupture in tension (typically expressed in kPa). The density of a rock is the specific weight (typically expressed in g/cc). The P-wave velocity of a rock is a measure of the compressive wave transmission velocity (typically expressed in m/s).

Rock Mass Properties The primary rock mass properties commonly applied in blast design are:

the number of fractures (density); the orientation of fracturing (absolute and relative to the free face).

Application of Rock Properties (See Summary for main points) Rock and rock mass properties can be used to assess the following:

blastability fragmentation blast damage

Blastability Indices Rock and rock mass properties can be used in the development of blastability indices. A popular method was developed

by Lilly (1986) for use in the northwest iron ore range in Australia. This Blastability Index uses the following variables in the calculation of blasting energy requirements:

rock mass description (fracture density); joint plane spacing and orientation; specific gravity; and, hardness.

Other indices have been developed that use similar data. Fragmentation Prediction The Kuz-Ram fragmentation (?) equations were developed by Cunningham (1983), Cunningham (1987) to estimate fragmentation from a blast with given geologic and design variables. The KuzRam calculation uses a "Rock Factor" that is based on the blastability calculation described by Lilly (1986). This method is widely accepted and easily adaptable to calculation within a spreadsheet. Blast Damage The determination of strain (vibration) based damage criteria uses the relationship between induced strain and peak vibration as shown in the following equation:

where: = induced strain in the rock PPV = peak particle velocity at the point of interest (mm/s) Vp = P-wave velocity of rock (mm/s) From Hooke's law and assuming a brittle failure mode for rock, the maximum particle velocity can be calculated.

where: PPVmax = maximum particle velocity before tensile failure (mm/s) t = uniaxial tensile strength of rock (Pa) 1/10 to 1/15 the UCS Vp = P-wave velocity of rock (mm/s) E = Young's Modulus of the rock (Pa) Many other damage predictions methods have been published that use essentially the same information to assess damage potential from blasting.

Summary (See Summary for main points) It is important to remember that blasting is rarely undertaken in a homogeneous, isotropic rock mass. In terms of achieving successful blasting, the properties of the intact rock and the rock mass may be as important as the selection of an explosive and blasting pattern. Examples of the influence of geology on blasting results is shown in the following figures:

Figure 1 - Indipping structure controlling bench face angle.

Figure 2 Horizontally bedded rock allows near vertical faces and the opportunity for successful wall control blasting.

Figure 3 Blocky ground makes wall control blasting difficult and fragmentation highly variable.

Figure 4 Complex, highly fractured rock mass, fragmentation controlled by small in-situ block size.

Figure 5 Poor quality rock mass impacting wall control.

Figure 6 High quality rock mass allows for excellent wall control and blasting control of fragmentation.

Figure 7 Overbreak associated with dominant geologic structure.

Figure 8 Blocky rock mass with in-dipping structure. Fragmentation and bench face angle controlled by the rock mass.

Glossary of Blasting and Excavation Terms

Acoustical Impedance (?) - The mathematical expression for characterizing a material as to its energy transfer properties (the product of its unit density and its sound velocity (pV)). Adit (?) - A nearly horizontal passage from the surface by which an underground mine is entered, as opposed to a tunnel. Air Deck (?) - A blasting technique wherein a charge is suspended in a borehole, and the hole tightly stemmed so as to allow a time lapse between detonation and ultimate failure of the rock (no coupling realized). ANFO (?) - Ammonium Nitrate - Fuel Oil Mixture. Used as a blasting agent. Astrolite - A family of two-component explosives, usually liquid, with variable detonating velocities. Back (?) - The roof or top of an underground opening. Also, used to specify the ore between a level and the surface. or that between two levels Back Break (?) - Rock broken beyond the limits of the last row of holes. Bench - The horizontal ledge in a face along which holes are drilled vertically. Benching is the process of excavating whereby terraces or ledges are worked in a stepped shape.

