Unit I

COMPUTER NETWORKS - ANGELIN ANGEL
1. DATA COMMUNICATION
Data communication is the exchange of data between 2 devices by means of any transmission medium. The effectiveness of data communication system depends on three fundamental characteristics. a) Delivery b) Accuracy c) Timeliness Delivery Accuracy : Data must be delivered to the intended devices (or) user : Data must be delivered accurately (ie) without alteration
Timeliness : The system must deliver data in a timely manner Components : A data communication system consists of five components. They are Five Components of Data Communication System Message Sender Receiver Medium : The message is a data (or) information to be communicated. It can be text, numbers, pictures (or) sound. : The Sender is a device that sends data. Various devices can be used to send the data. : The receiver receives information/message transmitted by sender. : It is a physical path through which messages passes from sender Receiver.
Ex: a .Twisted pair cable. b. Co-axial cable c. Fiber optic cable. d.
to
Radio waves.
Protocol
: Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. Protocol is a Predicated for communication.
Fig: Shows Data Communication Components
2. INTRODUCTION
Each of the past of the three countries has been dominated by a single technology. The 18th century was the era of the great mechanical systems accompanying the industrial revolution. The 19th century was the age of the stream engine. During the 20th century the key technology has been information gathering processing and distribution. During the first two decades of their existence, computer systems were highly with in a single large room. A medium sized company or university might have had one or two computers while large institutions had at most a few. The old model of a single computer serving all of the organizations computational need has been replaced by one in which a large number of separate but inter connected computers do the job. These systems are called computer networks. Two computers are said to be inter connected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not be via a copper wire. Fiber optics, micro waves and infrared and communication satellites can also be used. For Ex: Both distributed systems and computer networks need to move files around. The difference lies in who invokes the movement, the system or the user. There is considerable confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a distributed system a collection of to its user`s as a single coherent system.
3. Need of computer Networks

Definition of networks Computer network connects two or more autonomous computers by media links. Need of Computer Networks arises for various purposes and these are 1) To provide sharing resources such as information or processors. 2) To provide inter process communication among users and processors.
3) To provide distribution of processing function

4) To provide network users with maximum performance at minimum Cost. 5) To provide centralized management allocation of Network resources: Host processors, Transmission facilities. 6) To provide centralized for a geographically distributed systems.
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7) To provide an efficient means of transport large volumes of data among remote locations.
4. Advantages of Computer Networks

These above purposes must be fulfilled by various advantages of Networks. Resource sharing Resource sharing means the goal is to make all programs , data and equipment available to anyone on the network without regard to the physical location of the resource and user. High Reliability Network provides high reliability by having alternative source of supply Example: Suppose all files could be replicated on two or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable (due to Hardware failure) the other copies could be used. Communications A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium among widely separated people. Using a network, it is easy for two or more people who live far apart to write a report together. The following places use the networks a) A workstation for an air traffic controller.
b) An [Automated Teller Machine] ATM in a bank.

c) A point of sale terminal in a department store. d) An Electronic mail [E-mail.] e) A Computer used to automate the manufacturing process in a factory
5. Applications of Network
a)Marketing and Sales b) Financial Services c) Manufacturing i)Cable Television j)Electronic Data Interchange
d)Electronic Messaging
e)Directory Services f)Information Services g) Teleconferencing h) Cellular Telephone
Marketing and Sales Computer Networks are used in both Marketing and Sales organization. Marketing professionals use them to collect, Exchange and analyze data relating to customer needs and product development cycle . Ex: Teleshopping, OnLine Hotel Reservation Services ,On line Airline Services Financial Services a) Credit History searches b) Foreign Exchange and investment services c) Electronic funds Transfer[EFT] To transfer money without going into a bank An Automated Teller Machine[ATM] is a kind of electronic funds transfer Automated paycheck Manufacturing Two important Network Applications are used in manufacturing side CAD (Computer Aided Design) CAM (Computer Assisted Manufacturing ) Both of CAD, CAM which allows multiple users to work on a project simultaneously Electronic Messaging E-mail, or email, is short for "electronic mail" and is a method of composing, sending, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. Most e-mail systems today use the Internet, and e-mail is one of the most popular uses of the Internet(Inter Connection Of Networks). Directory Services Allow lists of files to be stored in a central location to speed worldwide search operations. Information Services a. Bulletin Boards b. Data Banks
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Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) Allows Business information to be transferred without using paper. Tele Conferencing Allows conferences to occur without the participates being in same place. A) Voice Conferencing B) Text Conferencing C) Video conferencing Video Conferencing A videoconference or video conference (also known as a video tele conference) is a set of interactive telecommunication technologies which allow two or more locations to interact via two-way video and audio transmissions simultaneously. It has also been called 'visual collaboration' and is a type of groupware. Videoconferencing differs from videophone calls in that it's designed to serve a conference rather than individuals. It is an intermediate form of videotelephony, first deployed commercially by AT&T during the early 1970s using their Picturephone technology. Text Conferencing Exchanging text messages in real time between two or more people logged into a particular instant messaging (IM) service. Instant messaging is more interactive than e-mail because messages are sent immediately, whereas email messages can be queued up in a mail server for seconds or minutes. However, there are no elaborate page layout options in instant messaging as there are with e-mail. The IM text box is short, and pressing the enter key often sends the text. IM is designed for fast text interaction. Instant messaging services may also provide videophoning, file sharing, PC-to-PC voice calling and PC-to-regular-phone calling. Instant messaging has promoted IP telephony because the IM software makes it easy to switch from "text chat" to "voice chat," providing the user has a headset or microphone and speakers. Cellular telephone Wireless phone connecting even while travelling over long distances. Cable Television Future services provided by cable television Network many included. A)Video on Demand B) Audio on Demand C)Video and Audio On Demand.
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6. Uses Of Computer Networks

a) Business Applications b) Home Applications c) Mobile Users d) Social Issues Business Applications of Networks A network with two clients and one server. Resource Sharing & Client Server Model
Business Applications of Networks (2) The client-server model involves requests and replies.
Strong Communication. Emails, video conferencing Manufacturing Processes Inventory control E-commerce Home Network Applications
Access to remote information (hobbies, newspapers) Person-to-person communication Interactive entertainment Electronic commerce Mobile user
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Social issues (e.g privacy issues,)

Home Network Applications (3)
7. Network Models
Centralized Network Model Here the Terminals allows user has to enter the data . But the processing is done on the server. It gives the ability to the user to access the data from the remote location. Distributed Network Model Here data storage and processing is done on the local computer . Hence the computers used in the distributed network are capable of working as standalone. But can be network together to inverse functionality.
8. Network Hardware
There are two types of transmission technology used for data communication network. They are : Broadcast links 2.Point to Point links A] Broadcast Networks Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the machines on the network . Short messages called packets sent by any machine received by all the others. B] Broad casting Broadcast systems generally also allow the possibility of addressing a packet to all destinations by using a special code in the address field. When a packet with this code is transmitted, it is received and processed by every machine on the network. This mode of operation is called broadcasting. C] Multicasting
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Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subnet of the machines something known as multicasting . One possible scheme is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting. The remaining n-1 address bits can hold a group number D] Point To-Point Pointto-Point networks consist of many connections between individual pairs of machines . To go from the source to the destination a packet on this type of network may have to first visit one or more intermediate machines often multiple routes of different lengths are possible so finding good ones is important to point-to-point networks. Point-topoint transmission with one sender and one receiver is sometimes called unicasting. E] Topology Definition Selection of Topology If you want to select a topology for doing networking , you have attention to the following points. Application software and Protocols Types of Data Communication Devices Geographic scope of the network Cost Reliability Types of Topology Depending upon the requirement there different topologies to construct a network 1. Bus Topology
2.Ring Topology 5. Hybrid Topology 6.Mesh Topology 3. Star Topology 4.Mesh Topology 7.Cellular Topology 8. Hierarchical topology
: Physical connection of computers (or) how the nodes are
geometrically arranged and connected to one another is called as topology.
Ring and Mesh topology are felt convenient for point to point communication. Star and Tree topology suitable are more conveninent for client server networks. Bus Toplogy is equally convenient for either of them.
BUS TOPOLOGY
Bus Topology uses multipoint cabling (i.e.) Multiple devices are connected by means of connectors or drop cables. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in the network Nodes are connected to the bus cable by drop lines or taps
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A drop line is a line running between the device and main cable A tap is connector that splices into the main cable. There is a limit on the number of taps used and distance between the taps. The signal becomes weak as it travels along the back bone link . Transmission Technology : [Broad Cast] When a device sends a signal down the bus, all the computers or the bus receive the information but only one accepts the information using address matching
Fig: BUS TOPOLOGY
Merits Easy to reliable and easy to use Cheaper than when compared with others Because of backbone less cabling is required The backbone can be extended by using the Repeater Cost of the network is low. No of I/O port required is less, Also the hardware is reduced. De Merits
Heavy network traffic can slow a bus considerably.
install, simple,
All computers share the same bus Re-configuration is difficult Fault identification is difficult Adding new nodes is difficult A Fault on the cable stop all transmission Signal reflection at the taps can cause degradation in quality. Star Topology
A star topology consists of number of devices connected by p by point to point links to a central HUB. The devices are not connected directly to one another. If a node wants to send data to another node it sends the data to central HUB, which then relays the data to the desired node. HUB are special repeaters that overcome the electro mechanical limitations of a media.
Fig: Star Topology
Merits Easy to modify and add new nodes to a star network without disturbing the rest of the network Each device needs only one link and one port. Less expensive, easy to install and easy to configure Easy to diagnose network faults and fault isolation If any link fails, it does not affect entire network Ordinary telephone cables can be used Robust topology De Merits Each device requires its own cable segment, so more cabling is required as compare to others Failure of the central HUB brings the entire network down In hierarchical network, installation and configuration is difficult Mesh Topology
Each and every computer is connected to each other with direct point to point link. The link shares traffic between the two nodes only
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Merits Use of dedicated links eliminates the traffic problems Better privacy and security is maintained since the message travels along the dedicated links. Mesh topology is robust Failure of any link will not cause failure of entire network Fault identification and fault isolation is easy De Merits Large amount of cabling is required Difficulty in installation Difficult to re-configure The number of I/O ports required is high.
Fig: Mesh Topology
Ring Topology In Ring topology , each device has a dedicated point to point line configuration only two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction , from device to device until it reaches destination A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination address to the frame. The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the destination node, which takes the data out of the frame. Single ring All the devices on the network share a single cable Dual ring The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in both directions. Ring Network passes tokens
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COMPUTER NETWORKS
Fig: Ring Topology
- ANGELIN ANGEL
Token:A token is a short message with the electronic address of the receiver
Merits Easy to install and re-configure Adding / deleting the new device easy as only two connection have to be adjusted Fault isolation is simplified No terminators required Every node is given equal access to the token no one node can mono poise the network De Merits Maximum ring length and no of devices is limited Failure of one node on the ring can affect the entire network Expensive when compared to other topologies Difficult to troubleshoot. Adding/removing computer disturbs the entire network
F. Categories Of Network Networks are categorized based on 1. Functional area 2. Topology 3. Technology used on Network architecture 4. Network Media 5. Web
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Functional Area : 1. PAN- Personal Area Network 3. CAN -Campus Area Network 5. GAN -Global Area Network
Based On Topology :
2. LAN -Local Area Network 4. MAN -Metropolitan Area Network
1.Bus Network 5.Star Network

Architecture
2. Tree Network
3.Ring Network
4.Cellular Network
6.Mesh Network 7.Hybrid Network 2.Peer To Peer network 2.Wireless Network
1.Client Server Network Medium 1. Wired Network

Web
1.Internet 2.Intranet 3.Extranet Special Networks 1. VAN-Value Added N/W 3. SAN-Storage Area Network LAN (Local Area Network) 1. Privately owned Network 2. Connects devices with in an office, building (or) campus ranging few kilometers in size. 3. Allows sharing of resources such as Hardware devices , Software and data. 4. LAN having data Rate 4mbps to 100 mbps.
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2.VPN-Virtual Private Network
5. Traditional LANs run at speed of 10 mbps to 100 mbps have low delay and make very few errors. 6. NewerLANs operate at upto10 Gbps. LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by 1. Topology 2. Protocols 3. Transmission Media 4.Size of the network
Example of LANs:
Ethernet LANs, Tokens Bus LANs, Token Ring LANs, FDDI
ETHERNET
When two or more machines want to transmit simultaneously. The arbitration mechanism may be centralized or distributed. IEEE 802.3 popularly called Ethernet. For e.g. a bus-based broadcast network with decentralized control, usually operating at 10mbps to 10gbps. Computers on an Ethernet can transmit whenever they want to; if two or more packets collide, each computer just waits a random and tries again later. A second type of broadcast system is the ring. In a ring, each bit propagates around on its own waiting for the rest of the packet to which it belongs. Broadcast networks can be further divided into static and dynamic depending on how the channel is allocated. A typical static allocation would be to divide time into discrete intervals and use a round robin
algorithm.
Dynamic allocation methods for a common channel are either centralized channel allocation method, there is a single entity. For Example : a bus arbitration unit, which
determines who goes next.

Fig. ETHERNET BUS TOPOLOGY
Fig: ETHERNET STAR
TOPOLOGY
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MAN
Metropolitan Area Network Can extend over entire city. It may be a simple network.
Such as cable television network (or) a number of LANs into a layer network.[Resource may be shared LAN TO LAN as well as device to - device] May be wholly owned. Operated by a private company (or) it may be a service provided by a public company. Such as local telephone company.
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Many telephone companies provide a popular MAN device called SMDS (Switched multi-Megabit Data Service). Range from 10km to a few 100 km in length. Special Technology of MAN ( DQDB (Distributed Queue Dural Bus))
Fig : ARCHITECTURE OF DQDB MAN
Two
unidirectional buses to which all the computers are connecters Each bus has a head end a device that initiates remission activity. Upper bus: It carries data to the right side computer. Lower bus: It carries data to the left side computer. Example of MAN: Telephone computers are called as SMDS.
Figure AG8. MAN NETWORK
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WAN (Wide Area Network ) It covers country (or) continent. Hosts are connected by a communication subnet Ex: Internet Subnet function Subnet is used to carry message from host to host just as the telephone system carries words from speaker to listener. Subnet consists of 2 distinct components: a) Transmission lines b)Switching elements Transmission lines Move bits between machines. Also called as circuits channels (or) trunks. Transmission lines can be made of copper wire,optical fiber or even radio links.
Switching Elements Switching Elements are Specialized computer They connect 2 (or) more transmission lines When data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an outgoing line to forward them on) Its called as 1.Packet switching nodes 2) Intermediate system 3) Data switching exchanges Now present day Switching computer is called as router.
Figure AG10. WAN
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Subnet Principle Data arrive on an incoming line, the switching element must choose an Outgoing line to forward them on. Subnet principle is also called as Point - to - Point technology or Store and forward technology or Packet Switched technology. Wireless Networks Wireless Network can be divided into three categories. 1.System interconnection. 2.Wireless LANS. 3.Wireless WANS. System interconnection is all about interconnecting the components of a computer using short range radio. To design a short range wireless network called Bluetooth to connect these components without wires. Bluetooth also allows digital cameras, headset, scanners and other devices to connect to a computer by merely being brought within range. Wireless LANS are system in which every computer has a radio modem and antenna with which can communicate with other systems. The third kind of wireless network is used in wide are systems. The radio network used for cellular telephones is an example of low band width wireless system. Home Networks Home Network are 1. Computers: (desktop pc, notebook pc, PDA, shared peripherals) 2. Entertainment: (Tv,DVD,VCR,camcorder,camera,stereo,mP3) 3. Telecommunications: (Telephone ,mobile telephone ,intercom, fax) 4. Applications:Microwave,refrigerator,clock,furnace,airco,lights. 5. Telemetry: Utility meter, smoke, burglar alarm,thermostat,babycam Internetworks Gateway to make the connection and provide the necessary translation both in terms of hardware and software. A collection of interconnected networks called an internetworks or Internet.
9 .Network Software
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A] Layers : To reduce their design complexity , most networks are organized as a series of layers or levels.Layers each one build upon the one below it. The number of layers , the name of each layer, the contents of each layer and the function of each layer . B] Protocol A protocol is a set of rules and regulations that governs data communications. Or A protocol is an argument between the communicating device. Or The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control and timing for the handshake between layers. It defined the method of communication . How to communicate? When to communicate? What is communicated? Key Elements of protocol Syntax : Syntax means Format of data The structure how it is presented Ex: First 8 bits - Sender address. Next 8 bits - Receiver address Rest of bits - Message data Semantics Semantics meaning of each section of bits Ex : The address bit means rate of transmission final (or) destination of the message. Timing a) What time data can be sent and b) How fast data can be sent Functions of protocols Orderly exchange of data message. Process synchronization Management of priorities at both the network entry and transmission levels within the networks Session establishment between network users
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Session termination between network users Flow control and congestion prevention Routing establishment and assignment of message and routing information Sequencing sequenced transmission and delivery of messages Addressing of network components and users Resource management, monitoring and protection Reliable message transmission , including errors control and recovery Testing of network resource such as links and routers Security and privacy C] Interfaces Each pair of adjacent layers, there is an interface. It defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer offers to the upper one. D] Entity Active elements in each layer are often called entities Entity can be a software entity (such as a process) (or) hardware entity (such as an intelligent input / output chip) Peer Entities Entities in the same layer on different machines are called as peer entities. Service available at SAP (service access point) SAP- Service Access Point PDU-Protocol Data Unit E] Protocol stack A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer is called as protocol stack. F] Service : Layers offer 2 types of services Connection oriented service User fist establishes a connection Uses the connection Then released the connection
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IDU-Interface Data Unit
SDU-Service Data Unit
ICI-Interface Control Information
The sender pushes objects (bits) in one end,the receiver takes them out in the same order at the other end. Ex:1) Reliable message stream service 2) Reliable byte stream Ex : Sequence of pages Ex : Remote log in
3) Un-reliable connection Ex : Digitized voice Connection Less Service :( Modeled Postal System) Each message carries the full destination address. The routed for data is determined independently for each packet. Two message sent same destination first one sent will be the first one to arrive Possible : i) First one delayed. ii) Second one arrives first. Ex :1) Unreliable Datagram. 2) Acknowledged datagram 3) Request Reply Service: Ex: Electronic junk mail Ex: Registered mail EX: Data base query
DIFFERENCE BEWTWEEN THE VIRTUAL CIRCUIT & DATA GRAM

