= ..

\RDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
l)(b@)@@ (i)(1@@@ @(b@,(li)@(jJ)[
P purple, PP pale purple, 0 orange, PO pale orange, PB pale blue,
= ed, and T tan. Except for the latter, these colors match the stains used to
: :serve these cells. First color the cytoplasm of the cell; if you don't have any of the
: =. e colors, leave the cytoplasm background blank. Then stipple the granules with
e ::Jarker color. The results should create a rough impression of the actual colors.
RETICULOCYTE
::-;throcytes (RBCs; approximately 4.5-6.2 million per microliter of blood
- 1len; 4-5.5 million/! in women} are formed in the bone marrow.
--ere each cell loses its nucleus and most of its organelles prior
= elease into the peripheral blood. Recently released immature
e-. '.hrocytes (reticulocytes) may retain some ribosomal RNA in their
: :::lplasm; these granules appear dark purple and reticulated when
: -=. ned. Normally making up about 1 % of the RBC population,
e :;ulocytes may increase in number during chronic oxygen lack
e ;;., at prolonged high altitude). The circulating RBC (without nucleus
:- :irganelles, it is truly a corpuscle and not a cell) is a non-rigid,
: ::mcave-shaped, membrane-lined sac of hemoglobin, a large
-:<-containing protein. Hemoglobin (12-16 grams/decaliter of blood
- ::omen; 14-18 g/dL in men) has a powerful affinity for oxygen and is
--s principal carrier of oxygen in the body; plasma is the other carrier.
::- .throcytes pick up oxygen in the lungs and release it in the capil-
=.- es to the tissues/cells. RBCs circulate for about 120 days until
:e!ective and are then taken out of the blood and broken down
: .. cells of the spleen.
-hrombocytes or platelets ( 150,000-400,000/I of blood; 2-5 m in
:iameter) are small bits of cytoplasm from giant cells (megakaryo-
:/tes) of the bone marrow. Circulating in the blood for a lifetime of
o days or so, platelets adhere to injured endothelium and play a sig-
-:ificant role in limiting hemorrhage (aggregation of platelets, blood
:oagulation/clotting, and clot removal).


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101
See 121,
122
A-J-
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All constituents of the blood that can be observed as discrete
structures with the aid of the light microscope are called formed
elements of the blood. The rest of the blood is a protein-rich
fluid called plasma. When blood is allowed to clot, the cells
disintegrate (hemolysis) and a thick yellow fluid called serum
emerges. Serum is basically plasma less clotting elements. If
whole blood is centrifuged in a test tube, the RBCs will settle to
the bottom, the leukocyte fraction will form a buffy coat on top
of that, and the plasma, being the lightest, will take up the
upper 55% of the total volume. Packed RBCs in a test tube con-
stitute a hematocrit(40-52% of the blood volume in men; 37-
47% in women). The difference in blood values between men
and women is probably related to iron storage and metabolism
differences (men store up to 50% more iron than women). A low
hematocrit may be associated with anemia or hemorrhage.
CSIJD(J3@<SlfV@o-;-
SEGMENTED (MATURE)
BAND (IMMATURE)
po
&@&,@JQ!JCbOO *-
(WHITE BLOOD CELLS)
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segm ented neutrophils (55-75% of the WBC popula-
tion) arise in the bone marrow and live short lives in
the blood and connective tissues (hours-4 days).
Immature forms (band neutraphils, 1-5%) may be seen
in the blood; their numbers often increase in acute
infections. Neutrophils rapidly engulf foreign elements/
cellular debris; strong enzymes in specific granules
and lysosomes destroy them (phagocytosis).
@@@OGtfl@fP000/1-;-
Eosinophils (1-3% of WBCs) exhibit colorful granules
when properly stained. Eosinophils are phagocytic in
immune reactions. They are involved in the late-onset
phase of asthmatic attacks (subsequent bronchial con-
striction), possibly enhancing cell injury by increasing
cell membrane permeability in the bronchial mucosa
to allergic substances. They also appear to limit the
expression of mast cell degranulation (histamine
release and effects) during allergic reactions.
Basophils (0-1 % of WBCs) contain dark-staining
granules. Basophils are known to degranulate in
allergic reactions, releasing histamine, serotonin,
and heparin. Such degranulation induces contraction
of smooth muscle, increases vascular permeability
(enhancing the effects of inflammation). and slows
down movement of white blood cells in inflammation.
6-18 m
Ui'f)@(jf)@(KJ(};){jjJ)
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Lymphocytes (20-45% of WBCs) arise from the bone
marrow and reside in the blood as well as the lymphoid
tissues (lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, and so on).
Lymphocytes generally consist of about 20% B cells
(short-lived cells from the bone marrow, concerned
with humoral immunity, transformation into plasma
cells, and the secretion of antibodies or immunoglobu-
lins) and 70% T cells (long-lived cells from the thymus;
may be cytotoxic, helper, or suppressor cells associ-
ated with cell-mediated immunity). Lymphocytes with
neither B or T surface antigens (less than 5%) are
called natural killer cells.
Monocytes (2-8% of WBCs) arise in the bone marrow,
mature in the blood (about eight hours), then leave
the circulation to enter the extracellular spaces as
macrophages. They are critical to the functioning of
the immune system, as they present antigen to the
immune cells, secrete substances in immune reac-
tions, and destroy antigens (see glossary'). They
phagocytose cellular and related debris in wound
healing, bone formation, and multiple other cellular
activities where breakdown occurs.
= ..:.i=\DIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
:'1: Jse blue for A, purple for B, red for C, and very light colors for D
::. (1) Color the titles for systemic and pulmonary circulation, the
: ';gures, and the borders bracketing the large illustration. Also color
: _-::1e (representing the transitional state between oxygenation and
:o:,ygenation) the two capillaries, demonstrating the difference
capillary function in the lungs and that in the body. (2) Begin in
-= <ght atrium of the heart and color the flow of oxygen-poor blood (A)
-: the lungs. After coloring the pulmonary capillary network (B), color
--= :xygen-rich blood (C) that re-enters the heart and is pumped into
- : through the systemic circuit.
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E
D
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Capillaries
of the head. neck,
and upper limbs
-- lL_
E
. .. ._. ..
])
:"rl-N'-H'l---l-+-t- Gastrointestinal
tract
Lower limb
102
See 119, 150, 152
Circulation of blood begins with the heart, which pumps blood
into arteries and receives blood from veins. Arteries conduct
blood away from the heart regardless of the amount of oxygen
(oxygenation) in that blood. Veins conduct blood toward the
heart, regardless of the degree of oxygenation of the blood.
Capillaries are networks of extremely thin-walled vessels
throughout the body tissues that permit the exchange of gases
and nutrients between the vessel interior (vascular space) and
the area external to the vessel (extracellular space). Capillar-
ies receive blood from small arteries and conduct blood to
small veins.
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Carbon dioxide,
waste products