Blast (?) - The operation of rending (breaking) rock by means of explosives. Shot is also used to mean blast. Blasting Agent (?) - Any material or mixture, consisting of a fuel and oxidizer, intended for blasting, not otherwise classified as an explosive and in which none of the ingredients are classified as an explosive, provided that the finished product, as mixed and packaged for use or shipment, cannot be detonated by means of a No. 8 test blasting cap when unconfined. Blast Hole - A hole drilled in rock or other material for the placement of explosives. Block Hole (?) - A hole drilled into a boulder to allow the placement of a small charge to break the boulder. Booster (?) - A chemical compound used for intensifying an explosive reaction. A booster does not contain an initiating device but must be cap sensitive. Bootleg (?) - A situation in which the blast fails to cause total failure of the rock due to insufficient explosives for the amount of burden, or caused by incomplete detonation of the explosives. That portion of a borehole that remains relatively intact after having been charged with explosive and fired. Bridging - Where the continuity of a column of explosives in a borehole is broken, either by improper placement, as in the case of slurries or poured blasting agents, or where some foreign matter has plugged the hole. Bulk Strength (?) - Refers to the strength of an explosive in relation to the same

volume of a standard explosive, usually ANFO. Burden (?) - generally considered the distance from an explosive charge to the nearest free or open face. Technically, there may be an apparent burden and a true burden, the latter being measured always in the direction in which displacement of broken rock will occur following firing of an explosive charge. Centers - The distance measured between two or more adjacent blast holes without reference to hole locations as to row. The term has no association with the blast hole burdens. Chambering - More commonly termed Springing (?). The process of enlarging a portion of a blast hole (usually the bottom) by firing a series of small explosive charges. Collar - The mouth or opening of a borehole, drill steep or shaft. Also, to collar in drilling means the act of starting a borehole. Condenser - Discharge (?) - A blasting machine which uses batteries to energize a series of condensers, whose stored energy is released into a blasting circuit. Connecting Wire - Any wire used in a blasting circuit to extend the length of a leg wire (?) or leading wire (?). Connector - Refers to a device used to initiate a delay in a Primacord circuit, connecting one hole in the circuit with another, or one row of holes to other rows of holes.

Coupling - The act of connecting or joining two or more distinct parts. In blasting the reference concerns the transfer of energy from an explosive reaction into the surrounding rock and is considered perfect when there are no losses due to absorption or cushioning. Coyote Blasting (?) - The practice of drilling blast holes (tunnels), horizontally into a rock face at the foot of the shot. Used where it is impractical to drill vertically. Critical Diameter (?) - Minimum diameter of an explosive charge at which detonation will still take place. Cushion Blasting (?) - The technique of firing of a single row of holes along a neat excavation line to shear the web between the closely drilled holes. Fired after production shooting has been accomplished. Cut - More strictly it is that portion of an excavation with more or less specific depth and width, and continued in like manner along or through the extreme limits of the excavation. A series of cuts are taken before complete removal of the excavated material is accomplished. The specific dimensions of any cut is closely related to the material's properties and required Production levels. Cut-Off - Where a portion of a column of explosives has failed to detonate due to bridging, or to a shifting of the rock formation due to an improper delay system. Deck (?) - In blasting a smaller charge or portion of a blast hole loaded with

explosives that is separated from the main charge by stemming or air cushion. Deflagration (?) - An explosive reaction that consists of a burning action at a high rate of speed along which occur gaseous formation and pressure expansion. Delay Element (?) - That portion of a blasting cap which causes a delay between the instant of impressment of electrical energy on the cap and the time of detonation of the base charge of the cap. Detonating Cord (?) - A plastic covered core of high velocity explosives used to detonate charges of explosives in boreholes and under water, e.g. Primacord. Detonation (?) - An explosive reaction that consists of the propagation of a shock wave through the explosive accompanied by a chemical reaction that furnishes energy to sustain the shockwave propagation in a stable manner, with gaseous formation and pressure expansion following shortly thereafter. Detonation Pressure (?) - The pressure within the primary reaction zone bounded by the shock front and the C-J Plane. Dip (?) - The angle at which strata, beds, or veins are inclined from the horizontal. Drop Ball (?) - Known also as a Headache Ball. An iron or steel weight held on a wire rope that is dropped from a height onto large boulders for the purpose of breaking them into smaller fragments. Explosion - A thermochemical process whereby mixtures of gases, solids, or liquids react with the almost instantaneous formation of gaseous pressures and near