Connection oriented[Virtual Circuit] Connection Less[ Data Gram]
A connection is established between the sender and the receiver Packets are numbered Acknowledge for each packet Route chosen when VC is setup and all packets follow this route Congestion control is easy using buffers In case of router failure al VC that passes through the router are terminated G] Layer Function
No connection between the sender and the receiver Packets are not numbered No acknowledgement Each packet is routed independently Difficult congestion control
Only crashed packets lost
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In reality no data are directly transferred from layer n on one machine to layer n to another machine. o Instead, each layer passes data and control information to the layer immediately below it, until the lowest layer is reached. o Below layer 1 is the physical medium through which actual communication occurs. Virtual communication is shown by dotted lines and physical communication by solid lines. o Between each pair of adjacent layer is an interface. The interface defines which primitive operations and services the lower layer makes available to the upper one. o A set of layers and protocol is called network architecture. The specification of an architecture must contain enough information to allow an implementer to write the program or build the hardware for each layer so that it will correctly obey the appropriate protocol . A message m is produced by an application process running in layer 5 and given to layer 4 for transmission. Layer 4 puts a header in front of the machine to identify the message and passes the result to layer 3.
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The header includes control information such as sequence numbers, header can also contain sizes, times and other control fields. Layer3 must break up the incoming message into smaller units, Packets. In this eg M is split into two parts M1 and M2. Layer2 adds not only a header to each piece but also a trailer and gives the resulting unit to layer1 for physical transmission. At the receiving machine the message moves upward from layer to layer.
Fig Example : Information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5
H] Service Primitives
o A service is formally specified by a set of primitives (operations) available to a user process to access the service. o These primitive tell the service to perform some action or report on an action taken by a peer entity. o The set of primitives available depends on the nature of the service being provided. Primitive LISTEN CONNECT RECEIVE SEND DISCONNECT Meaning Block waiting for an incoming connection Establish a connection with a waiting peer Block waiting for an incoming message Send a message to the peer Terminate a connection
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First the server executes LISTEN to indicate that it is prepared to accept incoming connections. After executing the primitive the server process is blocked until a request for connection appears The client process creates CONNECT to establish a connection with the server. The CONNECT call needs to specify who to connect so it might have a parameter giving the servers address. The operating system then typically sends a packet to peer asking it to connect. The client process is suspended until there is a response. When the packet arrives at server it is processed by OS. When the system sees that the packet is requesting a connection it checks to see if there is a listener. If so, it does two things. Unblocks the listener and send back an acknowledgement. The arrival of this acknowledgement then releases the client. At this point the client and server are both running and they have a connection established. The next step is for server to execute RECEIVE to prepare to accept the first request. Then the client executes SEND to transmit its request followed by execution of receive to get reply. After it has done the process, server uses SEND to return the answer to client. When the process is finished it can use DISCONNECT to terminate the connection. The client sends the DISCONNECT to the server. When the server gets the packet it also issues a DISCONNECT of its own, acknowledging the client and releasing the connection.
10.Example Networks
The Internet It is a vast collection of different networks that use certain common protocols and provide certain common services.
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Interconnection of multiple networks into a single large network. The ARPANET ARPA stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency.
The black dots represent telephone switching offices, each of which was connected to thousands of telephone. These switching offices were connected to higher-level switching offices (toll offices) to form a national hierarchy with only a small amount of redundancy. The subnet consist of a minicomputers called IMPs (Interface Message Processors) connected by 56-kbps transmission lines. For high reliability, each IMP would be connected to at least two other IMPs The subnet was to be a datagram subnet, so if some lines and IMPs were destroyed, message could be automatically rerouted along alternative paths.
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Each node of the network consists of an IMP and a host. A host could send message to IMP, which would then break into packets and forward them independently toward the destination. The subnet was the store and forward packet switching network. The software was split into two parts. o Subnet o Host The subnet software consisted of the IMP end of the host-IMP connection, the IMPIMP protocol, and a source IMP to destination IMP protocol designed to improve reliability. Outside the subnet, software was also needed, the host end of the host-IMP connection, the host-host protocol and the application software. DNS - Domain Name System was created to organize machines into domains and map host names onto IP addresses.
NFSNET
NSF stands for National Science Foundation. The complete network, including the backbone and the regional network was called NSFNET. ANS stands for Advanced Networks and Services. ANS took over NSFNET and upgraded the 1.5Mbps links to 45Mbps to form ANSNET.
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NSF awarded contracts to four different network operators to establish a NAP (Network Access Point) Internet Usuage: Internet Definition is that a machine is on the internet if it runs the TCP\IP protocol stack, has an IP address, and can send IP packets to all the other machines on the internet. The four main applications: 1. Email: The ability to compose, send and receive electronic mail. 2. News: Newsgroups in which users with a common interest can exchange messages. 3. Remote login: Using the telnet, users anywhere on the internet can log on to any other machine on which they have an account. 4.File Tranfer: Using the FTP program, users can copy files from one machine on the internet to another. The WWW (World Wide Web) made it possible for a site to set up a number of pages of information containing text, pictures, sound, and video with embedded links to other pages. By clicking on a link, user is transported to the page pointed to by that link. ISPs stand for Internet Service Providers Architecture of the Internet: Start with a client at home. Client calls his or her ISP over a dial-up telephone line Modem is a card within the PC that converts the digital signals the computer produces to analog signals that can pass over the telephone system. These signals are transferred to the ISPs POP (Point Of Presence) where they are removed from the telephone system and injected into the ISPs regional network. The system is fully digital and packet switched. FIG: Overview
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The ISPs regional network consists of interconnected routers in the various cities the ISP server. If the packet is destined for a host served directly by the ISP, the packet is delivered to the host. Otherwise, to the ISPs backbone operator. If a packet given to the backbone is destined for an ISP it is sent to the closest router and handed off there. A NAP is a room full of routers. LAN in the room connects all the routers, so packets can be forwarded from any backbone to any other backbone. In addition to being interconnected at NAPs , the larger backbones have numerous direct connections between their routers, a technique known as Private Peering. Intranets are accessible only within the company. Connections-Oriented Networks: X.25, Frame Relay and ATM: There are two reasons 1. Quality of Service 2. Billing. Once a connection has been setup, the connection will get good service Maintaining billing records is very expensive. X.25 and Frame Relay:
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Examples of connection oriented network is X.25, which was the first public data network. To use X.25, computer first establish a connection to the remote computer. This connection was given a connection number to be used in data transfer packets. Data packets consisting of a 3-byte header and up to 128 bytes of data. The header consisted of a 12-bit connection number, a packet sequence number, an acknowledged number. X.25 network were replaced by a new kind of network called Frame Relay. Frame Relay is connection oriented network with no error control and no flow control. Asynchronous Transfer Mode: Another connection-oriented network is ATM. ATM was going to solve all the worlds networking and telecommunications problems by merging voice, data, cable television etc. ATM Virtual Circuits ATM networks are connection-oriented sending data requires first sending a packet to set up the connection. Packet wends its way through the subnet, all the routers on the path make an entry in their internal tables noting the existence of the connection and reserving whatever resources are needed for it. Connections are often called Virtual Circuits. ATM networks are support Permanent Virtual Circuits which are permanent connections between two hosts. Each connection, temporary or permanent, has a unique connection identifier.
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FIG: A virtual circuit
Once a connection has been established, either side can begin transmitting data. ATM is to transmit all information in small, fixed size packets called cells. Cells are 53 bytes long, of which 5 bytes are header and 48 bytes are payload BYTES 5 HEADER 48 USER DATA
FIG: An ATM Cell
Part of the header is the connection identifier, so the sending and receiving hosts and all the intermediate routers can tell which cells belong to which connections. This information allows each router to know how to route each incoming cell. Cell routing is done in hardware, at high speed. Variable length IP packets have to be routed by software, which is a slower process. Another plus of ATM is that the hardware can be set up to copy one incoming cell to multiple output lines. i.e) a television program that is being broadcast to many receivers. All cells follow the same route to the destination. Cell delivery is not guaranteed, but their order is. If cells 1 and 2 are sent in that order, then if both arrive, they will arrive in that order, never first 2 then 1. But either or both of them can be lost along the way. It is up to higher protocols levels to recover from lost cells. The ATM Reference Model: ATM has its own referenced model. It consists of three layers, the physical, ATM and ATM adaptation layers, plus whatever users want to put on top of that.
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The Physical Layer deals with the physical medium: voltages, bit timing and various other issues. The ATM Layer deals with cells and cell transport. It defines the layout of a cell and tells what the header fields means. It also deals with establishment and release of virtual circuits. Congestion control is also located here. Above the ATM layer allow users to send packets larger than a cell. ATM Interface segments these packets, transmits the cells individually, and reassembles them at the other end. This layer is the AAL (ATM Adaption Layer)
FIG: ATM Reference Model
ATM model is defined as being three dimensional. User Plane deals with data transport, flow control, error correction and other user functions. Control Plane is concerned with connection management. The Layer and Plane management functions relate to resource management and Interlayer coordination.
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The physical and AAL layers are each divided into two sublayers, one at the bottom that does the work and a convergence sublayer on the top that provides the proper interface to the layer above it. The PMD (Physical Medium Dependent) sublayer interfaces to the actual cable. It moves the bits ON and the OFF and handles the bit timing. TC(Transmission Convergence) sublayer. When cells are transmitted, the TC layer send them as the string of bits to the PMD layer. At the other end, TC sublayer gets a pure incoming bit stream from the PMD sublayer. The AAL layer is split into a SAR(Segmenation And Reassembly) and a CS(Convergence Sublayer). The lower sublayer breaks up packets into cells on the transmission side and puts them back together again at the destination. Ethernet: Ethernet, the most popular LAN. Short-range radio: Each user terminal was equipped with a small radio having two frequencies: Upstream (to the central computer) and Downstream (from the central computer). When the user want to contact the computer, it just transmitted a packet containing the data in the upstream channel. Acknowledged on downstream channel. If there was contention for the upstream channel, the terminal noticed the lack of acknowledgement and tried again. Since there was only one sender on the downstream channel there were never collision there. This system called ALOHANET. It worked well under low traffic and badly when the upstream traffic was heavy.
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FIG: Architecture of the original Ethernet
Transmission medium is a thick coaxial cable upto 2.5km long, 256 machines could be attached to the system via transceivers screwed onto the cable. A cable with multiple machines attached to it in parallel is called a Multidrop Cable. Ethernet had a improvement over ALOHANET: before transmitting, a computer first listened to the cable to see if someone else was already transmitting. If so, the computer held back until the current transmission finished. A problem arises when two or more computers all wait until the current transmission completes and then all start at once. Solution is each computer listen during its own transmission and if it detects interference, jam the ether to alert all senders. Then back off and wait a random time before retrying. If a second collision happens, the random waiting time is doubled and so on. The Xerox Ethernet, 10-Mbps Ethernet called the DIX Standard. Ethernet is still developing. New versions at 100Mbps, 1000 Mbps and still higher have come out. Also the cabling has improved, switching and other features have been added. **********************************************************************
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UNIT II PHYSICAL LAYER Transmission media

Media Media describe the data path that forms the physical channel between Sender and Receiver.
Different types of Transmission media is used for different data Transfer rates and long distances. 1) Band width 2) Noise 3)Radiation 4) Attenuation are using the different Transmission media Transmission media In Transmission medium communication is in the form of electromagnetic waves Characteristics and Quality of transmission are determined both by the a) Characteristics of the medium b) characteristics of signal considered while
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Bounded (or) Guided media (or) wired med There is a physical path for the signal travelling. EX: Twisted pair cable and Co Axial cable accept and transports signals in the form of electrical current Fiber optic cable ---- a glass (or) plastic cable that accepts and Transports signals in the form of light.
Comparison of guided and unguided media:
Co Axial cable It consists of a stiff copper wire as the core. Surrounded by an insulating material.
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The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor often as a closely woven braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered by a protective plastic sheath
Characteristics of Co-axial Cable 1) 10 mbps is the transmission rate 2) Maximum cable length for Thin net is 185 meters, and for thicknet is 500 meters. 3) Flexible and easy to work with thin net 4) Ethernet designation to 10 base 2 (thick net) (or) 10 base 5 (thick net) 5) Less expensive than fiber optic cable but more expensive that twisted pair 6) Good resistance to electrical interference 2 types Broad Band co-axial cable 75 - analog transmission on standard cable as television cabling. Base Band co-axial cable. 50 - used for digital transmission. Co- axial Cable Standards Classified by a) Size (RG government ratings) b) Cable resistance
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Advantages
Inexpressive as compared to fiber optic cable. Installation is relatively simple. Co-axial cable must be grounded and terminated (Date rate 10Mbps) it used for longer distances It is used for both data transmission (i.e.): Analog and digital data transmission. It has higher bandwidth Easy to handle Excellent noise immunity
Disadvantages
Distance is limited No of node connection is limited Proper connectors and termination is must Application of co- axial cable: In Analog and Digital Data Transmission In Telephone network In Ethernet lans In Cable television Network Co- axial cable connectors: They are also known as BNC connectors BNC connectors Used in cable TVS Used in Ethernet network 3 types BNC connectors BNC connectors BNC T
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BNC terminator
Twister pair cable

A pair of wires forms a circuit that can transmit data. The pairs are twisted to provide protection against crosstalk, the noise generated by adjacent pairs. Types : 1.Shielded Twisted pair cable (STP): 1. It has a Metal foil that encases each pair of insulted conductors 2. Metal-Prevents Penetration of electromagnetic voice Advantages well understood technology Easy to add computers to Network Least Expensive medium Same medium as Telephone Pre existing phone wire may be place in workstations Disadvantages Susceptible to noise Limited maximum bandwidth Distance limitation Easiest to tap Requires Expensive support Electronic and Devices.
Unshielded twisted pair cables