Oxygen,
nutrients
Carbon dioxide
There are two circuits of blood flow: ( 1) the pulmonary circuit,
which conveys blood from the right side of the heart to the
lungs and fresh blood back to the left side of the heart, and
(2) the systemic circuit, which conveys blood from the left
heart to the body tissues and returns blood to the right heart.
The color red is used universally for oxygenated blood, and
the color blue is used for oxygen-poor blood.
Clearly, not all arterial blood is fully oxygenated (in the pulmo-
nary circulation, arteries conduct poorly oxygenated blood to
the lungs), and not all venous blood is oxygen deficient
(pulmonary veins conduct oxygenated blood to the heart).
Capillary blood is mixed; it is largely oxygenated on the arterial
side of the capillary bed, and it is largely deoxygenated on the
venous side, as a consequence of delivering oxygen to and
picking up carbon dioxide from the tissues it supplies.
One capillary network generally exists between an artery and
a vein. There are exceptions: the portal circulation of the liver
involves two sets of capillaries between artery and vein (Plate
119); the hypophyseal portal system involves two capillary
networks between artery and vein (Plate 152); and the renal
vascular system has a glomerulus and a peritubular capillary
plexus between artery and vein (Plate 150).
:ARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
@ff'[!(]()
:N: Use blue for A-A
4
, red for H-H
4
, and your lightest colors for B, C, I,
-J J. All dotted arrows (A
4
) receive a blue color; all clear arrows (H
4
)
o:eive a red color. (1) Begin with the arrows A
4
above the title list and
::;e the superior vena cava (A) in the illustration at upper right and color
-"structures in the order of the title list (A-H
3
) (2) Color the circulation
-3rt at lower right, beginning with the arrow A
4
leading into the right atrium
- _ Tleral 1 ). Color the numerals in order from 1 to 4 and related arrows.
: color the chambers or the vessels in this drawing at lower right.

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heart is the muscular pump of the blood vascular system. It
::itains four cavities (chambers): two on the right side (pulmonary
earl), two on the left (systemic heart). The pulmonary "heart"
- :iudes the right atrium and right ventricle. The thin-walled right
::-,um receives poorly oxygenated blood from the superior and the
-'erior vena cava and from the coronary sinus (draining the heart
essels). The thin-walled left atrium receives richly oxygenated
:cod from pulmonary veins. Atrial blood is pumped at a pressure
' 3bout 5 mm Hg into the right and left ventricles simultaneously
--::iugh the atrioventricular orifices, guarded by the 3-cusp tricus-
. ::: valve on the right and the 2-cusp bicuspid valve on the left. The
_sps are like panels of a parachute, secured to the papillary mus-
. 9S in the ventricles by tendinous chordae tendineae. These mus-
ss contract with the ventricular muscles, tensing the cords and
:osisting cusp over-flap as ventricular blood bulges into them dur-
. ;i ventricular contraction (systole). The right ventricle pumps oxy-
sn-deficient blood to the lungs via the pulmonary trunk at a
of about 25 mm Hg (right ventricle), and the left ventricle
_;mps oxygen-rich blood into the ascending aorta at a pressure of
: ::iut 120 mm Hg simultaneously. This pressure difference is
='!ected in the thicker walls of the left ventricle compared to the
;:,1t. The pocket-like pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves guard
s trunk and aorta, respectively. As blood falls back toward the
"O'ltricle from the trunk/aorta during the resting phase (diastole),
sse pockets fill, closing off their respective orifices and prevent-
.'.] reflux into the ventricles.
Fossa
oval is
Coronary
sinus
ANTERIOR VIEW
OF HEART CAVITIES
AND GREAT VESSELS
carneae
CIRCULATION
THROUGH
THE HEART
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105
See 102