sudden heat release. There must always be a source of ignition and the proper temperature limit reached to initiate the reaction. Technically, a boiler can rupture but cannot explode. Explosive - Any chemical mixture that reacts at high speed to liberate gas and heat and thus cause tremendous pressures. The distinctions between High and Low Explosives are twofold; the former are designed to detonate and contain at least one high explosive ingredient; the latter always deflagrate and contain no ingredients which by themselves can be exploded. Both High and Low Explosives can be initiated by a single No.8 blasting cap as opposed to Blasting Agents which cannot be so initiated. Face (?) - The end of an excavation toward which work is progressing or that which was last done. It is also any rock surface exposed to air. Fire - In blasting it is the act of initiating an explosive reaction. Floor (?) - The bottom horizontal, or nearly so, part of an excavation upon which haulage or walking is done. Fragmentation (?) - The extent to which rock is broken into small pieces by Primary blasting. Fracture - Literally, the breaking of rock without movement of the broken Pieces. Fuel - In explosive calculations it is the chemical compound used for purposes of combining with oxygen to form gaseous products and cause a release of heat.

Galvanic Action - Currents caused when dissimilar metals contact each other, or through a conductive medium. This action may create sufficient voltage to cause premature firing of an electric blasting circuit, particularly in the presence of salt water. Galvanometer - A device containing a silver chloride cell which is used to measure resistance in an electric blasting circuit. Grade - In excavation, it specifies the elevation of a roadbed, rail, foundation, etc. When given a value such as percent or degree grade it is the amount of fall or inclination compared to a unit horizontal distance for a ditch, road, etc. To grade means to level ground irregularities to a prescribed level. Gram Atom (?) - The unit used in chemistry to express the atomic weight of an element in terms of grams (weight). Hardpan (?) - Boulder clay, or layers of gravel found usually a few feet below the surface and so cemented together that it must be blasted or ripped in order to excavate. Highwall (?) - The bench, bluff, or ledge on the edge of a surface excavation and most usually used only in coal strip mining. Initiation (?) - The act of detonating a high explosive by means of a mechanical device or other means. Joints - Planes within rock masses along which there is no resistance to separation and along which there has been no relative movement of the material on each side of the break. They occur in sets, the planes of

which are generally mutually perpendicular. Joints, like stratification, are often called partings. Lead Wire (?) - The wires connecting the electrodes of an electric blasting machine with the final leg wires of a blasting circuit. LEDC - Low Energy Detonating Cord. Used to initiate non - electric caps at the bottom of boreholes. Leg Wires (?) - Wires, leading from the top end of an electric blasting cap; used to couple caps into the circuit. Mat (?) - Used to cover a shot to hold down flying material; usually made of woven wire cable, tires or conveyor belt. Millisecond Delay Caps - Delay electric caps which have a built - in delay element, usually 25/1000th of a second apart, consecutively. This timing may vary from manufacturer to manufacturer. Misfire (?) - A charge, or part of a charge, which for any reason has failed to fire as planned. All misfires are to be considered extremely dangerous until the cause of the misfire has been determined. Mole (?) - A unit in chemical technology equal to the molecular weight of a substance expressed in grams weight). Muckpile - The pile of broken material or dirt in excavating that is to be loaded for removal. Mud Cap - Referred to also as Adobe or Plaster Shot (?). A charge of explosive fired in contact with the surface of a rock after being covered with a quantity of mud, wet

earth, or similar substance, no borehole being used. Open Pit - A surface operation for the mining of metallic ores, coal, clay, etc. Overbreak (?) - Excessive breakage of rock beyond the desired excavation limit. Overburden (?) - The material lying on top of the rock to be shot; usually refers to dirt and gravel, but can mean another type of rock; e.g. shale over limestone. Oxidizer (?) - A supplier of oxygen. Permissible (?) - Explosives having been approved by the U.S. Bureau of Mines for non - toxic fumes, and allowed in underground work. Powder (?) - Any of various solid explosives. Powder Factor (?) - Term used to describe the mass of explosive used to break a unit volume or weight of rock. Premature (?) - A charge which detonates before it is intended to. Presplitting (?) - Stress relief involving a single row of holes, drilled along a neat excavation line, where detonation of explosives in the hole causes shearing of the web of rock between the holes. Presplit holes are fired in advance of the production holes. Primary Blast - The main blast executed to sustain production. Primer (?) - An explosive unit containing a suitable firing device that is used for the initiation of an entire explosive charge.