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Consists of 4 pairs (8 wires) of insulated copper wires typically about 1 mm thick. The wires are twisted together in a helical form. Twisting reduces the interference between pairs of wires. Suitable for transmitting both data and voice. Contain 5 unshielded twisted pairs. Categories of UTP UTP comes in several categories that are based on the a.) Number of twists in the wires b.) the diameter of the wires c) the material used in the wires. Category 1 Used in telephone system Fine for voice but inadequate for all Low speed data communication Category 2 Suitable for data transmission Data rate 4 Mbps Category 3 Bandwidth 16 Mhz 11.5 dB Attenuation 100 ohms Impedance Used in voice applications and 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet Standard cable for telephone system Category 4 20 MHz Bandwidth 7.5 dB Attenuation 100 ohms Impedance Used in 10baseT (10Mbps) Ethernet Data rate 16 Mbps Category 5 100 MHz Bandwidth 24.0 dB Attenuation 100 ohms Impedance Used for high-speed data transmission Used in 10BaseT (10 Mbps) Ethernet and Fast Ethernet (100Mbps) Used for data transmission Data rate 100 Mbps Category 6 250 MHz Bandwidth 19.8 dB Attenuation 100 ohms Impedance Transmits high-speed data
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COMPUTER
Used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) and 10 Gig Ethernet (10000 Mbps)
NETWORKS
- ANGELIN ANGEL
Fiber Optic Cable (FOC) It is a light pipe which is used to carry a light beam from one place to another. Light: Light is an electromagnetic signal, and Can be modulated by information The modulated light travel along the fiber and at the far end They are converted to an electrical signal by means of a photo electric cell Thus the original input signal is recovered at the far end FOC transmit light signal rather than electrical signals Each fiber has a inner core of class or plastic that conducts light
The inner core is surrounded by cladding, a layer of glass that reflects the light back into core A cable may contain a single fiber, but often fibers are bundled together in a center of the cable
FOC cable may be multimode or signal mode Multi-mode fibers use multiple light paths Signal mode fibers allow a single light path They are used with laser signaling It is more expansive and greater bandwidth Types of Fiber All three varieties are constructed by
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1) Glass 2) Plastic 3) Combination of glass and plastic The three varieties of FOC cable are: 1) Plastic core and cladding 2) Glass core with plastic cladding (often called PCS Fiber , plastic clad silica)
3) Glass core with glass cladding (often called SCS -Silica-Clad Silica)
1. Plastic core and cladding Plastic fibers are limited to relatively short runs such as within a single building or a building complex.
Merits 1) Flexible 2) Consequently more rugged than glass 3) Easy to install 4) Less expensive 5) Weigh approximately 60% less than glass De Merits High attenuation characteristic 1) Do not propagate light as efficiently as glass 2. Glass core with plastic cladding: Low attenuation characteristics PCS fibers are slightly between than SCS fibers are less affected by radiation More attractive to military applications 3. Glass core and Plastic cladding: SCS fibers best propagation characteristics
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Easier to terminate than PCS fibers SCS cables are the best rugged and they are more susceptible to increases in attenuation when exposed to radiation. The selection of a fiber for a given application is a function of specific system requirements There are always trade-offs based on the economics and logistics of a particular application Fiber Sizes Presently available fiber cables are with specifications as 7.0 micron core / 125 micron cladding , single mode 6.25 micron core / 125 micron cladding , multimode 50 micron core / 125 micron cladding , multimode 100 micron core / 140 micron cladding , multimode Fiber Optic Cable Connectors
Three different types of connectors are used for connecting fiber optic cables These are
1) Subscriber Channel (SC) connector 2) Straight Tip (ST) connector 3) MT- RJ connector 1. SC connectors are general purpose connectors. It has push-pull type locking system 2. ST connectors are most suited for networking devices. It is more reliable than SC Connector. ST connector has bayonet type locking system 3. MT-RJ connector is Similar to RJ45 connector Characteristics of fiber optic cable Fiber optic cable has the following characteristics 1) Transmission rate of 100mbps 2) Not affected by the electrical interference. 3) Most expensive cable 4) FOC support cable length of 2km or more. 5) It supports voice, video and data. 6) It provides most secured media.
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7) Commonly used as backbones between buildings and token ring networks 8) Not very flexible, difficult to work. Advantages of Fiber Optic Systems 1. Wide bandwidth: The light wave occupies the frequency range between 2*1012 Hz to 3.7*1012 Hz. Thus the information carrying capability of fiber optic cables is much higher 2. Low losses: Fiber optic cable offers less signal attenuation over long distances. Typically it is than 1dB/km.
3 .Immune to cross talk : Since fiber optic cables are non-conductors of electricity Hence they do not produce magnetic field .Thus fiber optic cables are immune to cross talk between cables caused by magnetic induction 4. Interference immune: Fiber optic cables are immune to conductive and radioactive interferences caused by electrical noise sources such as lighting, electronic motors ,fluorescent lights 5. Lightweight: As fiber cables are made of silica glass or plastic which is much lighter than copper or aluminum cables. Light weight fiber cables are cheaper to transport. 6. Small size: The diameter of fiber is much smaller compared to other cables, therefore fiber cable is small in size, requires less storage space. 7. More strength: Fiber cables are stronger and rugged hence can support more weight. 8. Security: Fiber cables are more secure than other cables .It is almost impossible to tap into a fiber cable as they do not radiate signals. No ground loops exists between optical fibers hence they are more secure 9. Long distance transmission : Because of less attenuation transmission at a longer distance is possible 10. Environment immune: Fiber cables are more immune to environmental extremes. They can operate over a large temperature variations .Also they are not affected by corrosive liquids and gases.
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11. Safe and easy installation: Fiber cables are safer and easier to install and maintain. They are nonconductors hence there is no shock hazards as no current or voltage is associated with them .Their small size and lightweight feature makes installation easier 12. Long term: cost of fiber optic system is less compared to any other system.
Disadvantages 1) High initial cost: The initial installation or setting up cost is very high compared to all other systems. 2) Maintenance and repairing cost: 3) The maintenance and repairing of fiber optic systems is not only difficult but expensive also Comparision between co axial cable & Fiber cable
S.NO Co-Axial Cable 1 It uses electric signal for transmission 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Less affect by EMI Bandwidth is moderately high(350 MHZ) Support moderately high data rates(500 Mbps) Moderately costly Repeater spacing is 1-10 Km It supports all radio frequencies Low attenuation Fiber Cable It uses optical form of signal over a glass fiber Not affect by EMI Band width is very high (2 GHZ) Data rates is very high(2 Gbps) Costly Repeater spacing is 10-100 Km Frequency range is 902 MHZ to 928 MHZ Very Low attenuation
Wireless Transmission (or) (Unguided Media) Definition: Transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor Signals are broadcasted through air(as in a few cases water) Very useful in difficult terrain where cable laying is not possible. Provides mobility to communication nodes. Susceptible to rain, atmospheric variations and Objects in transmission path. Electromagnetic spectrum Predicted by the British physicist James clerk mark well in 1865 First produced and observed by the German physicist Hein Rich Hertz in 1887
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Frequency
The number of oscillations per second of an electromagnetic waves is called its frequency(Hertz)
Waves length The distance between two consecutive maxima(or) minima is called wavelength Speed of Electromagnetic waves: Travel at light speed(3x108m/s) Electromagnetic Spectrum contains a) Radio waves b)Micro waves c)Infra-red waves f)Gamma rays d) Ultraviolet rays e)X-rays frequency is high Because of o Do not propagate through solid building well o Damaged to living things o Hard to produce and modulate Radio transmission Radio communication is divided into 8 ranges called bands Each regulated by government authorities Bands are noted from VLF to EHF Medium waves use-very low frequency (VLF) Short Waves frequency use-Extra high frequency (EHF)
UV, x-rays, gamma rays are not used for communion even though their
VERY LOW FREQUENCY (3 KHZ-30 KHZ)

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Used for long range radio navigation and submarine communication. LOW FREQUENCY (30 KHZ-300 KHZ) Used for long range radio navigation and navigational lectors MEDIUM FREQUENCY (300 KHZ AND 3 MHZ) Used for AM radio, Marine radio, Radar direction finding(RDF) FREQUENCY (3 MHZ AND 30 MHZ) Uses for high frequency signals include A mature radio(ham radio) Citizens band (CB) International broad casting Military communication Long distance air craft Ship communication Telephone Telegraph Facsimile VERY HIGH FREQUENCY (30 MHZ and 300 MHZ) V H F television FM radio Aircraft am radio Aircraft navigational aid ULTRA HIGH FREQUENCY (300 MHZ and 3 GHZ) Uses for UHF include UHF television Mobile telephone Cellular radio Paging Microwave links SUPER HIGH FREQUENCY (3GHZ and 30GHZ)
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Uses for SHF include Terrestrial Satellite communication Microwave communication Rader communication EXTREMELY HIGH FREQUENCY (30GHZ and 300GHZ) Uses for EHF include Rader communication Satellite communication Experimental communication Radio waves easy of genie It can travel for long distance It penetrates through buildings easily
Properties: 1.Frequency dependent

2. At low frequency radio waves pass through obstacles 3. At high frequency radio waves travel in straight lines and bounce off obstacles Satellite Communication: Satellite transmission is much like line-of-sight microwave transmission in which one of the stations is a satellite orbiting the earth. The principle is the same as terrestrial microwave, with a satellite acting as a super tall antenna and repeater as shown in Fig. Although in satellite transmission signals must still travel in straight lines, the limitations imposed on distance by the curvature of the earth all reduced. In this way, satellite relays allow microwave signals to span continents and oceans with a single bounce. Satellite microwave can provide transmission capability to and from any location on earth no matter low remote. This advantage makes high quality communication available to undeveloped parts of the world without requiring a huge investment in ground based infrastructure. Satellites themselves all extremely expensive, of course, but leasing time or frequencies on one can be relatively cheap.
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An artificial satellite needs to have an orbit the path in which it travels around the earth. The orbit can be equatorial, inclined or polar. The time required for a satellite to make a complete trip around the earth, is referred as the period of satellite, which defines the period as a function of the distance of the satellite from the center of the earth. Period = c * distance 1.5 Where, C = constant (=1/100) Period is in second, Distance is in kilometers Categories of Satellites Based on the location of the orbit, satellites can be divided into three Categories: a)GEO b)LEO c)MEO
MEO - Medium Earth Orbit LEO - Low Earth Orbit Frequency Bands for Satellite Communication The Frequencies reserved for satellite microwave communication are in the gigahertz (GHz) range. Each satellite sends receives over two different bands. Transmission from the earth to the earth to the satellite is called uplink .Transmission from the earth is called downlink.
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GEO
the sending each
Satellites
Line-of-sight propagation requires that and receiving antennas be locked onto others location at all times. To ensure
constant communication, the satellite must move at the same speed as the earth so that it seems to remain fixed above a certain spot. Such satellites are called as geosynchronous. One geosynchronous satellite cannot cover the whole earth. One satellite in orbit has line-of sight contact with a vast number of stations, but the curvature of the earth still keeps much of the plant out of sight. It takes a minimum of three satellites equidistant from each other in geosynchronous Earth orbit (GEO) to provide full global transmission Figure shows three satellites each 120o from another in geosynchronous orbit around equator.
MEO Satellites Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites are positioned between the two Van Allen belts. A satellite at this orbit takes approximately 6 hours to circle the earth. One example of a MEO satellite system is the Global Positioning system (GPS) orbiting at an altitude about 18,000 km (11,000 miles) above the earth. The GPS system consists of 24 satellites and is used for land and sea navigation to provide time and locations for vehicles and ships. GPS is based on the principle called triangulation. GPS uses 24 satellites in six orbits as shown in fig. The orbits and the locations of the satellites in each orbit are designed in such a way that, at any time. Four satellites are visible
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from any point on Earth. A GPS receiver has an almanac that tells the current position of a satellite. It then sends a signal to four satellites and measures how long it takes for the signal to return .It calculates your position on the Earth. A GPS receiver can also show you where you are on a map. LEO Satellites Low-Earth Orbit (LEO) satellites have polar orbits. The altitude is between 500 to 2000 km, with a rotation period to 120 min. The satellite has a speed of 20,000 to 25,000 km/h . LEO system usually has a cellular type of access. A LEO system is made of a constellation of satellites that work together as a network, each satellite acts as a switch. Satellites that are close to each other are connected through inter satellite links (ISLs) .A mobile system communicates with the satellite through a user mobile link (UML) . A
satellite can also communicate with earth station through a gateway link (GML). The little LEOs are mostly used for low-data-rate messaging. Global star and Iridium systems are examples of big LEOs. Telegenic is an example LEO system.
2.4 THE MOBILE TELEPHONE SYSTEM

People now except to make phone calls from airplanes, cars, swimming pools, and while jogging in the park. Within a few years they will also except to send e-mail and surf the Web from all these locations and more. Wireless telephones come in two basic varieties: cordless phones and mobile phones (sometimes called cell phones). Cordless phones are devices consisting of a base station and a handset sold as set for use within the home. The mobile system, which is used for wide area voice and data communication Mobile phones have gone through three distinct generations, with different technologies. 1) Analog voice 2) Digital voice 3) Digital voice and data (Internet, email, etc., First-generation mobile phones: analog voice
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In 1946 the first system for car-based telephones was set up in St. Louis. This system used a single large transmitter on top of a tall building and had a single channel used for both sending and receiving to talk, the user had to push a button that enabled the transmitted and disabled the receiver. Such systems, known as push-to-talksystems, were installed in several cities often use this technology. In the 1960s IMTS (improved mobile telephone system) was installed. It, too, used a high-powered (200-wait) transmitter, on top of a hill ,but now had two frequencies, one for sending and one for receiving ,so the push-to-talk button was no longer needed. Since all communication from the mobile telephones went inbound on a different channel than the outbound signals, the mobile users could not hear each other. supported 23 channels spread out from 150MHZ to 450MHZ. due to the small number of channels; users often had to wait a long time before getting a Dial tone. AMPS (advanced mobile phone system): AMPS (advanced mobile phone system), invented by bell labs and first installed in the united states in 1982. It was also used in England, where it was called TACS, and in Japan, where it was called MCS-L1. In all mobile phone systems, a geographic region is divided up into cells, which is why the devices are sometimes called cell phones. In AMPS the cells are typically 10 to 20 KM across. in digital systems, the cells are smaller. Whereas an IMTS system 100KM across can have one call on each frequency , an AMPS system might have 100 10 km cells in the same area and be able to have 10 to 15 cells on each frequency in widely separated cells . Thus, the cellular design increases the system capacity by at least an order of magnitude, more as the cells get smaller. Smaller cells mean that less power is needed, which leads to smaller and cheaper transmitters and handsets. Handheld telephones put out 0.6 watts; transmitters in cars are 3 watts, the maximum allowed by the FCC. The cells are normally roughly circular but they are easier to model as hexagons. In the cells are all the same sizes. They are grouped in units of seven cells. Each letter indicates a group of frequencies. Each frequency set, there is a buffer about two cells wide where that frequency is not reused, providing for good separation and low interference. In an area where the number of uses has grown to the point that the system is overloaded, the power is reduced , and the overloaded cells are split into smaller micro cells
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to permit more frequency reuse, At the center of each cell is a base station to which all the telephones in the cell transmit. The base station consists of a computer and transmitter / receiver connected to on antenna. In a small system, all the base station are connected to a single devices called on MTSO [Mobile Telephone System Switching Office] Or MSC [Mobile Switching Center ].
At any instant, each mobile telephone is logically in one specific cell and under the control of that cells is waste station. When a mobile telephone physically leaves a cell, its base station notices the telephones is signal fading away and asks all the surrounding base stations how much power they are getting from it. The base station then transfers owner ship to the cell getting the strongest signal, that is, the cell where the telephone is now located. The telephone is then informed of its new boss, and if a call is in progress, it will be asked to switching to the new channel .this process called hand off, takes about 300ms easy. Handoffs can be done in two ways, , in a soft handoff, the telephone is acquired by the new base station before the previous one signs off, in this way there is no loss of continuity. The downside here is that the telephone needs to be able to tune to two frequencies at the same time. Neither first nor second generation devices can do this. In a hard handoff, the old base station drops the telephone before the new one acquires it. If the new one is unable to acquire it (e.g. there is no available frequency), the call is disconnected abruptly. Channels
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The AMPS system uses 832 full-duplex channels, each consisting of a pair of simplex channels. each of these simplex channels is 30khz wide. Thus, AMPS uses FDM to separate the channels.
The 832 channels are divided into four categories: 1. Control (base to mobile) to manage the system. 2. Paging (base to mobile) to alert mobile users to calls for them. 3. Access (bidirectional) for call setup and channel assignment. 4. Data (bidirectional) for voice, fax, or data Call management: Each mobile telephone in AMPS has a 32-bit serial number and a 10-digit telephone number in its PROM. The telephone number is represented as a 3- digit code in 10-bits, and a 7-digit subscriber number in 24bits. When a phone is switched on, it scans a preprogrammed list of 21 control channels to find the most powerful signal. The phone then broadcasts its 32-bit serial number and 34-bit telephone number. Like all the control information in AMPS, this packet is sent in digital form, multiple times, and with an error-correcting code, even though the voice channels themselves are analog. During normal operation, the mobile telephone registers about once every 15 minutes. To make a call, a mobile user switches on the phone, enters the number to be called on the keypad, and bits the SEND button. The phone then transmits the number to be called and its own identity on the access channel. If a collision occurs there, in tries again later. When the base station gets the request, it informs the MTSO. Second--Generation Mobile Phones: Digital voice The first generation of mobile phones was analog; the second generation was digital. Four systems are in use now: D-AMPS, GSM, CDMA and PDC.PDC is used only in Japan and is basically D-AMPS modified. D-AMPS the Digital Advanced Mobile Phone System The second generation of the AMPS systems is D-AMPS and is fully digital. It is described in international standard IS-54 and its successor IS-136. D-AMPS were carefully designed to co-exist with AMPS so that both first and second generation mobile phone could operate simultaneously in the same cell. In particular: DAMPS uses the same 30khz channels as AMPS and at the same frequencies so that one
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channel can be analog and the adjacent ones can be digital. Depending on the mix of phones in a cell, the cell is MTSO determines which channels are analog and which are digital and it can change channel types dynamically as the mix of phones in a cell changes. The upstream channels were in the 1850-1910 MHz range, and the corresponding downstream channels were in the 1930-1990 MHz range, again in pairs, as in AMPS. Many D-AMPS phones can use both the 850-MHz and 1900MHz bands to get a wider range of available channels. On a D-AMPS mobile phone, the voice signal picked up by the microphone is digitized and compressed using a model. The compression is done by a circuit called a coder. The compression is done in the telephone, rather than in the base station or end office, to reduce the number of bits sent over the air link.
One difference between AMPS and D-AMPS is how handoff is handled. In AMPS, the MTSO manages it completely without help from the mobile devices. As can be seen from in D-AMPS, 1/3 of the time a, mobile is neither sending nor receiving. It uses this idle slot to measure the lines quality. When it discover that signal is waning , it complains to the MTSO , which can than break the connection , at which time the mobile can try to tune to a stronger signal from another base station . As in AMPS, it still takes about 300 Msec to do the hand off. This technique is called MAHO (Mobile Assisted Hand OFF) GSM- the Global System for Mobile communications GSM is similar to D-AMPS .both are cellular systems. In both systems, frequency division multiplexing is used, with each mobile transmitting on one frequency and receiving on a higher frequency. Also in both systems, a single frequency pair is split by time- division multiplexing into time slots shared by multiple mobiles. However, the GSM channels are
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much wider than the AMPS channels and hold relatively few additional users, giving GSM a much higher data rate per user than D-AMPS. A GSM system has 124 pairs of simplex channels. Each simplex channel is 200 kHz wide and supports eight separate connections on it, using time division multiplexing. Each currently active station is assigned one time slot on one channel pair. The eight shaded time slots all belong to the same connection, four of them in each direction. Transmitting and receiving does not happen in the same time slot because the GSM radios cannot transmit and receive at the same time and it takes time to switch from one to the other.
Each TDM slot consists of a 148-bit data frame that occupies the channel for 577 uses. Each data frame starts and ends with three 0-bits, for frame delineation purpose. It also contains two 57-bit information fields; each one having a control bit that indicates whether the following information field is for voice or data.
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Eight data frames make up a TDM frame and 26 TDM frames make up a 120-msec multi frame. Of the 26 TDM frames in a multi frame, slot 12 is used for control and slot 25 is reserved for future use, so only 24 are available for user traffic.
The broadcast control channel is a continuous stream output from the base station containing the base station is identity and the channel status. All mobile stations monitor their signal strength to see when they have moved into a new cell. The dedicated control channel is used for location updating, registration, and call setup. Finally, there is the common control channel, which is split up into three logical sub channels. The first of these sub channels is the paging channel, which the base station uses to announce incoming calls. Each mobile station monitors continuously to watch for calls it should answer. The second is the random access channel, which allows users to request a slot on the dedicated control channel. If two requests collide, they are garbled and have to be retried later. Using the dedicated control channel slot, the station can set up a call. The assigned slot is announced on the third sub channel, the access grant channel.
CDMA-Code Division Multiple Access