Quarry (?) - An open or surface mine used for the extraction of rock such as limestone, slate, building stone, etc. Riprap (?) - Coarse sized rocks used for river bank, dam, etc., stabilization to reduce erosion by water flow. Round (?) - A group or set of blast holes constituting a complete cut in underground headings, tunnels, etc. Seam (?) - A stratum or bed of mineral. Also, a stratification plane in a sedimentary rock deposit. Secondary Blasting (?) - Using explosives to break up larger masses of rock resulting from the primary blasts, the rocks of which are generally too large for easy handling. Seismograph (?) - An instrument that measures and supplies a permanent record of earthborne vibrations induced by earthquakes, blasting, etc. Sensitizer (?) - The ingredient used in explosive compounds to promote greater ease in initiation or propagation of the reactions. Shot Firer (?) - Also referred to as the Shooter or Blaster. The person who actually fires a blast. A Powderman, on the other hand, may charge or load blast holes with explosives but may not fire the blast. Shunt (?) - A piece of metal connecting two ends of leg wires to prevent stray currents from causing accidental detonation of the cap. The act of deliberately shorting any portion of an electrical blasting circuit.

Slope - Used to define the ratio of the vertical rise or height to horizontal distances in describing the angle a bank or bench face makes with the horizontal. For example, a 1 - 1/2 to 1 slope means there would be a 1 - 1/2 ft rise to each 1 ft or horizontal distance. Snake Hole (?) - A hole drilled or bored under a rock or tree stump for the placement of explosives. Spacing - In blasting, the distance between boreholes or charges in a row Stemming (?) - The inert material, such as drill cuttings, used in the co ar Portion (or elsewhere) of a blast hole so as to confine the gaseous products formed on explosion. Also, the length of blast hole left uncharged. Strength - Refers to the energy content of an explosive in relation to an equal amount of nitroglycerine dynamite. Stratification - Planes within sedimentary rock deposits formed by interruptions in the deposition of sediments. Strike (?) - The course or bearing of the outcrop of an inclined bed or geologic structure on a level surface. Sub - Drill (?) - To drill blast holes beyond the planned grade lines or below floor level. Swell Factor - The ratio of the volume of a material in its solid state to that when broken. Tamping (?) - The process of compressing the stemming or explosive in a blast hole.

Toe (?) - The burden or distance between the bottom of a borehole to the vertical free face of a bench in an excavation. Velocity of Detonation (?) - The measure of the rate at which the detonation wave travels through an explosive.

Part 2: Explosives and Charging Systems

Introduction ( See Summary for main points) The effectiveness of explosives employed in mine and quarry blasting is due to the magnitude of their shock pulse as well as the peak gas pressures and the rates at which these pressures are developed. Some of the energy released in a blasthole:

can be wastefully dissipated in crushing or plastically deforming weak/soft rocks, and/or tends to escape through any path of low resistance.

Each blasthole should be primed, charged and stemmed so that explosion gases are confined for a reasonable period of time. The gases should break, displace and loosen the burden rock satisfactorily without creating excessive throw, overbreak, ground vibrations or air vibrations.

Ideally, every explosive should have a low cost and a high energy yield per unit weight coupled with:

insensitivity to initiation by friction, mechanical impact and fire totally reliable sensitivity to initiation by the detonator or primer for which the explosive has been designed unlimited resistance to water and low temperatures oxygen balance and, hence, minimal yield of poisonous explosion gases excellent handling characteristics unlimited shelf life

Common Terms Relating to Explosives ( See Summary for main points)

detonation - an explosive decomposition or combustion reaction that moves through a charge at greater than the speed of sound to produce shock waves and significant overpressure; deflagration - rapid burning with a sudden evolution of flame and vapor; ideal explosive - a molecular explosive such as TNT (Tri-nitro-toluene), NG (Nitro-glycerine) or PETN (Pentaerythritol tetranitrate), where the fuel and oxidizer are contained in the molecule; high explosive - an explosive which can be detonated by a standard #8 detonator in unconfined conditions;

blasting agent - an explosive material that meets prescribed criteria for insensitivity to initiation; a material or mixture consisting of fuel and oxidizer used in blasting, but not otherwise defined as a high explosive; sympathetic detonation - where charges exhibit a relatively high level of initiation sensitivity (exemplified by dynamites), the distance between blastholes is small and/or the rock is an effective transmitter of strain waves, the shock created by an earlier-firing charge can initiate an adjacent charge prematurely. Sympathetic detonation is encouraged by the presence of groundwater, by clay seams and by structural features such as open joints. Fortunately, the on-going replacement of dynamites by compositions having lower initiation sensitivities (e.g. emulsion explosives) has greatly reduced the probability of sympathetic detonation.

Materials Used in Explosives ( See Summary for main points)

ammonium nitrate (AN) - NH4NO3 classified as an oxidizing agent and supplies oxygen to the detonation reaction; it is the primary ingredient in most commercial explosives used for mine blasting; fuels (e.g. diesel) - supplies fuel to the detonation reaction; oxidizers (e.g. ammonium nitrate (AN), sodium nitrate (SN), calcium nitrate

(CN)) - compounds supplying oxygen to the detonation reaction;

nitroglycerine (NG) - C3H5N3O9 - ideal explosive commonly used in dynamites; trinitrotoluene (TNT) - C7H5N3O6 - ideal explosive used in primers and as a sensitizer for cartridge explosives; pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN) C5H8N4O12 - ideal explosive used in primers and detonating cord.

Categories of Explosives ( See Summary for main points) Modern commercial explosives can be grouped into two principal categories:

high explosives (i.e. detonator-sensitive explosives), and blasting agents (i.e. detonatorinsensitive explosives).

During the last 25 years, the high degree of replacement of nitroglycerine (NG) -sensitized explosives (e.g. dynamites) by ANFO, watergels, and more recently, emulsion-type explosives, has been accompanied by a marked decrease in the sensitivity of charges to impact, friction and fire. Consequently, the potential for accidental detonations has been reduced and, as a result, explosives are now manufactured, transported, stored and used more safely. Unfortunately, knowledge of the greater potential safety of the newer explosives has led to a general reduction in the care and respect with which these explosives are handled and used. Whilst this attitude (which is a natural one) detracts from the potential

gain in safety, the resultant gain is still very appreciable.

Development of Bulk Explosives ( See Summary for main points) Early 1950's: ANFO = AN + Organic Fuel

no water resistance

Mid 1950's: Watergels Developed to increase water resistance and density of bulk explosive.

primarily a mixture of oxidizers, fuels and water used TNT and aluminium as fuels and sensitizers contained approximately 20% water

Late 1970's: Emulsions

developed to provide a lower cost and more efficient explosive compared to Watergel explosives

1980's: Emulsions Blends

heavy ANFO's - ANFO with up to 30% emulsion used to increase energy concentration and water resistance compared to ANFO doped emulsion - emulsion explosive with up to 40% ANFO

1980'S: Low Density ANFO's

special applications where reduced energy concentration is required

1990's: Water Resistant ANFO

ANFO with geling agent to provide some water resistance

1990's: High Density ANFO's

ANFO made with more dense AN prills to increase energy concentration in the blasthole

Properties of Explosives ( See Summary for main points) Density

units are g/cc relates weight of explosive to volume controls energy concentration in the blasthole

Sensitivity Minimum condition required to start detonation of the explosive. Ease of initiating the explosive shown by:

minimum booster weight gap sensitivity impact test pressure tolerance critical diameter

Water Resistance

Estimate of how the detonation reaction of an explosive is affected by water in the blasthole. Usually expressed in qualitative terms (good, fair, poor, etc.) or as maximum sleeping time in a blasthole. Chemical Stability Length of time an explosive can sleep in a blasthole without change. Watergels can have gel structure breakdown resulting in increased density, segregation and reduced water resistance. Emulsions / Heavy ANFO's may experience crystalization of the emulsion phase resulting in loss of water resistance (Figure 1 right). Performance Performance of explosives is covered in the next session (see Detonation Properties of Explosives).

Figure 1. Bulk explosive that has crystallized.

Detonation Properties of Explosives

Detonation Properties ( See Summary for main points) Detonation properties of explosives are a function of the detonation reaction and the subsequent energy released. They can be related to the ability of the explosive to break and/or move a rock mass.

Figure 1. Illustration of explosive detonation (Atlas Powder Company (1987)). Detonation properties include:

available energy relative effective energy weight and bulk strengths gas yield velocity of detonation detonation pressure borehole pressure shock/heave energy split

Some of these properties are related to the interaction between a detonating explosive charge and the surrounding medium. In this way they can be related to the mechanisms of rock fragmentation and

muckpile formation and also to the techniques developed for assessing the performance of explosives.