D-AMPS and GSM are fairly conventional systems. They use both FDM and TDM to divide the spectrum into channels and the channels into time slots. CDMA is described in International Standard IS-95 and is sometimes referred to by that name. The brand name CDMA One is also used. CDMA is complete different from AMPS ,D-AMPS , and GSM .Instead of dividing the allowed frequency range into a few hundred narrow channels, CDMA allows each station to transmit over the entire frequency spectrum all the times Multiple simultaneous transmission are separated using coding theory. The key to CDMA is to be able to extract the desired signal while rejecting everything else as random noise. In CDMA, each bit time is subdivided into m short intervals called chips; there are 64 or 128 chips per bit Each station is assigned a unique m-bit code called a chip sequence to transmit a 1bit; a station sends its chip sequence. To transmit a 0 bit, it sends the ones complement of this chip sequence. No other patterns are permitted. Thus for m=8, if station A is assigned the chip sequence 00011011 it sends a 1bit by sending 00011011 and a 0bit by sending 11100100 .It is more convenient to use a bipolar notation, with binary 0 being 1 and binary 1 being +1.So a 1bit for station A now becomes (-1 -1 -1
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+1 +1 -1 +1 +1) Each station has its own unique chip sequence. Let us use the symbol S to indicate the m-chip vector for station S, and S for its negation. All chip sequences are pairwise orthogonal , by which we mean that the normalized inner product of any two distinct chip sequences , S and T is 0 .It known how to generate such orthogonal chip sequences
using a method known as Walsh codes. S.T = 1/m mi=1 Si Ti = 0 The follows normalized inner product of any chip sequence with itself is 1: S.S = 1/m mi=1 Si Si =1/m mi=1 Si2=1/m mi=1 (1)2=1 This follows because each of the m terms in the inner product is 1, so the sum is m . Also note that S.S = -1. For six examples of one or more stations transmitting at the same time. In the First Example, c transmits a 1 bit, so we just get Cs chip sequence. In the
second Example, both B and C transmit 1bits, so we get the sum of their bipolar chip sequences, namely: (-1 -1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1) + (-1 +1 -1 +1 +1 +1 -1 -1 )=(-2 0 0 0 +2 +2 0 -2) In the third example, station A sends a 1 and station B sends a 0. The others are silent .In the fourth example, A and C send a 1bit while B sends a 0bit. In the fifth example, all four stations send a 1bit. Finally, in the last example, A and B and D send a 1bit, while C sends a 0bit .
Third-Generation Mobile Phones: Digital Voice and Data

First, data traffic already exceeds voice traffic on the fixed network and is growing exponentially .Second; the telephone, entertainment, and Computer industries have all gone digital and are rapidly converging Back in 1992, ITU tried to get a bit more specific about this dream and issued a blueprint for getting there called IMT-2000, where IMT stood for International Mobile Telecommunications. The number 2000 stood for three things: 1) The year it was supposed to go into service 2) The frequency it was supposed to operate at (in MHz) 3) The bandwidth the service should have (in KHz). The basic services that the IMT-2000 network is supposed to provide to its users are: 1) High-quality voice transmission 2) Messaging (replacing e-mail, fax, SMS, chat, etc..,) 3) Multimedia (playing music, viewing videos, films, TV,etc..,) 4) Internet access (Web surfing, including pages with audio and video) The first one, W-CDMA (Wideband CDMA), was proposed by Ericsson .This systems uses direct sequence spread spectrum of the type. It runs in a 5 MHz bandwidth and
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has been designed to interwork with GSM networks although it is not backward compatible with GSM. The property that a caller can leave a W-CDMA cell and enter a GSM cell without losing the call. This system was pushed hard by the European Union, which called it UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System). The other contented was CDMA2000, proposed by Qualcomm. It too, is a direct sequence spread spectrum design , basically an extension of IS-95 and backward compatible with it . It also uses a 5-MHz bandwidth, but it has not been designed to interwork with GSM and cannot hand off calls to a GSM cell. Sometime 3G is called 2.5G; although 2.1G might be more accurate. One such is EDGE (Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution), which is just GSM with more bits per baud. The trouble is, more bits per baud also means more errors per baud, so EDGE has nine different schemes for modulation and error correction , differing on how much of the bandwidth is devoted to fixing the errors introduced by the higher speed. Another 2.5G scheme is GPRS (General Packet Radio Service), which is an overlay packet network on top of D-AMPS or GSM. It allows mobile stations to send and receive IP packets in cell running a voice system. When GPRS is in operation, some time slots on some frequencies are reserved for packet traffic. The number and location of the time slots can be dynamic managed by the base station depending on the ratio of voice to data traffic in the cell. To send an IP packet, a mobile station requests one or more time slots by sending requests to the base station. If the request arrives without damage, the base station announces the frequency and time slots allocated to the mobile for sending the packet. Once the packet has arrived at the base station, it is transferred to the internet by a wired connection.
****************************************************************** UNIT III

Data Link Layer design Issues Duties of Data Link Layer : 1. Addressing
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DATA LINK LAYER
Addressing 2.Error Control 3.Flow Control 4. MAC (Medium Access Control & LLC(Low Level link Layer 5.Framing -Framing Methods
Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames Create and Detect frame boundaries. It defines set of rules for flow control and error control and assign physical address to each device on the link. Data Link Layer uses MAC address(NIC Card Address-Physical address) to choose one node among several nodes , if the connection is not point to point. Error Control 1. An acknowledgement should be sent by the destination network , for To ensure the proper sequence of frame Safe delivery of frames at the destination 2. Receiver has sent 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT about in coming frames a. Positive Acknowledgements - means the frames has arrived safely. b. Negative Acknowledgements-something has gone wrong on the frame c. The frame is to be retransmitted 3. a) A timer at senders & receivers end is introduced b) sequence numbers on outgoing frames, so that the receiver can distinguish retransmission from originals. Flow control A slow receiver cannot accept all datas from the fast sender, because of receiver has a) Limited amount of memory to store incoming data b) Limited speed to receive the incoming data. To prevent the above problem A flow control is used. 1. Flow control is a set of procedures 2. It tells the sender how much data if can transmit before it must wait for an ACK from the receiver. Flow control mechanism include feedback mechanism .It request transmitter a retransmission of incorrect message block Retransmission of data in three cases i) Damaged frames
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ii) Lost frames iii) Lost Acknowledgements
Most common Re Transmission Techniques ARQ(Automatic Repeat Request). Error control in Data Link Layer is based on ARQ
Frame A frame is PDU(Protocol Data Unit) in Data Link Layer A packet is PDU in network Layer. A Data Link Layer header & footer are added to packet to create a frame . A frame is therefore said to encapsulate a packet. Different Framing Methods used in DLL : a)Character Count : It is the length of the frame is indicated in the frame header b) Start & Stop Characters : Specific characters or character sequences indicate frame beginning and end. C) Start and Stop Flags : Specific bit sequences indicate frame beginning and end. Services Provided to the Network Layer: 1. The function of the data link layer is to provide services to the network layer.
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2. The principal service is transferring data from the network layer on the source machine to the network layer on the destination machine. 3. On the source machine is an entity. Call it a process; in the network layer that hands some bits to the data link layer for transmission to the destinations. 4. The job of the data link layer is to transmit the bits to the destination machine, so they can be handed over to the network layer.
Fig: (a) Virtual communication (b) Actual communication
The data link layer can be designed to offer various services. 1. Unacknowledged Connectionless Service. 2. Acknowledged Connectionless Service. 3. Acknowledged Connection-Oriented Service. Unacknowledged Connectionless Service consists of having the source machine send independent frames to the destination machine without having the destination machine acknowledge them. No logical connection is established before hand or released afterward. If a frame is lost due to noise on the line, no attempt is made to detect the loss or recover from it in the data link layer.
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This class of service is appropriate when the error rate is very low so that recovery is left to higher layers. Acknowledged Connection Service is no logical connections used, but each frame sent is individually acknowledged. In this way, the sender knows whether a frame has arrived correctly. If it has not arrived within a specified time interval it can be sent again. With this service, the source and destination machines establish a connection before any data are transferred. Each frame sent over the connection is numbered and the data link layer guarantees that each frame sent is indeed received. It guarantees that each frame is received exactly once and that all frames are received in right order. Connection-Oriented Service is used for the connection is established by having both sides initialize variables and counters needed to keep track of which frame. In the second phase, one or more frames are actually transmitted. In the third and final phase, the connection is released, freeing up the variables, buffers and other resources used to maintain the connection.
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Fig: Placement of the data link protocol
Framing: 1. To provide service to the network layer, the data link layer must use the service provided to it by the physical layer. 2. What the physical layer does is accept a raw bit stream and attempt to deliver it to destination. 3. This bit stream is not guaranteed to be error free. 4. The number of bits received may be less than, equal to, or more then the number of bits transmitted, and they may have different values. 5. It is up to the data link layer to detect and if necessary, correct errors. Four Methods: 1. Character Count. 2. Flag bytes with byte stuffing. 3. Starting and ending flags, with bit stuffing. 4. Physical layer coding violations.
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First framing method uses a field in the header to specify the number of characters in the frame. When the data link layer at the destination sees the character count, it knows how many characters follow and hence where the end of the frame is. In fig four frames of sizes 5,5,8 and 8 characters respectively.
Fig: A Character stream (a) Without Error (b) With one Error
The trouble with this algorithm is that the count can be garbled by a transmission errors. For eg; if the character count of 5 in the second frame of fig above becomes a 7, the destination will get out of synchronization and will be unable to locate the start of the next frame. Sending a frame back to the source asking for a retransmission does not help either, since the destination does not known how many characters to skip over to get to the start of the retransmission. For this reason, the character count method is rarely used. The second framing method gets around the problem of resynchronization after an error by having each frame start and end with special bytes.
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In the past, the starting and ending bytes were different, but in recent years most protocols have used the same byte called a Flag byte. Two consecutive flag bytes indicate the end of one frame and start of the next one. In the below fig, a) represent a frame delimited by flag bytes and b) four
A serious problem occurs with this method when binary data such as object programs or floating-point numbers are being transmitted. It may easily happen that the flag bytes bit pattern occurs in the data.
One way to solve this problem is to have the senders data link layer insert a special escape byte (ESC) just before each accidental flag byte in the data. The data link layer on the receiving and removes the escape byte before the data are given to the network layer. This technique is called Byte Stuffing (Or) Character Stuffing. Bit Stuffing allows character codes with an arbitrary number of bits per character. Each frame begins and ends with a special bit pattern, 01111110. Whenever the senders data link layer encounters five consecutive 1s in the data, it automatically stuffs a 0 bit into the outgoing bit stream.
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When the receiver sees five consecutive incoming 1 bits, followed by a 0 bit, it automatically destuffs the 0 bit. If the user data contain the flag pattern 01111110, this flag is transmitted as 011111010 but stored in the receivers memory as 01111110.
original Data a) Original line. b) The data as they appear on the line. c) The data as they are stored in the receivers memory after destuffing. The last method of framing is only applicable to networks in which the encoding on the physical medium contains some redundancy. For eg; Some LANS encode 1 bit of data by using 2 physical bits. Normally a 1 bit is a high-low pair and a 0 bit is a low-high pair. The combinations high-high and low-low are not used for data.
Error Detection & Correction

Data can be corrupted during transmission because a.Noise b.Electro magnetic interference etc For reliable communication ,errors must be detected & corrected.
Data Link Layer (or) Transport Layer => Supports Error Detection & Error Correction
Types of Errors
Single Bit Error In a single-bit error, only one bit in the data has changed. (i.e) 1 to 0 or 0 to 1 Single Bit error is most likely happen in parallel transmission Ex : 000 000 10 000 010 10 ASCII STX [Start of text] - sending bit ASCII LF [Line of feed] - receiving bit
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Burst Error : 2 (or) more bits in the data unit have changed Not necessary that the errors in consecutive bits. Length of burst = first corrupted bit to last corrupted bit Most likely happen in a serial transmission. Error Detection It use the concepts of redundancy It means adding extra bits for detecting of errors at destination.
VRC LRC CRC
Vertical redundancy check (called as parity check) Longitudinal redundancy check Cyclical Redundancy check
1.To use in Data Link Layer ,VRC, LRC, CRC are normally implemented in Physical Layer
2.Checksum - is used primarily by upper layers VRC (Parity check) Simplest form To append a single bit called a parity bit to a string of data Two forms of parity check methods Simple parity check 2 dimensional parity check Simple parity check (VRC) In this technique, a redundant bit (parity bit) is added to a string of data. So that total number of is in the data becomes a even or odd Ex: Sender sends the word WORLD
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7 bit ASCII code for world
1. Now the word WORLD is received by the receiver without being corrupted in
transmission.
2. The receiver counts the 1s in each character

3. It comes up to with even number [6,6,4,4,4] the data would be accepted. Some bits are corrupted during transmission. So receiver receive as 11111110 7( 1s) 11011110 6 (1s ) 11101100 5 (1s) 11011000 4 (1s ) 11001001 4(1s)
The number of 1s comes as even and odd numbers[7,6,5,4,4], so the receiver knows: Data are corrupted So, discard them Ask for retransmission to the sender VRC Performance 1. The receiver can detect an error but it can not specify which bit is in error. 2. It can detect single bit error, it can not detect errors, when 2 bits are in error. Two Dimensional Parity Check[Longitudinal Redundancy Check] LRC A block of bits is organized in rows & columns Parity of each data unit is calculated
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A redundant row of bits is added to the whole block Attach 8 parity bits to the original data & send to the receiver
When the receiver checks the LRC, Some of the bits do not follow the even parity rule and the whole block is discarded[The non matching bits are shown in bold.] 10100011 10001001 11011101 11100111 10101010 [LRC] LRC Performance 1. If increases the like hood of detecting burst errors. 2. If two bits in one data unit are changed, & 2 bits in exactly at same positions in another data unit is changed, the checker can not detect error. CRC(Cyclic Redundancy check) Sender Side 1. CRC is based on binary division instead of adding bits as in parity check 2. A sequence of redundant bits called the CRC or CRC Remainder is appended to the end of a data unit .
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3.
So that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second predetermined binary number .
Receiver Side 1. The incoming data unit is divided by the same number 2. There is no remainder, the data unit is assumed to be intact , and is therefore is accepted. 3. A remainder indicates that the data unit has been damaged during transmission and therefore must be rejected. Note :Used Predetermined divisor ( 1101) A CRC generator uses modulo 2 division
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If the remainder is all zeros, the CRC is dropped and the data accepted, Otherwise the received stream of bits is discarded and data are resent Checksum The error detection method used by the higher layer protocols is called checksum. Check Sum Generator The unit is divided into k sections ,each of n bits All sections are added together using 1s complement to get the sum The sum is complemented and becomes the checksum. The checksum is sent with the data. Checksum checker
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The receiver follow this steps: The unit is divided into K sections, each of N bits. All section are added together using ones complement to get the sum. The sum is complemented. If the result is zero, the data are accepted: otherwise, they are rejected.
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When the receiver adds the three sections together, it gets.
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Error correction Error correction can be handled in two ways. 1. In one, when an error is discovered the receiver can have the sender retransmit the entire data unit. 2.If the other, a receiver can use an error correcting code which automatically corrects certain errors. Single bit error correction: Single bit errors can be detected by the addition of a redundant (Parity) bit to the data unit (VRC).A single additional bit can detect single bit error in any sequence of bits because it must distinguish between only two condition Error or no error. Two states are enough to detect an error but not to correct. It an erroroccurs when the receiver a reads a 1bit as a 0 or 0bit as a 1. To correct the error the receiver simply reverse the value of altered bit. To do so, however if must know which bit is in error. The secret of error correction, therefore is to 10cate the invalid bit or bits. Redundancy bits To calculate the number of redundancy bits(1) required to correct a given data bits(m) we must find a relationship between m and r. Figure shows m bits of data with r bits of redundancy bits added to them .the length of the resulting code is m+r. number of
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So, m+r+1 states must be discoverable by r bits and r bits can indicate 2r must be equal to or greater then m+r+1. 2r>=m+r+1 Table : Relationship between data and redundancy bits
Hamming Code
Hamming Code can perform error correction also along with detecting an error. Hamming code uses definite relationship between number of data bits and number of redundancy bits.
Positioning the redundancy bits: A seven bit ASCII code requires four redundancy bits that can be added to the end of the data unit or interspersed with the original data bits.
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These bits are placed in positions 1,2,4 and 8 [the position in on 11-bit sequence that are power of 2] for clarity in the examples below we refer to these bits as r1,r2,r4 and r8.
These bits are placed in positions 1,2,4 and 8 [the position in on 11-bit sequence that are power of 2] for clarity in the examples below we refer to these bits as r1,r2,r4 and r8. In the hamming code, each r bit is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits. r1 is the VRC bit for one combination of data bits. r2 is the VRC bit for another combination of data bits and soon. The combination used to calculate each of the four r values for a seven bit data sequence are as follows: r1: bits 1,3,5,7,9,11 r2: bits 2,3,6,7,10,11 r4: bits 4,5,6,7 r8: bits 8,9,10,11
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Calculating r Values : Now imagine that by the time the above transmission is received , the number 7 bit has been changed from 1 to 0. See below Fig
Single bit error: The receiver takes the transmission and recalculates four new VRC using the same sets of bits used by the sender plus the relevant parity(r) bits for each set (see Below Figure)
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Then it assembles the new parity values into a binary number in order of r position (r8,r4,r2,r1) In our example, this step gives us the binary number 0111(7 in decimal), which is the precise location of the bit in Error.Once the bit is identified receiver can reverse its value and correct the error. Burst error correction 1. A hamming code can be designed to correct burst errors of certain lengths. 2. The number a redundancy bits required to make these correction however is dramatically higher than that required for single bit errors. 3. The correct double bit errors. For example, we must take into consideration that the two bits can be a combination of any two bits in the entire sequence. Three bits correction means any three bits in the entire sequence and so on. Elementary Data Link Protocols 1. Frame 2. Stop & Wait ARQ 3. Selective Repeat ARQ SLIDING WINDOW PROTOCOLS Flow control A slow receiver can not accept all datas from the fast sender, because of receiver has a) Limited amount of memory to store incoming data
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4. Sliding Window ARQ
b) Limited speed to receive the incoming data. To prevent the above problem : A Flow control is used. 1. Flow control is a set of procedures 2. It tells the sender how much data it can transmit before it must wait for an ACK from the receiver. 3. Flow control mechanism include feed back mechanism . Feed Back Mechanism It request transmitter a retransmission of incorrect message block
Retransmission of data in three cases: 1. Damaged frames 2.Lost frames 3.Lost acknowledgements Most common Re Transmission Techniques ARQ(Automatic Repeat Request) Error control in Data Link Layer is based on ARQ
Simplest mechanism for EC & FC Operation : The sender transmits the frame when frame arrive at receiver it check for damage & acknowledge to the sender accordingly.While transmitting a frame, there can be four situations a) Normal operation a) Normal operation: 1. Sender sends frame 0, waits for acknowledgement ACK1 2. After receiving ACK1 sender sends next frame 1, waits for its acknowledgement ACK 0 . This operation is repeated. Usually a timer is set by sender after each frame is transmitted. Its acknowledgement must be received before timer expires
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b)The frame is lost C)The ACK is lost d) The ACK is delayed
b) Lost (or) Damaged frame: 1) Sender sends frame 0, & waits for acknowledgement ACK 1 2) After receiving ACK 1, sender sends next frame 1, & waits for acknowledgement ACK 0 3) But sender does not receive ACK 0, so, it retransmit the frame 1, waits for ACK 0 4) After receiving ACK 0.
Lost Acknowledgement
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1. When an acknowledgement is lost the sender does not know whether the frame is received by receiver. 2. After the timer expiree the sender it retransmits the same frame.
3. On the other hand, receiver has already received this frame early lance the second
copy of frame is disconnected.
Delayed Acknowledgement:
1. ACK frame may be delayed to some link problem 2. ACK is received after the timer is elapsed when the sender has already transmitted the same frame
3. Again second ACK is initiated by receiver for the retransmitted frame, hence the second ACK is discarded
To avoid duplication the ACKs must be numbered
Features of Stop and wait ARQ 1. Sender keeps a copy of last transmitted frame, until its ACK is received
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2. Both data frame & ACK frame are alternatively numbered 0&1 for identification of frame & to avoid duplication of frame 3. In case of damage (or) loss of frame, the frames are discarded, no acknowledgement is sent Frames are numbered sequentially to avoid duplication The sender maintains a timer, if ACK is not received is time, sender assumes it is lost The receiver sends only (+)ve ACK to the sender. Go Back N ARQ In stop and wait protocol [1 frame at a time] senders has to wait for every ACK the next frame is transmitted In go - back N ARQ [all frames at a time] all frames can be transmitted without waiting for ACK A copy of each transmitted frames is maintained the respective ACK is received Additional features of Go Back N ARQ: 1) Sequence number: They are maintained at the header of each transmitted frame K---> number of bits for sequence number Range --> 0 to 2k-1 Eg: K=3 (23-1) => 8-1 =>7 So . sequence number : 0 to 7
Sender Sliding window

Window => set of frames is buffer waiting for acknowledgement Window keeps on sliding is forward direction Window size is fixed As the ACK is received the respective frame goes out of window & new frame to be sent come into window.
Receiver sliding window

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1. In receiver side, size of the window is always one 2. Receiver except to receive frames in specific sequence 3. Any other frame received, which is out of order is discarded 4. The receiver slidesover after receiving the expected frame
Control variables
Sender - deals & different variables S - Sequence number of recently sent frame. SF - Sequence number of first frame is window SL - Sequence number of last frame is window Window size W=SL SF +1 Receiver Variable 1. Receiver delays with one variable only 2. R- Sequence no of frame expected ,If the no matches, then the frame is accepted other not. Timers 1. Sender has a timer for each transmitted frame 2. The receiver do not have any timer Acknowledgement Positive Acknowledgement - receiver send, after frame arriving safely 1. Damaged (or) lost frames receiver does not replay 2. The sender has to retransmit it, when timer of the frame elapsed 3. The receiver may acknowledge once for several frames Resending of frames: If timer for any frame expires the sender has to resend that frame and the subsequent frames also, hence the protocol is called Go back N ARQ.
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Operations a) Normal operation Sender sends frames & updates the control variables (ie): SF,S,SL And receiver updates variable
b) Damaged or Lost Frame

1. Damaged frame 2 is damaged or lost and if receiver receives frame 3, itwill be discarded since it is expecting frame 2. 2. Sender retransmits frame 2 and frame 3.
Selective Repeat ARQ 1. Selective Repeat ARQ retransmits only the damaged or lost frames instead of sending multiple frames.
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2. The selective repeat increases the efficiency of transmission and is more suitable for noisy channel. 3. The circuit complexity increases at the receiver side increases. 4. The size of sender window is one half of 2k. 5. The receiver window size is of same length as that of sender . 6. The receiver window includes the set of expected frames . 7. The boundaries of receiver windows are defined by RF and RL
Medium Access Sub Layer The data link layer is overloaded it is split into MAC and LLC sublayer.MAC sub Layer is the bottom part of the data link layer. This MAC deals with broadcast networks and their protocols.
Network classification 1. Use pointto-point connections in most WANs except satellite. 2. Use broadcast channels in most LANs The objective is to allocate the channel to : 1. Maximize channel utilization 2. Minimize channel access delay
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The Channel Allocation Problem
There are two types 1. Static channel allocation in LANs and MANs 2. Dynamic channel allocation in LANs and MANs Static channel allocation in LANs and MANs The usual way of allocating a single channel among the multiple users is frequency division multiplexing(FDM) .If there are N users the bandwidth allocated is split into N equal sized portions. FDM is simple and efficient technique for small numbers of users. When the number of senders is large and continuously varying (or) the traffic is bursty, FDM is not suitable. Simple queuing theory calculation T =1/ c- T = Time delay 1/ = mean frame length C= channel capacity = frame arrival rate for Ex : c = 100mpbs 1/ =10000bits = 5000 frames/sec T =200 msec Dynamic Channel allocation in LANs and MANs Assumptions : Station Model The model consists of N users (or) independent of stations. Stations are sometimes called terminals .Once the frame has been generated the station is blocked and does nothing until the frame has been successfully transmitted Single channel assumption A single channel available for all communications. All stations can transmit using this single channel. All can receive from this channel. Collisions If two frames are transmitted simultaneously they overlap is time and the resulting signal is disorder. This event is called a collision . All stations can detect collisions. A collided frame must be retransmitted again cater.
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Continuous Time : The frame transmission on the channel can begin any instant of time Slotted Time : The time is divided into discrete slots (or) intervals. The frame transmission in the channel begins only at the start of slot. A slot may contain 0,1 (or) more frames 1. zero frame transmission idle slot. 2. one frame transmission successful transmission 3. move frames transmission collision Carrier sense The state can tell if the channel is in use before trying to use it. If the channel is busy no station will attempt to transmit on the channel. No carrier sense The stations cannot tell if the channel is in use before trying to use. They just go ahead and transmit. Multiple Access Protocols Characteristics of multiple access channel 1. shared transmission medium a ) a receiver can hear multiple transmitters. b) a transmitter can be heard by multiple receivers 2. The major problem with multiple access allocating then channel between the users a) nodes do not know when other nodes have data to send b) need to coordinate transmissions Examples of Multiple access channels 1. LANs 2. Satellite channel 3. Wireless radio ALOHA The ALOHA protocols is a layer 2(layer 2 is the Data link layer of the OSI Model ) protocol for LAN Networks with broadcast topology .It was used for the first time in the packet radio system of the university of Hawaii in 1970. It is a predecessor to the Ethernet. There are two version ALOHA 1. PURE ALOHA 2. SLOTTED ALOHA
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Ex: Single receiver many transmitters
Pure ALOHA
In pure ALOHA any stations can begin to send at any time. Without listening to the medium first. Thus many collision occurs and throughput decreases when too many stations are attached to the network .
1. New arrives are transmitted immediately (no slots) a) No need for synchronization b) No need for fixed length packets 2. If the packet transmission time is T, then vulnerable period of pure ALOHA is 2T
In pure ALOHA protocols boxes indicate frames shaded boxes indicate from which have collided 1. If you have data to send, send the data 2. If the messages collides with another transmission try resending later . 3. The pure ALOHA does not check whether the channel is busy before transmitting Assumptions 1. All frames have the same length 2. Stations cannot generate a frame while transmitting (or) trying to transmit
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3. The population of stations attempt to transmit both new frames that collided according to a Poisson distribution. ALOHA Protocol ALOHA means Hello. ALOHA is a multiple access protocol at the data link layer and proposes how multiple terminals access the medium without interference (or) collision .The protocol allows every system to send a frame if it ready to send but when a collision occurs the node will wait for a random amount time and then send the frame again.The process continues till the node has sent all the frames. Slotted ALOHA In 1972, Roberts published a method for doubling the capacity of on ALOHA system. The slotted ALOHA protocols involves dividing the time interval into discrete slots and each slot interval corresponding to the time period of one frame. The station can not send any time but just at the beginning of a timeslot and collisions are reduced. If the packet transmission time is T, then vulnerable period of slotted ALOHA is T . Slotted ALOHA protocol boxes indicate frames. Shaded boxes indicates frames which are in the same slots.
1.Time is divided into slots of one packet duration Ex: fixed size packets. 2.When a node has a packet to send it waits until the start of the next slot to send it. 3.Requires synchronization If no other nodes attempt transmission during that slot, the transmission is successful. o Otherwise collision o Collided packets are retransmitted after a random delay.
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CSMA (Carrier sense multiple access)

CSMA : Listen before talk transmit(2BT) If channel sensed idle : transmit entire frame If channel sensed busy defer transmission Human analogy : dont interrupt others! CSMA We could achieve better throughput if we could listen to the channel before transmitting a packet. This way, we would stop avoidable collisions. To do this, we need Carrier Sense Multiple Access or CSMA protocols. Assumptions with CSMA Networks Constant length packets. No errors, except those caused by collisions. No capture effect. Each host can sense the transmissions of all other hosts. The propagation delay is small compared to the transmission time. There are several types of CSMA protocols: a. 1-Persistent CSMA b. Non Persistent CSMA c. P-Persistent CSMA 1-Persistent CSMA Sense the channel. If busy keep listening to the channel and transmit immediately when channel becomes idle.
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If idle transmit a packet immediately. If collision occurs : Wait a random amount of time and start over again. The protocol is called 1-persistent because the host transmits with a probability of 1 whenever it finds the channel idle.
Non Persistent CSMA Sense the channel If busy wait a random amount of time and sense the channel again. If idle transmit a packet immediately. If collisions occurs. Wait a random amount of time and start all over again. Trade of between one and non persistent CSMA: If B and C becomes ready in the middle of As transmission. 1. 2. 1 persistent : B and C collide Non persistent: B and C probably do not collide. o 1 persistent : B succeeds as soon as A ends. o Non Persistent : B may have to wait. P Persistent CSMA: o o Optimal strategy : use P Persistent CSMA. Assume channels are slotted
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If only becomes ready in the middle of As transmission.
One slot = contention period (i.e., one round trip propagation delay)
P-Persistent CSMA: 1. Sense the channel o o If channel is idle, transmit a packet with probability p. if a packet was transmitted, go to step`2 o if channels is busy, wait 1 slot and go to step -1. 2 . Detect collisions o If a collision occurs, wait a random amount of time and go to step -1.
o =>if a packet was not transmitted, wait one slot and go to step 1.
Non Persistent strategy Reduces chance of collisions The reduces the efficiency Persistent strategy Increases the chance for collisions 1.persistent P - persistent CSMA/CD (CSMA with collision detection)
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In CSMA/CD the station wishing to transmit first listens to make certain the link is free, then transmits its data then listens again. During the data transmission the station checks the line for the extremely high voltages that indicate a collision. If a collision is detected, the station quits the current transmission and waits a predetermined amount of time for the line to clear then sends its data again. Collision in CSMA/CD
All hosts transmit & receive on one channel packets are of variable size When a host has a packet to transmit : 1. Carrier sense: check that the line is quiet before transmitting 2. Collision detection: detect collision as soon as possible. If a collision is detected stop transmitting wait a random time then return to step1.
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CSMA/CD can be in one of three states Contention transmission or idle.
Bit Map protocol