Available Energy ( See Summary for main points) The available energy (Ao) of an explosive is the energy released during detonation. The calculation of Ao is based on the thermodynamic calculation of the detonation reaction (Meyer (1987)). This includes the chemical breakdown of the initial components of the explosive and the products after the detonation reaction. The heats of formation of the ingredients and the products are compared and then a proportion of the thermal energy retained in the solid products of detonation is subtracted to produce the value for available energy. The proportion of thermal energy in the solid products of detonation which is assumed to be lost varies between 100% and 33%, depending on the assumptions applied during the analysis. The assumptions that are usually made in this analysis are that:

The detonation reaction is ideal and goes to completion. The gases from the detonation reaction do useful work until the pressure drops to one atmosphere and their temperature reaches approximately 25C (77F).

The calculated available energy of a bulk explosive overstates the energy that is available to do useful work in blasting rock because:

The detonation reaction that occurs in most commercial explosives is not ideal and does not go to completion. This is due to the size of the ingredients being relatively large and therefore there is not a truly homogeneous mix of the components. The gases generated by the detonation reaction do work on the rock mass in creating fractures and movement until they vent to atmosphere. The pressure at which the venting occurs is much higher than one atmosphere but it varies depending on such things as the geometry of the blast, properties of the rock mass, time between initiation of adjacent blastholes, the volume of gas and the rate at which the gas is generated by the explosive (Lownds (1986) andBrinkmann (1990)). Available energy is usually expressed in units of Megajoules per kilogram (MJ/kg) (1 MJ/kg = 108.34 kcal/lb). This term does not give any indication of the rate of energy release or the partition between shock and heave components of the energy. The available energy of an explosive formulation is usually calculated using a thermo-hydrodynamic detonation code or ideal detonation model such as Fortran-BKW, Ruby and Tiger (Finger et al (1976)) and IDeX (Sheahan and Minchinton (1988)). These codes are very complex and different codes will produce different estimates of the available energy for the same explosive formulation because they are based on different assumptions. Often the available energy is presented in a relative format compared with a standard explosive, usually ANFO, and referred

to as weight strength. ANFO is given a value of 100.

Relative Weight Strength and Relative Bulk Strength ( See Summary for main points) The strength of an explosive is a measure of its ability to do work in the form of fragmenting and displacing a rock mass. The calculated available energy (Ao) per unit mass of an explosive compared with that of ANFO is the most commonly used definition of weight strength (?). This term is a comparative one: ANFO is the common standard for comparing bulk commercial explosives and is arbitrarily given a value of 100. Weight strength expresses the ability to do work with respect to a unit weight of the explosive. This term does not indicate how the available energy will be distributed or that the difference between calculated available energy and the actual energy will vary depending on the departure of the explosive from theoretical behaviour. Bulk strength (?) is the energy of the explosive compared with an equal volume of ANFO. It is linked to the weight strength of the explosive through density as shown in the following formula:

Bulk strength reflects the amount of energy loaded into one metre of blasthole and is an important parameter when evaluating the distribution of explosive energy in a blast because both the density and weight strength of the explosive significantly influence this distribution. This term has the same deficiencies as weight strength because it is based on calculated values for the available energies of the different explosive products

and may have little relationship to the energy actually generated.

Weight and bulk strength parameters were improved by selecting a cut-off or venting pressure for the energy calculation (to more accurately reflect actual blasting conditions) and this was called the Effective Energy of the explosive. Relative Effective Energy ( See Summary for main points) The effective energy of an explosive is the energy released during detonation when the gases expand and the pressure decreases from the detonation pressure to some cut-off or limit pressure. The cut-off pressure normally used is 100 MPa (14500 psi) which represents the point at which the detonation gases vent, that is, cease to be confined and therefore cannot do any more effective work on the surrounding rock (Harries, (1985) and Sheahan and Minchinton, (1988)). Available energy (Ao) from expansion of the gases produced by detonation is summed incrementally with time until the last increment of pressure reaches one atmosphere. The effective energy is the cumulative energy released to the cut-off pressure of 100 MPa (14500 psi) (see Figure 2). Relative effective energy is the effective energy of the explosive compared with the effective energy of ANFO and is usually expressed as a percentage. Relative effective energy does not indicate how the energy will partition between the shock and heave components described below (see Sections Detonation Pressure (Shock Energy) and Borehole Pressure

(Heave Energy). Because of this, an explosive product should not be selected for a specific task based on this parameter alone. The effective energy of ANFO can vary depending on the type of ammonium nitrate prill used, the size distribution of the prill, the density of the ANFO and on the method of calculating the energy. It would be best if all of these were specified when relative effective energies for different explosive products are quoted.