In our first collision free protocol, the basic bitmap method. Each contention period consists of exactly N slots. If station 0 has a frame to send it transmits a 1 bit during the zero slots. No other station is allowed to transmit during this slot. Regardless of what station 0 does station 1 gets the opportunity to transmit a 1 during slot 1 but only if it has a frame queued. Since everyone agrees on who goes next there will never be any collisions. After the last ready station has transmitted its frame an event all stations can easily monitor, another N bit contention period is began. Protocols like this in which the desire to transmit is broad cost before the actual transmission are called reservation protocols.
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Binary countdown:
A problem with the basic the bitmap Protocol is that the overhead is 1bit per station so it does not scale well to networks with thousands of stations. We can do better than that by using binary station addresses. A station wanting to use the channel now broad costs its address as a binary bit string, starting with the high order bit. All addresses are assume to be the same length. The bits in each address position from different stations are BOOLEAN ORED together. We will call this protocol binary count down. To avoid conflicts an arbitration rule must be applied: as soon as a station sees that a high order bit position that is 0 in its address has been over written with a 1it gives up. For ex: If stations 0010, 0100, 1001 & 1010 are all trying to get the channel in the first bit time the stations transmit 0, 0,1 and 1 respectively. These are 0 red together to form a1. Stations 0010 and 0100 see the 1 and know that a higher. Numbered stations is computing for the channel, so they give up for the current round. Stations 1001 and 1010 continue. The next bit is 0 and both stations continue. The next bit is 1 so station 1001 gives up. The winner is station 1010 because it has the highest address. After winning the bidding it may know transmit a frame after which another bidding cycle starts.
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UNIT IV Network layer Design Issues Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
Network Layer
Services Provided to the Transport Layer Implementation of Connectionless Service Implementation of Connection-Oriented Service Comparison of Virtual-Circuit and Datagram Subnets Store-and-Forward Packet Switching
The environment of the network layer protocols
Services Provided to Transport Layer N/W layer provides the services to the Transport layer at the Network Layer / Transport layer interface The Network layer must full fill the following requirements The service should be independent of Network Topology. The Network address should be made available to the transport with a uniform numbering plan The Transport Layer should be slide from the No ,type & Topology of the routers present Internal Organization of the Network Layer Network layer offer 2 service 1. Connection oriented service Connection Less Service It is also known as datagrams. 2. Connection less service
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Datagram is a self contained message unit which contains sufficient information to allow it to be routed from Source to Destination . Datagram system is analogous to postal system Each packet contains the full Source to Destination Address Each packet follows different route from Source to Destination & they do not necessarily arrive in same order as they were Transmitted Connection Oriented Service It is also known as virtual circuit * Virtual circuit is similar to Telephone system Three Phases to Transmit Packets a) Establishment Phase b) Data Transfer Phase [E.C & F.C service ] c) Connection Release Phase Comparison between Virtual circuit & Datagram Subnet (ie) No sequence ,Flow control
Routing Main function of Network Layer is to route packets from Source to Destination To accomplish this , a route through the Network must be selected , generally more then one route is possible
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The selection of route is generally based on some performance criteria Simplest Criteria To choose shortest root through the Network. Shortest root means a route that passes through the least number of nodes This shortest root selection results is least number of hopes per packet Properties of Routing Algorithms 1. Correctness 5. Fairness 2. Simplicity 6. Optimality 3. Robustness 4. Stability
Routing Algorithm classification Based on their respective, it can be classified into two ways 1) Static (non adaptive) Routing algorithms 2) Dynamic (adaptive) Routing algorithms Static(Non Adaptive ) Routing Algorithms Network Topology determines the initial paths The pre calculated paths are then loaded to the routing table & are fixed for a longer period Suitable for small Networks . Disadvantage Inability to respond quickly to Networks failure Dynamic Routing Algorithms (adaptive) Change their Routing decision if there is change is Topology , traffic . Thus a change is Network Topology is eventually propagated to all the Routers Based on this information gathered , each router computers the suitable path to the destination Disadvantage Its complexity is the router Routing Tables Once the routing decision is made this information is to be stored in routing table , so that the router knows how to forward the packet Design Goal of Routing algorithms
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1. Optimality 3. Robustness & Stability Types of Routing Algorithms
2. Simplicity & low over head 4.Rapid convergence 2.Flooding 4.Broad cast 5. Flexibility
1.Shortest path Routing Algorithms 3. Hierarchical Routing Shortest path Routing Algorithms
In shortest path routing the path length between each node is measured by a) Function of Distance b) Communication cost b. Bandwidth d.Mean Queue length c. Average traffic e.Measured delay
Each node of the graph , representing a router Each are of the graph representing a communication link To choose a router between a given pair of routers , the algorithm just finds the shortest path between on the graph . Two algorithms for computing the shortest path between two nodes of a graph 1.Dijkstras Algorithm Dijkstras Algorithm Each node is labeled with its distance Stepwise proceeding of algorithm is as follows Step 1: Source node is initialized & can be indicated as a filled circle Step 2: Initial path cost to neighboring nodes (adjacent nodes) or link cost is computed & these nodes are relabeled considering source node Step 3: Examine the all adjacent nodes , & final the smallest label make it permanent Step 4: The smallest node is now working node then step 2 ,step 3 are repeated fill the destination node reaches 2.Bellman-ford Algorithm
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Hence the shortest path between node A & node H is ADEH .

Bellman Ford Algorithm From source node at each step least cost path with maximum of links are found Finally the cost of that path to each node & the cost of that path is computed Example: Find shortest path between node A & node H
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So , the shortest distance is ADEH ,the result is same as in Dijkstras algorithm .

Flooding: This techniques requires number network information A part is sent by a source node to all its adjacent nodes At each node , every incoming packet is retransmitted on, on every outgoing links ,except the link that it arrived from Flooding generates large number of duplicate packets One way to prevent this is for each node to renumber the identify of those packets it has already sent When duplicate packets arrive they are discarded 1. HOP counter in Header of each packet which is determined at each hop 2.When the count reaches zero the packet is discarded Selective flooding The routers do not retransmit every incoming packets on all links but only on those links that are in right direction Advantage
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1. Highly Robust. Disadvantage
2.Used in military Network Applications
Total traffic load directly proportional to the connectivity of the Network

Requires
much large bandwidth
Broad cost Routing Transmitting data to the multi destinations simultaneously called broadcasting Broadcasting methods : 1.Flooding forwarding Flooding Multi Destination Routing Each packet contain entire destination addresses When a packet arrives at a router , the router checks the address & selects proper links for Transmission Router generates new copy of packets for each links with selected destination address
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2.Multi destination Routing
3.Reverse path
After few hops each packet will carry only one destination address Reverse path forwarding The Broadcast packet is transmitted by a source if arrives at a router The router checks the packet whether it is from preferred path. & Router sends it on the best route path A tree is formed by reverse path forwarding Advantage : It is efficient Simple to implement To maintain Destination address by router is not required
During First HOP
A senders packets to B,C,D,E Each packets arrived on preferred path to A So indicated by a circle around the letter On the Second Hop
1. 7 packets are generated
2) 2 from routers B ,C ,E
3) 1 from D
The packets on preferred paths are then generates further packets Packets received on F,G,H,J are on preferred path. In the Third HOP 13 packets are generated
Packet W is not on preferred path , so it is rejected
This process continues & after specific NOS of hops the broadcasting terminates. +++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++
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Transport Layer Service Duties Of Transport Layer Layer breaks messages into packets It performs error recovery & if the lower layers are not adequately error free This layer can be responsible for setting to & releasing connections across the network Data Link Layer Delivery of frames between 2 neighboring nodes over a link It is called as node-node delivery Network Layer Responsible for host host delivery (i.e) Delivery of datagrams between 2 hosts Transport Layer Responsible for process to process delivery (i.e) delivery of a packet , a part of a message from one process to another Connection Oriented Service A router connect be setup before any database sent User fist establishes a connection
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Uses the connection Then released the connection The sender pushes objects (bits) in one end,the receiver takes them out in the same order at the other end. Connection Oriented Service are of following 1) Reliable message stream service Ex: Sequence of pages 2) Reliable byte stream Ex: Remote log in 3) Un-reliable connection Ex: Digitized voice Connection Less Service: ( Modeled postal system) Each message carries the full destination address.
The router for data is determined independently for each packet. Two message sent same destination first one sent will be the first one to arrive Possible i) First one delayed.
1) Unreliable datagram.
ii) Second one arrives first.
Connectionless services are of following
Ex: Electronic funk mail

2) Acknowledged datagram Ex:Registered mail 3) Request Reply Service EX: Data base query
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Quality of Service 4 types of characteristics are attributed to a f low . A Stream of packets from a source to destination is called flow. They are a)Reliability b)Delay Reliability Losing packet or acknowledgment means a lack of reliability which requires retransmission of packets. Measured by a)Accuracy b)Failure Rate c)Establishment time Delay : Delay is related to source to destination flow Jitter : 1. Variation in delay for packets belonging to the same flow. 2. Real time audio and video cannot tolerate high jitter.
The Application with their QOS requirement are as follows
c)Jitter
d)Bandwidth
d) Robustness
QOS(Quality of Service) Parameters Specified by the transport user when a connection is requested. Connection Establishment delay: Amount of time elapsing between a transport connection being requested and the confirmation being received by the user of transport service. Connection Establishment failure probability: Chance of a connection not being established with in the maximum establishment delay time. Throughput Measures the number of bytes of user data transferred per second. Measured separately for each connection. Transit delay Measures the time between a message being sent by the transport user on the source machine & its being received by the transport user on the destination machine. Residual Error Ratio : Number of lost messages as a fraction of the total sent.
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Protection Trasnport Layer provide protection against unauthorized third parties(wiretappers) reading (or) modifying the transmitted data. Priority : To provides a way for a transport user to indicate that come Ex: In the event of congestion higher priority connections get serviced before the lower priority ones. Resilience Probability of Transport layer itself spontaneously terminating a connection due to internal problems (or) congestion. Element of Transport Protocols Services provided by Transport protocols can be divided into 7 broad categories 1.Addressing 5.Buffering Addressing All layer uses different addressing methods to deliver something to one specified destination among many. Data Link Layer Address D/L users MAC address to choose one node among several nodes, if the connection is not point to point. Network Layer Address If user internet protocol address to choose one host among million of host. EX: In the N/w Layer Datagram needs a destination I/p address for delivery Source I/P address for a destination reply. TRANSPORT LAYER It requires a transport layer address called a port number. To select a many multiple process running on the host. EX: Source port a number is used for reply , Destination port number for delivery. PORT Numbers Port numbers from 0 to 65,535 is used in internet.
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2.Establish a connection 6.Multiplexing
3.Releasing a connection 7.Crash Recovery
4. Flow control
It is a 16 bits integer. IANA (Internet Assigned Number Authority) IANA has divided the port no into three ranges. There are Well Known Ports Server also defines a port number but not randomly. Internet has divided to use universal port numbers for servers, these are called well known port numbers. Ex: Range (0 to 1023) Well known applications protocols HTTP use well known ports 1. Well known ports 2. Registered ports 3. Dynamic ports
Connection Establishment During Connection establishment happen between process, below some events occur a. Connection Establishemnt request may be not reach to destination process b. Connection Establishemnt acceptance acknowledgement lost c. Data Lost because of time out d. One data may be sent more than one time(Duplicates)
To solve the all problem:
Three ways hand shake method is used .This method is introduced by Tomilson
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Connection Release : [2 Styles of terminating a connection] Symmetric release A ) It treats the connection 2 separate unidirectional connection. B) Each one to be released separately. Asymmetric Release 1. When one party hangs up, the connections is broken. Ex: Telephone system.
2.
Asymmetric Release is abrupt and may result in data
Fig : Abrupt Disconnection With Loss Of Data In Asymmetric Release Loss
Figure shows After the connection is established , host 1 sends a TPDU that arrives properly at host 2 The host 1 sends another TPDU . Unfortunately host 2 issues a DISCONNECT before the second TPDU arrives. The result is that the connection is released and data are lost Famous protocol Three way hand sake method Three way Hand shake method is a best method It is used to solve the problem Four Protocol Scenarios for Releasing the connection 1. Normal Case of three way Hand shake
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Flow control & Buffering Flow Control problem is same as in data link Layer & Transport Layer. In transport layer, frames were buffered at both the sending router and at the receiving router. In Data link Layer, the sending side must buffer outgoing frames because they might have to be retransmitted. Multiplexing And DeMultiplexing Addressing mechanism allows multiplexing and de multiplexing by the Transport layer. Transport layer provides Process to Process delivery Transport Layer needs two identifiers a) IP Address b) Port number Each end to mark a connection need socket address
Socket address = IP address + port number

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Client socket defines - client Process Uniquely Server socket defines - Server Process Uniquely A transmission Layer protocols needs a pair of Two sockets addresses: a) Client Socket Address b) Server Socket Address
Multiplexing Job of gathering data chunks at the source lost from different sockets Each data chunks with header information to create segments The passing segments to the N/W Layer is called Multiplexing De Multiplexing Each T/L segment has a set of fields in the segment At receiving end , the T/L examines the fields to identify the receiving socket. * The directs the segments to the socket
JOB OF DELIVERING DATA IN A TRANSPORT LAYER SEGMENT TO THE CORRECT SOCKET IS CALLED DEMULTIPLEXING
T/L Multiplexing Requires 1) That socket has unique identifiers 2) Each segment have special fields that indicates the socket to which the segment to be delivered.
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The Transport Layer: The transport layer is the heart of the whole protocol hierarchy. Its task is to provide reliable, cost-effective data transport from the source machine to the destination machine, independently of the physical network. The Transport Service: Service Provided to the Upper Layers: The ultimate goal of the transport layer is to provide efficient, reliable and co-effective service to its users. To achieve this goal, the transport layer makes use of the services provided by the network layer. The hardware/software within the transport layer that does the work is called the Transport entity. The transport entity can be located in the operating system kernel, in a separate user process.
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Fig: The network, Transport, and Application Layers
There are two types of network service, connection-oriented and connectionless, there are also two types of transport service. The connection-oriented transport service is similar to the connection-oriented network service in many ways. In both cases, connections have three phases: establishment, data transfer and release. Addressing and flow control are also similar in both layers. Further more, the connectionless transport service is also very similar to the connectionless network service. o The transport code runs entirely on the users machines, but the network layer mostly runs on the routers, which are operated by the carrier. o The bottom four layers can be seen as the transport service provider, whereas the upper layer(s) are the transport service user.
Transport Service Primitives:

To allow users to access the transport service, the transport layer must provide some operations to application programs, that is, a transport service interface.Each transport service has its own interface. The transport service is similar to the network service, but there are also some important differences. The main difference is that the network service is unreliable. The transport service is reliable.
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A second difference between the network service and transport service is whom the services are intended for. The network service is used only by the transport, entities. The transport service must be convenient and easy to use. Transport services consider the five primitives.
Acronym TPDU (Transport Protocol Data Unit) for messages sent from transport entity to transport entity. Thus, TPDUs are contained in packets. In turn, packets are contained in frames. When a frame arrives, the data link layer processes the frame header and passes the contents of the frame payload field up to the network entity. The network entity processes the packet header and passes the contents of the packet payload up to the transport entity. Client-server example, the clients CONNECT call causes a CONNECTION REQUEST TPDU to be sent to the server. When it arrives, the transport entity checks to see that the server is blocked on a LISTEN. o It then unblocks the server and sends a CONNECTION ACCEPTED TPDU back to the client. When this TPDU arrives, the client is unblocked and the connection is established. Data can now be exchanges using the SEND and RECEIVE primitives
When a connection is no longer needed, it must be released. Disconnection has two variants: Asymmetric and Symmetric.
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In the asymmetric variant, either transport user can issue a DISCONNECT primitive, the connection is released. In the symmetric variant, each direction is closed separately, independently of the other one. When one side does a DISCONNECT, that means it has no more data to send but it can accept data.
Elements of Transport Protocols:

The transport service is implemented by a transport protocol used between the two transport entities. At the data link layer, two routers communicate directly via a
physical channel, whereas at the transport layer, this physical channel is replaced by the entire subnet.
Fig: (a) Environment of the data link layer (b) Environment of the transport layer
In the data link layer, it is not necessary for a router to specify which router it wants to talk to. In the transport layer, explicit addressing of destinations is required. The process of establishing a connection over the wire of fig is simple. In the transport layer, initial connection establishment is more complicated. Difference between the data link layer and the transport layer is the potential existence of storage capacity in the subnet. Buffering and flow control are needed in both layers, but the presence of a large and dynamically varying number of connections in the transport layer may require a different approach than in the data link layer.
Addressing
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When an application process wishes to set up a connection to a remote application process, it must specify which one to connect to. The method normally used is to define transport addresses to which processes can listen for connection requests. In the internet, these end points are called ports. In ATM networks, they are called AALSAPs. End points in the network layer are then called NSAPs. Application processes, both clients and servers, can attach themselves to a TSAP to establish a connection to a remote TSAP. These connections through NSPs on each host. The purpose of having TSAPs is that is some networks, each computer has a single NSAP, so some way is needed to distinguish multiple transport end points that share that NSAP.
Fig: TSAPs, NSAPs, and transport connections
Server process on host 2 attaches itself to TSAP 1522 to wait for an incoming call. An application process on host1 wants to issues a CONNECT request specifying TSAP 1208 as the source and TSAP 1522 as the destination. Results in a transport connection being established between the application process on host1 and server1 on host2.
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The application process then sends over a request for the time. The transport connection is then released. A special process called a name server or sometimes a directory server. To find the TSAP address corresponding to a given service name, a user sets up a connection to the name server. The user then sends a message specifying the service name, and the name server sends back the TSAP address. Then the user releases the connection with the name server and establishes a new one with the desired service.
Connection Establishment:
Packet lifetime can be restricted to a known maximum using one of the following techniques. Restricted subnet design. Putting a hop counter in each packet.
Time stamping each packet. The first method includes any method that prevents packets from looping combined with some way of bounding congestion delay over the longest possible path. The second method consists of having the hop count. Initialized to some appropriate value and decremented each time the packet is forwarded. The network protocol simply discards any packet whose hop counter becomes zero. The third method requires each packet to bear the time it was created, with the routers agreeing to discard any packet older than some agreed-upon time. The illegal combinations of time and sequence number are shown as the forbidden region. Suppose for example, that connections are established by having host1 send a CONNECTION REQUEST TPDU containing the proposed initial sequence number and destination port number to a remote peer, host2. The receiver, host2 then acknowledged this request by sending a CONNECTION ACCEPTED TPDU back.
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If the CONNECTION REQUEST TPDU is lost but a delayed duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST suddenly shows up at host2, the connection will be established incorrectly. The three way handshake, this establishment protocol does not require both sides to begin sending with the same sequence number, so it can be used with synchronization methods other than the global clock method. Host1 chooses a sequence number, n, and sends a CONNECTION REQUEST TPDU containing it toHost2. Host2 replies with an Ack TPDU acknowledging x and announcing its own initial sequence number, y Finally, host1 acknowledges host2s the three ways handshake works in the presence of delayed duplicated control TPDUs. In below fig (b) the first TPDU is a delayed duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST from an old connection. This TPDU arrives at host2 without host us knowledge. Host2 reacts to this TPDU by sending Host1 an Ack TPDU, in effect asking for verification that host1 was indeed trying to set up a new connection. When host1 rejects host2s, host2 realizes that it was a delayed duplicate and abandons the connection. In this way a delayed duplicate does no damage. The worst case is when both a delayed CONNECTION REQUEST and an Ack are floating around in the subnet. Host2 gets a delayed CONNECTIONREQUEST and replies to it. To realize that host2 has proposed using y as the initial sequence number for host2 to host1 traffic.
When the second delayed TPDU arrives at host2, the fact that z has be acknowledged
rather than y tells host2 that this, too is an old TPDUs.
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Fig Three protocols scenarios for establishing a connection using a thrr-way handshake. CR denotes CONNECTION REQUEST.
a) Normal Operation of now here. duplicate Ack.
b) Old duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST appearing out c) Duplicate CONNECTION REQUEST and
Connection Release
Releasing a connection is easier than establishing one. There are two styles of terminating a connection: asymmetric release and symmetric release. Asymmetric release is the way the telephone system works: When one party hangs up, the connection is broken. Symmetric release treats the connection as two separate unidirectional connections and requires each one to be released separately. After the connection is established host1 sends a TPDU that arrives property at host2. then host1 sends another TPDU. Unfortunately, host2 issues a DISCONNECT before the second TPDU arrives.
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The result is that the connection is released and data are lost. The users send a DR (DISCONNECT REQUEST) TPDU to initiate the connection release. When it arrives the recipient sends back a DR. TPDU, and starts a timer.
Fig: Abrupt disconnection with loss of data
When this DR arrives, the original sender sends back an Ack TPDU and releases the connection. Finally, when the ACK TPDU arrives, the receiver also releases the connection. If the final ACK TPDU is lost as shown in the following figure, the situation is saved by the timer. When the timer expires, the connection is released anyway. Consider the case of the second DR being lost. Assuming that the second time no TPDUs are lost ana all TPDUs are delivered correctly and on time. All the repeated attempts to retransmit the DR also fail due to lost TPDUs. After N retries, the sender just gives up and releases the connection. Meanwhile, the receiver times out and also exits.
Four protocol scenarios for releasing a connection.

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a) Normal case of three-way handshake.

d) Response
b) Final Ack lost. c) Response lost.
lost and subsequent DRs lost.
Flow Control and Buffering

Connections are managed while they are in use. One of the key issues has come up before: Flow Control. Each connection to keep a fast transmitter form overrunning a slow receiver. The main difference is that a router usually has relatively few lines, whereas a host may have numerous connections. In the data link layer, the sending side must buffer outgoing frames because they might have to be retransmitted.
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In the data link protocols frames were buffered at both the sending router and at the receiver at both the sending router and at the receiver router. In protocol 6, for example, both the sending receiver are required to dedicate MAX-SEQ+1 buffers to each line, half for input and half for output. The receiver maintains a single buffer pool shared by all connections. When a TPDU comes in, an attempt is made to dynamically acquire a new buffer. If one is available, the TPDU is accepted; otherwise it is discarded. If the receiver cannot guarantee that every incoming TPDU will be accepted, the sender will have to buffer anyway. If most TPDUs are nearly the same size, it is natural to organize the buffers as a pool of identically-sized buffers, with one TPDU per buffer. If the buffer size is chosen equal to the largest possible TPDU, space will be wasted whenever a short TPDU arrives. If the buffer size is chosen less than the maximum TPDU size, multiple buffers will be needed for long TPDUs, with the attendant complexity. Another approach to the buffer size problem is to use variable-sized buffers. The advantage buffer memory utilization, at the price of more complicated buffer management
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a) Chained fixed-size buffers. b) Chained variable-sized buffers. c) One large circular buffer per connection. A third possibility is to dedicate a single large circular buffer per connection. This system also makes good use of memory, provided that all connections are heavily loaded, but is poor if some connections are lightly loaded.
Multiplexing: In the transport layer the need for multiplexing can arise in a number of ways. For example if only one network address is on a host all transport connections on that machine have to use it. When a TPDU comes in, some way is needed to tell which process to give it to. This situation called Upward Multiplexing. Multiplexing can also be useful in the transport layer for another reason. Suppose, for example that a subnet uses virtual circuits internally and imposes a maximum data rate on each one. If a user needs more bandwidth than one virtual circuit can provide, a way out is to open multiple networks connections and distribute the traffic among them on a round-robin basis, as indicate in the following figure. This modus operandi is called download multiplexing.
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Fig: (a) Upward Multiplexing (b) Downward Multiplexing
Crash Recovery:
If hosts and routers are subject to crashes, recovery from these crashes becomes an issue. A more troublesome problem is how to recover from host crashes. It may be desirable for clients to be able to continue working when servers crash and then quickly reboot. Let us assume that one host, the client, is sending a long file to another host, the file server using a simple stop-and-wait protocol. Partway through the transmission, the server crashes. When it comes back up, its tables are reinitialized so it no longer knows precisely where it was. In an attempt to recover its previous status the server light send a broadcast TPDU to all other hosts, announcing that it had just crashed and requesting that its clients inform it of the status of all open connections. Each client can be in one of two states: one TPDU outstanding, S1 or no TPDUs outstanding S0. Based on only this state information, the client must decide whether to retransmit the most recent TPDU. **************************************************************************
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UNIT V Application Layer

Domain Name System : A DNS server maintains the name to IP address mapping of the domain for which it is the name server. The DNS server for a domain is registered with the domain registrar and the entry is maintained by the Internet Root-Servers (13) or Country Level Root-Servers. Whenever a server is queried, if doesnt have the answer, the root servers are contacted. The root servers refer to the DNS server for that domain (in case the domain is a top level domain) or the Country Root Server (in case the domain is country level domain). DNS is a distributed database that resides on multiple machines on the internet & used to convert between names & address & to provide email routing information . Case sensitive Ex : com=COM Specified in RFC 1034 & 1035 Application layer protocol A full domain is a sequence of labels separated by dots(.) Before DNS Originally internet was small. A centrally maintained file called hosts.txt to map names & addresses. Draw Back No 2 machines could be use the same machine name. As the internet grew ,changes to the database took days to weeks to take effect. The central site became congested with the increase in the number of sites retrieving copies of the current table. Components of DNS Domain :
ammudeiva.com - .com Domain . Domain Name : It is defined by the DNS as being the sequence of names and domain. Ex : ammudeiva.com - Domain name.
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Name Server : It is a S/w that maps names to addresses. Name Resolver : It is a S/W that function as a client interacting with a name server. Name Cache : It is used by a storage used by a name resolver to store information frequently used. Zone : It is a contiguous part of domain. DNS in the internet : 1. DNS is divided into three different sections in the internet.
Generic Domain 3 Character domains are called as generic Domain.
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Inverse Domain ARPA is a special domain used for the address to name mappings. Web Server HTTP (Hyper Text Transfer Protocol) is used to transfer web pages from a Web Server to Web Client (Browser) Web Pages are arranged in a directory structure in the Web Server HTTP supports CGI (Common Gateway interface) HTTP supports Virtual Hosting (Hosting multiple sites on the same server) Popular Web Servers 1.Apache 2.Windows IIS 3.IBM Web sphere
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Identification 1.16 bit fields 2. Unique value used by the client to match responses to Flags 3. It is the collection of subfields. 4. Subfields define the type of messages & type of the answer a requested. Number of Question ------------ It contains the number of Queries. Number of Answer ------------ It contains the number of answers. Resource Records Every Domain, whether it is a simple host (or) top level domain have a set of resource records. Format of Resource Records Domain-name Domain-name Time-to Llive : : Time-to-live Type Class value It indicates Name of domain How stable the Record Type Kind of record
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**************************************************************** Electronic MAIL

E-mail, or email, is short for "electronic mail" and is a method of composing, sending, and receiving messages over electronic communication systems. Most e-mail systems today use the Internet, and e-mail is one of the most popular uses of the Internet. Origins of e-mail 1960s Messages sent without email addresses to users of the same host Late 1960s Tomlinson introduced the @ sign in e-mail address 1970s improvements to email 1980s Compuserve and MCI Mail provide email access to the public Early 1990s Steve Case founded AOL to bring Internet and email to everyone in the US
First Email System simply consisted of File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Complaints
Sending a message to a group of people was inconvenient. Messages had no internal structure. Ex: Forwarded message was included in the body of another message, extracting the forward part was difficult. Sender never knew if a message arrived (or) not. Not easy to give limit authorization to the second party. Not possible to create & send a message containing a mixture of text, drawings, facsimile & voice. Now a Days through the we can Email send
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a)Message
b) Text
c) voice
d) video (or) graphics
to one (or) more
recipients.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

Transfer mail between Mail Servers over Internet Post Office Protocol (PoP) and Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP) Between Client and Mail Server to retrieve mails The mail server of a domain is identified by the MX record of that domain Popular Mail Servers 1.Sendmail/Postfix 2. Microsoft Exchange Server 3. IBM Lotus
It is fast, easy to distributive & inexpensive. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) is a specialized protocol for Email. Email is not a real time service. MAIL ARCHITECTURE
The format of Internet e-mail messages is defined in RFC 2822. Prior to the introduction of RFC 2822 the format was described by RFC 822. Internet e-mail messages consist of two major components:
Headers - Message summary, sender, receiver, and other information about the e-mail
Body - The message itself, usually containing a signature block at the end
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Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated "vacation" or "out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, e.g. to prevent vacation notices from being sent to all other subscribers of a mailinglist. Sendmail uses this header to affect prioritization of queued email, with "Precedence: special-delivery"messages delivered sooner. With modern highbandwidth networksdelivery priority is less of an issue than it once was. Microsoft Exchange respects a fine-grained automatic response suppression mechanism, theXAuto-Response-Suppress header. Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message, in reverse order (last handler first). References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the message the previous was reply a reply to, etc. Reply-To: Address that should be used to reply to the message. Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field (secretary, list manager, etc.). EMAIL clients Microsoft Outlook Express, Windows Mail and Mozilla Thunderbird.[37] Other common header fields include : Cc - Carbon copy (because typewriters use carbon paper to make copies of letters) Bcc - Blind carbon copy (the recipient of this copy will know who was in the To: field, but the recipients cannot see who is on the Bcc: list) Received - Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a message Content-Type - Information about how the message has to be displayed, usually a MIME type Spamming and e-mail worms The usefulness of e-mail is being threatened by two phenomena, spamming and e-mail worms. Spamming
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Spamming is unsolicited commercial e-mail. Because of the very low cost of sending e-mail, spammers can send hundreds of millions of e-mail messages each day over an inexpensive Internet connection. Email Worms E-mail worms use e-mail as a way of replicating themselves into vulnerable computers. Although the first e-mail worm (the Morris worm) affected early UNIX computers. This problem is today almost entirely confined to the Microsoft Windows operating system. The combination of spam and worm programs results in users receiving a constant drizzle of junk e-mail, which reduces the usefulness of E-mail as a practical tool. Privacy problems regarding e-mail E-mail privacy, without some security precautions, can be compromised because E-mail messages are generally not encrypted; E-mail messages have to go through intermediate computers before reaching their destination, meaning it is relatively easy for others to intercept and read messages; Many Internet Service Providers (ISP) store copies of your email messages on their mail servers before they are delivered. The backups of these can remain up to several months on their server, even if you delete them in your mailbox.
Mail server - Handle incoming & outgoing emails.

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POP (Post Office Protocol) serves SMTP Server ISP (Internet Service Provider) Lays To Access Email
Store Incoming E-mail . delay outgoing emails. Runs both an SMTP server & POPs Server for its customers.
Web based Email Service 3. Email through a LAN UNIX Shell Account. 4. Using email client UA(User Agent) & MTA (Message Transfer Agent) Email system consists of two subsystems: 1.User Agent 2.Message Transfer Agent User Agent Local program It provide a common based, menu based (or) graphical based method for interacting with the email system. It allow the user to read & send email. It also handles mail boxes. User Agent Provides Following Services Composing messages Forwarding messages Composing Messages UA is responsible for composing the email message to be sent out. Reading messages To read incoming messages. Checks the mail in the incoming mailbox. Most user agents shows a one-line summary of each received email. Replying to messages
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Reading messages
Replying to messages
UA allows the user to reply to the original sender (or) to reply all recipients of the message. The reply message normally contains the original message of the new message. Forwarding messages Allows the receiver to forward the message with (or) without extra comments to a third party. Mail Boxes UA creates two mailbox inbox & outbox. Inbox Out box It keeps all the received emails until they are deleted by the It keeps all the sent emails until the user delete them.
Two types of UA Command driven based GUI based Message Transfer Agent MTA move the messages from the source to destination. A System program Run in the background Move email through the system Ex: Mail, Pine & e/m Ex: Eudora, outlook, Netscape.
MTA activates at the time, it checks the destination Address & Transfer email to the proper destination.
It use different type of protocol for moving the messages from source to destination. Handle temporary failure, if a destination is temporary unavailable, it must spool the message on the local machine for late delivery.
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It deliver copies of a message to a several machines. It allow mixing text, voice & video in a message as well as appending documents & files to a message. Email Address Every e-mail address is unique and consists of two parts, a user name and a host computer The @ sign is require The host computer can be omitted if you are logged onto the same network or host computer Email id is Case sensitive & Dont have punctuation marks It use different type of protocol for moving the messages from source to destination. Handle temporary failure, if a destination is temporary unavailable, it must spool the message on the local machine for late delivery. It deliver copies of a message to a several machines.
It allow mixing text, voice & video in a message as well as appending documents & files to a message.
Email Address Every e-mail address is unique and consists of two parts, a user name and a host computer The @ sign is require The host computer can be omitted if you are logged onto the same network or host computer Email id is Case sensitive & Dont have punctuation marks
Mail Folders
Inbox new messages as well as messages that have been read Outbox messages not yet sent Sent items messages that have been sent (moved here from outbox) Deleted items messages deleted from any folder Custom folders - additional folders created by the user
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COMPUTER
Address Book Contains the e-mail addresses of frequent contacts Distribution List A set of e-mail addresses stored under one name Ideal for your professor to e-mail the class User name Contains Nos , Periods &some other special characters Commas , space , parenthesis are not allowed Message Headers Ex From : ammudeiva@ ymail.com Subject MIME _version Content type Content Type : picture of jas.jpeg : 1.0
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Enables you to enter an alias e.g: Bob instead of the complete address
To : deivamani.j@ gmail.com
: Multipart / mixed ; boundary=98766789 : text / plain
Content_Transper : Encoding :Quoted printable Formatted E-mail : Now days Supports formatting such as Bold space , & under lying is a recent development In the past email consists only of text characters If both side supports the formatted email, then both sides use Sender to Receiver formatted email a) HTML format b) Rich Text c) MIME (Multipurpose Internet Mail extension ) d) Ms-Word format Functions of E-mail: Email System support five basic functions
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1) composition 5) Transfer
2) Display
3) Disposition
4) Reporting
Composition Email user agents should enable users to Create & address email messages Replay to email messages Received Display Email user agents should enable users to Browser messages received by main identifying attributes Read (or) render message on demand Disposition Email user agents should enable users to o Delete received Messages o Save received messages in a folder o Keep received messages in users mail box Reporting Email facilities should report on messages sent so users Can discover from logs what messages they have Sent & when Are notified when their messages cant be delivered Can ask for email confirmation that message is received 4share.com Transfer Email facilities should Transfer messages from send To address Cope with any delays (or) problems experienced Transfer may involve Store & forward email for certain addresses Act as gateways to other email (or) messaging systems
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We will discuss the following Concepts in this section Introduction to Email Open Email Compose Email Send Email Send Email + attachment Send message to Groups Save and archive Email Search for an Email Forward message Reply Email Delete Email
EMAIL UNIT
Email is fast, easy and much cheaper than using the post office. What is e-mail? In its simplest form, e-mail is an electronic message sent from one computer to another. You can send or receive personal and business-related messages with attachments, such as pictures or formatted documents. You can even send music and computer programs. e-mail passes from one computer, known as a mail server, to another as it travels over the internet. Once it arrives at the destination mail server, it's stored in an electronic mailbox until the recipient retrieves it.
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This whole process can take seconds, allowing you to communicate quickly with people around the world at any time of the day or night.
HOW IT WORKS
Client email" refers to email sent from a program on your computer (e.g. Outlook or Eudora) With client-based e-mail, like Outlook Express, Eudora or Mozzilla, a software program running on your computer accesses a remote mail server. With web-based e-mail, to send and receive messages, you access a website, so all you need is internet access and a web browser.
Here's how to access your e-mail (part 1)
First, log on to the site by entering your account name and password. Now you can read your messages, send replies, forward messages, and send and view attachments. Most services offer online address books to store your e-mail addresses and contact information. You can also set up folders to manage your messages.
Here's how to access your e-mail (part 2)
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One thing to keep in mind is that many free web-based e-mail services limit the amount of storage that they provide. For instance, Yahoo! Mail has a 250 MB limit. This may sound like a lot, but if you receive loads of mail, particularly if it includes attachments like photos and video clips, you will have to delete them periodically to stay below the limit, or pay for additional storage
Sending Receiving Messages