The pressure at which the detonation gases vent to the atmosphere in a blast is a function of the characteristics of the rock mass, the type of blasthole initiation and the blast design. It is almost impossible to measure the pressure within a blasthole to verify this or verify the commonly used cut-off pressure of 100 MPa (14500 psi). A change in the cut-off pressure will change the ranking of explosive products (Cunningham and Sarracino (1990)) as shown in Figure 2. This is a drawback to the use of this term for comparison of the

performance of different explosive products.

Figure 2. Cumulative energy - pressure function (Harries (1985)). Gas Yield ( See Summary for main points) The gas yield is the volume of gas produced by the detonation of one kilogram of explosive. The temperature and pressure of the gas is assumed to be 25C (77F) and 1 atmosphere. In some instances the gas yield is given as moles per kilogram of explosive which can be converted to litres per kilogram by multiplying by 22.4 (i.e. volume of 1 mole of gas). The gases that occur in the detonation products are determined through the evaluation of the detonation reaction and analysis of samples of postdetonation fumes. These are usually performed by explosives manufacturers. The gas yield provides a rough indication of gas energy but so far it has not been

directly related to the performance of the explosive in a specific rock mass.

Velocity of Detonation ( See Summary for main points) The velocity of detonation (?) (VOD) is the speed with which the detonation front travels through the explosive charge. This speed is influenced by the density, charge diameter, particle size of the explosive and degree of confinement of the charge. The VOD controls the rate at which energy from the explosive is released and to a large extent, the ratio of the shock to bubble energy components of the total energy. An explosive with a relatively low VOD releases its energy at a slower rate and a larger proportion of the total energy usually is in the form of gas pressure. In the converse situation a high VOD explosive is considered to have a high shock energy or brisance. The higher the detonation velocity, the greater the ability of the explosive to break rock. The strain to heave energy ratio increases with increasing velocity of detonation. The measured VOD of an explosive column also is an indication of how completely the explosive reacts chemically as it detonates. This is accomplished by comparing the measured value with the theoretical VOD for the explosive charge. According to Bauer and Cook (1961), Cook (1974) and Bauer et al (1984) the volumetric fraction of the explosive which has reacted in the detonation is defined by the relationship:

where N = volumetric fraction of the explosive which has reacted D = measured VOD [m/s] D* = theoretical thermohydrodynamic VOD [m/s]. The measured VOD of most commercial explosives will not reach the theoretical thermohydrodynamic value because they are not normally ideal explosives. The VOD of these products is influenced mostly by the size and intimacy of mixing of the components of the explosive as well as by the charge diameter, degree of confinement of the charge, type of initiation and charge temperature. The approximate range of VOD values for most commercial explosives is from 3000 m/s (9800 ft/s) for low density ANFO products to greater than 6500 m/s (21300 ft/s) for some emulsion explosives. The measured VOD of an explosive in a blasthole provides a check on the quality of the explosive, detonation pressure (see Section Detonation Pressure (Shock Energy)) and efficiency of the detonation reaction when the result is compared with results from measurements of high quality explosive in good blasthole conditions. Detonation Pressure (Shock Energy) ( See Summary for main points) The detonation pressure (?) (Pd) of an explosive is the pressure in the detonation wave as it progresses along a charge. It is measured at the Chapman-Jouguet (CJ) plane as

shown in Figure 3, which illustrates the detonation of an explosive and the pressure profile in the detonating charge (after Given (1973)). The detonation pressure is primarily responsible for the generation of a shock pulse in the medium surrounding the explosive charge. The magnitude of this pulse reflects the shock energy of the explosive and it is the effect of this pulse that causes breakage in the surrounding rock. The magnitude of the detonation pressure has been found to be a function of the density of the explosive and the VOD (Brown (1956); Johansson and Persson (1970); Cook (1974); Bjarnholt (1980); and Atlas Powder Company (1987)). A commonly accepted formula for approximating the detonation pressure is given by Bjarnholt (1980) as:

where Pd = detonation pressure [Pa] K = constant equal to 0.25 D = VOD [m/s] = explosive density [kg/m3].

The typical range for detonation pressures generated by commercial explosives is 2 GPa (0.29 x 106 psi) to 12 GPa (1.74 x 106 psi). There is a loss of shock energy at the interface between the detonation front and the wall of the charge as the shock pulse is propagated into the surrounding material. This energy loss takes the form of heating, crushing and vaporisation of the material. Quantification of this energy loss is almost impossible due to the very destructive environment in the regions where it occurs. The total effect of an explosive on rock includes an energy component due to the expansion of gases generated by the detonation reaction. This is referred to as the borehole pressure.

Figure 3. Simplified Illustration of

detonation reaction (after Given ed. (1973)).

Figure 4. Shock energy breakage mechanisms, first stages of explosive/rock interaction showing expanding strain wave.

Figure 5. Pre-split blast utilizing shock energy. Borehole Pressure (Heave Energy) ( See Summary for main points)

The borehole pressure (?) (Pb) is the pressure exerted on the medium surrounding the explosive charge by the expanding gases of the detonation product (Atlas Powder Company (1987)). This is illustrated in Figure 3. The pressure exerted by these gases and the time interval over which it is exerted is a measure of the gas energy of the explosive (Lownds (1986) and Sheahan and Minchinton (1988)). This energy is often referred to as heave or bubble energy. The amount of pressure in the borehole is a function of the confinement on the charge as well as the quantity and the temperature of the gas generated. Borehole pressure is often expressed as a percentage of detonation pressure. This can vary from 30% to 70% for different explosives and charge conditions but the average is approximately 50% (Atlas Powder Company (1987)). The ratio between detonation pressure and borehole pressure represents the shock to gas energy split of the explosive. This is known to vary depending on explosive formulation and charge condition so there is no constant ratio which can be used for all situations. Direct measurement of borehole pressure is not possible due to the very high detonation pressure preceding it which would destroy any instrumentation in the charge before the borehole pressure develops. The borehole pressure in a blast is reflected by burden velocity or throw, swell

and gas penetration and is therefore often called heave or gas energy. Results of the borehole pressure can be evaluated using crater tests, high-speed photography and muckpile surveys. The total energy released by the detonation of an explosive is a sum of the shock energy and the heave energy. The ratios of these energies can vary significantly for the range of types of explosives.

Figure 6. Gas or heave energy breakage mechanisms - later stages of explosive/rock interaction showing gas penetration and burden movement.

Figure 7. Gas energy producing burden movement. Shock/Heave Energy Split ( See Summary for main points) The split between the shock and heave components of the energy released depends on the composition, density and velocity of detonation of the explosive plus the physical characteristics of the surrounding rock mass (Lownds (1986); Sheahan and Minchinton (1988) and Brinkmann (1990)). In general the higher the velocity of detonation of an explosive the more the energy split will favour the shock component as illustrated in Figure 8. The effect that the physical properties of the rock mass surrounding an explosive charge has on the performance of the explosive has been proposed by Sheahan and Minchinton (1988) and is shown in Figure 9. Both of the relationships between the shock and heave energies of an explosive mentioned above (i.e. Figures 8 and 9)

have not been verified by measurements made under mine site conditions.

Figure 8. Schematic illustration of the difference in energy partitioning for high and low order detonation (Shock energy = area ABCD; Heave energy = area CDEF) (Brinkmann (1990)).

Figure 9. Borehole expansion (Sheahan and Minchinton (1988)).

Detonator-Sensitive Packaged Explosives

Types of DetonatorSensitive Explosives
See Detailed Text

emulsion explosives watergel explosives dynamites cast pentolite-type boosters

( See Summary for main points) Detonator-sensitive explosives (usually referred to as high explosives (?)) include emulsion

explosives, watergel explosives, dynamites and cast pentolite-type boosters. Each of these can be reliably initiated by a No. 8 strength detonator or by a strand of 10 g/m (48 gr/ft) detonating cord. Dynamites and some cast boosters can be reliably initiated by 5 g/m (25 gr/ft) cords. Until quite recently, operators needing a reliable, waterresistant high explosive found it necessary to use a NG-based composition (e.g., a dynamite). Today, operators can also select, with a high degree of confidence, a (detonator-sensitive) emulsion or watergel explosive. Most packaged explosives are detonator-sensitive. The exceptions are some large diameter (i.e. 4+ in) packages of watergel and emulsion explosive.