To receive e-mail, you must have an account on a mail server. This is similar to having an address where you receive letters. One advantage over regular mail is that you can retrieve your e-mail from any location. Once you connect to your mail server, you download your messages to your computer. To send e-mail, you need a connection to the internet and access to a mail server that forwards your mail. The standard protocol used for sending internet e-mail is called SMTP, short for Simple Mail Transfer Protocol. It works in conjunction with POP servers. POP stands for Post Office Protocol. When you send an e-mail message, your computer routes it to a mail server. The server looks at the e-mail address (similar to the address on an envelope), then forwards it to the recipient's mail server, where it is stored until the addressee retrieves it. You can send e-mail anywhere in the world to anyone who has an e-mail address. Remember, almost all internet service providers and all major online services offer at least one e-mail address with every account.
Email protocols
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Incoming Mail Server (POP, IMAP, or HTTP) The name of the server you will be connecting to in order to receive incoming mail Outgoing Mail Server (SMTP) The name of the server you will be connecting to in order to send mail POP (Post Office Protocol) Protocol used by email client to download email from the server to your local computer IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol ) Protocol used to access email messages stored on the server Outgoing Mail Server (SMTP) SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol) Protocol used to send email messages 1. POP3 (Post Office Protocol)
Transfer email mail client software 1) Mail Server Messages 2) POP3 begins when the user agents opens a TCP connection to the mail server on port 110 3) After TCP connection established , POP3 progresses 3 phases 1) Authorization 2) Transaction 3) Update Authorization : In phase ,user agent sends as user name & a password to authenticated the user down loading the mail Transaction In phase user agent retrieves messages In this user agent can also mark messages for deletion ,remove deletion marks Update
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In phase , it occurs after the client has issued the quit command .ending the POP3 session POP3 has 2 modes : 1) Delete mode 2) Keep mode Delete mode Mail is deleted from mail box after each retrieval . Keep Mode The Mail remains in the mail box after retrieval .
Limitation of POP3
POP3 does not allow the user to organize on the server , the user can not have different folders on the server POP3 does not the user to partially check the contents of the email before down loading
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IMAP(4) (Internet Mail Access Protocol 4)

More powerful ,more complex It was designed to help the user who uses multiple computer It does not copy email to the users personal machine because the user may have several An IMAP client connects to server by using TCP To Access e-mail messages ,IMAP4 supports the following modes a) Offline mode Off line Mode Client periodically connects to the server to download email messages. After downloading messages are deleted from the server .POP3 supports the mode Online Mode Client process email messages on the server .the email messages are shared on the server .itself but are processed by an application on the clients end Disconnected Mode In this mode both offline & online modes are supported Extra Functions Done by IMAP4 User can check the email Leader to downloading User can partially download email A user can create ;delete (or) resume mail box on the mail server A user can create a hierarchy let mail boxes is a folder for email storage User can search the contents of the email for a specific string of characters
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b) On line mode
c) Disconnected mode
3. SMTP [ Simple Mail Transfer protocol] Popular Network service is electronic mail (email) SMTP is a Application layer protocol of TCP/IP model Basic SMTP Architecture SMTP clients and servers have two main components User Agents (UA) : It prepares a message and encloses in an envelope. It transfers the mail across the internet. Mail Transfer Agents (MTA) :
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SMTP uses a TCP socket on port 25 to transfer email reliably from client to server Email is temporarily stored on the local & eventually transferred directly to receiving server Addressing system of SMTP consists of 2 parts a) Local part : * User Name * It is unique only with in that local mail system b) Global Part * Domain Name * Domain Name is the Identify of the Host. * Must be unique with in the total Internet Scenario Using User Agent (UA) find compose the message User Agent (UA) sends messages to her mail server ,messages is placed in messages Queue
SMTP client sends message over TCP connection Receiver mail server places the message is receivers mailbox Receiver invokes its user agent to read message SMTP uses commands & responses to transfer messages between an MTA client & an MTA Server
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SMTP Commands: It defines 14 commands .Some commands are given below HELO MAIL FROM RCPT TO DATA QUIT RSET VRFY EXPN HELP NOOP : Request to initiate SMTP session : Senders E-Mail address : Receivers E-Mail address : Body of message : Terminates SMTP connection : Aborts mail transaction : Asks receiver to verify the validity of the mailbox : Asks receiver to identify mailing list : Causes receiver to send help information : Forces server to verify the communication with SMTP receiver
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MIME[Multi Purpose Internet Mail Extension] Electronic mail has a simple structure. Its simplicity, however, comes with a price. It can send messages only in NVT 7-bit ASCII format. In other words, it has some limitations. Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) is a supplementary protocol that allows non-ASCII data to be sent through e-mail. MIME transforms non-ASCII data at the sender site to NVT ASCII data and delivers it to the client MTA to be sent through the Internet. The message at the receiving site is transformed back to the original data.
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BASE 64
Quoted Printable Encoding

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**************************************************************** WWW[World wide web] WWW is officially described as a wide area hype media information retrieval, aiming to universal access to a large universe of documents.
Architecture of WWW
HISTORY Web [also known as WWW] began in 1989 at CERN,the European centre for nuclear research. The initial proposal for a web of linked documents came from CERN physicist Tim Berners Lee in March 1989. In Dec 1991, a public demonstration was given at the Hyper text conference in San Antonio, Texas. First graphical interface Mosaic , was released in February 1993 In 1994, CERN & MIT signed an agreement setting up the WWW consortium.
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Dim Berners Lee became the director of WWW consortium WWW consortium devoted to Developing the wen standardzing protocols Encouraging interoperability between sites. Hundreds of universities & companies have joined the consortium.
WWW system is based on the client server architecture. Web Client Side : A web client is userd to send request for information to any web server that stores the requested information. Ex : web Client - Browser Page Web consists of a vast , world wide collection of documents , just called as pages. Each page may contain links to other related pages , any where in the world. Hyper Text It describes the ability to link related documentstogether using words & phrases. Hypermedia It is a natural extension of hyper Text The contents of each document include much more than text. They include multimedia[images,sounds,video] Browser Pages are viewed with a program called browser. Browser fetches the pages requested interprets the text & formatting commands, that it contains & displays the page , properly formatted on the screen. Ex : Internet Explorer, Netscape navigator, Mozilla FireBOx, Mosaic
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HyperLinks Strings of text that are links to other pages called hyper links. Hyper Links are highlighted , either by underlining , displaying them in a special order or both. Web Server Side A web server is a program that upon receipt of a request sends a document requested back to the requesting client. The steps that occur between the users click and the page being displayed as follows 1. Browser determines the URL [ Ex: www.w3.org] 2. The browser asks DNS for the IP address of www.w3.org 3. DNS replies with 18.23.0.23 4. The Browser makes a TCP connection to port 80 on 18.23.0.23 5. It then sends a GET /hypertext/www/TheProject.html command 6. The www.w3.org server sends the file TheProject.html 7. The TCP connection is released 8. The Browser displays all the text in TheProject.html 9. The Browser fetches and displays all images in TheProject.html HTTP [Hyper Text Transfer Protocol] Web Clients & severs can communicate with each other by the protocol is called the HTTP. All Web Clients & servers must use HTTP in order to send & receive hypermedia. Web Servers are often called HTTP servers
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HTML[Hyper Text Mark Up Language] A web page is a hypermedia document. HTML is a standard language used for creating the web pages. Web documents are usually written in HTMl HTML is easy to use, using any text editor such as Window notepad. HTML code file can be viewed by any browser. The browser automatically interprets the HTML code and formats the documents accordingly. URL[Uniform resource Locators] WWW uses the URL . It is possible , to represent almost any file or sevice on the Internet with a URL A URL is always a single line with no embedded spaces.
The first part of URL [before 2 slashes] specifies the method of access. The second is the address of the computer on which the information or sevice is located.
Searching for information on the Internet There are some special websites on the Internet , which allow you to search for the desired information on the internet. These web sites also group the information under various categories like sports, business, and entertainment These special web sites are called as Search engine Ex : Yahoo, WebCrawler, AltaVista, Excite, Info seek, Lycos Search Engine maintain a database of keywords.
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When you request the search engine for information , it attempts to locate the specified information in its database of key words. If the search engine finds a match, it displays these references. CGI [Common Gateway Interface] Stands for Common Gateway Interface A method that allows for web servers and client side pages to interact with each other Used in the same way by almost all web servers in existence Web server needs to differentiate between scripts and ordinary html files o CGI scripts are placed in different cgi directories on the server
o The web server is configured to identify all files in a particular folder as CGI scripts
o Default directory is CGI-bin CGI programs are ordinary executable programs written in some language and compiled CGI is one way to develop sever side scripts o Slow and inefficient to use Server Application Programming Interface (API) The program essentially is a part of the server process The programming language is server dependent Much faster since the program is already in memory and the data that is required can be easily inputted and results obtained Examples include ASP, Java Server Pages, Python HTTP [Hyper Text Transfer Protocol] HTTP is the Hypertext Transfer Protocol When you browse the web, you transfer data between the server and your client machine using http Major steps performed You start up your browser that can understand and display html text
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You either click on a link or type a link into the address space You make a request of a web server (it listens to and responds to requests for data from the client) This request can be any digital resource The web server executes the request and delivers the returned document to the user The web server identifies the type of document to the browser The browser displays the document Images, JavaScript, style sheets are downloaded if referenced Each additional item that is retrieved generates an additional request to the server HTTP only defines how the browser and the web server communicate with each other Actual data moved using the TCP/IP protocol Simplified version of how HTTP works HTTP Versions HTTP/0.9 Very primitive standard Earliest version HTTP/1.0 In common usage today HTTP/0.9 very rarely used anymore HTTP/1.1 Extends and improves HTTP/1.0 Supported by few browsers Client can keep request open after downloading the file so that a new request does not have to be generated Decreases server load Reduces bandwidth Parse the URL The browser must identify the url of the request Most urls have the form: protocol://server/request-URI
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Protocol tells the server the document you want and how to retrieve it Server part tells the web server which server to query to find the document Request-uri tells the specific document to retrieve Sending the Request Most usually, the protocol will be http Sometimes it can be https to request the data over a secure connection Assume you wanted the document http://web.njit.edu/~txw5999/index.html GET /~txw5999/index.html HTTP/1.0 Note the request is all the server sees, independent of where the request originated, whether it be by a robot, link validator, or browser The server response Upon receiving the request, the web server must identify the document and return it to the user The browser does not care how the page was produced, could be by scripts or straight html Browser Cache If a page has already been retrieved by your browser, it is usually stored in your cache If you return to that page, your browser will first check to see if the data on that page has already been downloaded and on your local drive If it finds the page or images, the browser will load those images from your cache and only make the request to the web server for the changed information Usually set a max size or a time limit to keep stored pages in your cache Most browsers have a refresh button that can be selected to force a reload of the page Reduce the number of requests and the server load as well as reducing bandwidth costs substantially
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Proxy Cache Browser caches are stored on the local machine whereas a proxy cache is stored on a proxy server The proxy is essentially a cache for many different users The users browser now checks the proxy to see if a page is already loaded into its cache If the page is found, the page is loaded into the users browser cache If the page is not found, the request is made of the web server After getting the new page from the server, it is loaded into the proxy cache for anyone else that may request that page The proxy then returns the cached page or item to the users local cache Proxy cache reduces network traffic dramatically and substantially reduces the load on the web server Skews log statistics dramatically as the requests if they can be filled by the proxy cache are not seen by the web server. HTTP METHODS HTTP Verbs spell CRUD Create PUT Read GET Update POST Delete DELETE Of these, GET and POST are the most important HEAD Asks for the response identical to the one that would correspond to a GET request, but without the response body. This is useful for retrieving meta-information written in response headers, without having to transport the entire content. GET
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Requests a representation of the specified resource. POST Submits data to be processed (e.g., from an HTML form) to the identified resource. The data is included in the body of the request. This may result in the creation of a new resource or the updates of existing resources or both. PUT Uploads a representation of the specified resource. DELETE Deletes the specified resource. TRACE Echoes back the received request, so that a client can see what (if any) changes or additions have been made by intermediate servers. OPTIONS Returns the HTTP methods that the server supports for specified URL. This can be used to check the functionality of a web server by requesting '*' instead of a specific resource. CONNECT Converts the request connection to a transparent TCP/IP tunnel, usually to facilitate SSL-encrypted communication (HTTPS) through an unencrypted HTTP proxy.[13] PATCH: Is used to apply partial modifications to a resource
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************************************************************************************************************
Multimedia
Multimedia is just two or more media. It contains two media: Text and Graphics When most people refer to multimedia, they generally mean the combination of two or more continuous media, ie., media that have to be played during some well- defined time interval, usually with some user interaction. The two media are normally audio and video, that is, sound plus moving pictures.
Many
people often refer to pure audio, such as Internet telephony
or Internet radio as multimedia, term is streaming media.
Introduction to Digital Audio:

Audio (sound) wave is a one dimensional acoustic (pressure) wave. When an acoustic wave enters the ear, the eardrum vibrates, causing the tiny bones of the inner ear to vibrate along with it, sending nerve pulses to the brain. These pulses are perceived as sound by the listener. In a similar way, when an acoustic wave strikes a microphone, the microphone generates an electrical signal, representing the sound amplitude as a function of time.
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The representation, processing, storage and transmission of such audio signals are a major part of the multimedia systems. The frequency range of the human ear runs from 20Hz to20, 000Hz. The ratio of two sounds with power A and B is expressed in dB(decibels) according to the formula
Audio waves can be converted to digital form by an ADC (Analog Digital Converter). ADC takes an electrical voltages as input and generates a binary number as output. The error introduced by the finite number of bits per sample is called the quantization noise. If it is too large, the ear detects it. Digitized sound can be easily processed by computers in software. Dozens of programs exist for personal computers to allow users to record, display, edit, mix and store sound waves from multiple sources. All professional sound recording and editing are digital nowadays. Speech is made up of vowels and consonants which have different properties.
Audio Compression:
The most popular one is MPEG audio. It has three layers (variants) of which MP3 (MPEG audio layer 3) is the most powerful and best known.
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Large amounts of music in MP3 format are available on the internet. MP3 belongs to the audio portion of the MPEG video compression standard. Audio compression can be done in one or two ways. In Waveform Coding the signal is transformed mathematically by a Fourier transform into its frequency components. The goal is to reproduce the waveform accurately at the other end. Perceptual Coding is based on the science of psychoacoustics- how people perceive sound. MP3 is based on Perceptual Coding. The key property of perceptual coding is that some sounds can mask other sounds. Frequency Masking the ability of a loud sound in one frequency band to hide a softer sound in another frequency band that would have been audible in the absence of the loud sound. Temporal Masking Finite or short period of time. Sampling can be done on one or two channels in any of four configurations. 1. Monophonic (a single input stream). 2. Dual Monophonic (e.g., an English and a Japanese sound track). 3. Disjoint Stereo (each channel compressed separately) 4. Joint stereo (interchannel redundancy fully exploited)
Introduction to Video:
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The human eye has the property that when an image appears on the retina, the image is retained for some number of milliseconds before decaying.
Analog System:
To represent the two dimensional image in front of it as a onedimensional voltage as a function of time, the camera scans an electrical beam rapidly across the image and slowly down it, recording the light intensity as it goes.
Fig: The scanning pattern used for NTSC video and television
At the end of the scan, called a Frame, the beam retraces. Instead of the scan lines being displayed in order, first all the odd scan lines are displayed, then the even ones are displayed. Each of these half frames is called a Field. People notice flicker at 25 Frames/sec, they do not notice it as 50 Fields/sec. this technique is called Interlacing. Non-Interlaced television or video is called Progressive. Color video uses the same scanning pattern as monochrome (black and white) except that instead of displaying the image with one moving beam, it uses three beams.
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Three primary colors are Red, Green and Blue (RGB). Three color signals combined into a single composite signal. HDTV (High Definition Television) which produces sharper images by roughly doubling the number of scan lines.
Digital Systems:
The simplest representation of digital video is a sequence of frames, each consisting of a rectangular grid of picture elements or pixels. Each pixel can be a single bit, to represent either black or white. The next step up is to use 8bits per pixel to represent 256 gray levels. This scheme gives high quality black and white video. While using 24 bits per pixel limits the number of colors to about 16 million, the human eye cannot even distinguish this many colors. Digital color images are produced using three scanning beam, one per color.
Video Compression:
Compression system requires two algorithms. One for compressing the data at the source, and another for decompressing it at the destination. These algorithms are referred to as the encoding and decoding algorithm. When the decode output is not exactly equal to the original input, the system is said to be Lossy. If the input and output are identical, the system is Lossless.
The JPEG Standard:

The JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) standard for compressing continuous-tone still pictures (eg., Photographs) was developed by photographic experts.
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Fig: The operation of JPEG in lossy sequential mode
Step1 of encoding an image with JPEG is block preparation. Here each matrix is divided into blocks. Step2 of JPEG is to apply a DCT (Discrete Cosine Transformation) to each blocks separately. The output of each DCT is DCT coefficients. Step3 is called Quantization, in which the less important DCT coefficients are wiped out. Run-length encoding determines line by line scan.
The MPEG Standard:

MPEG stands for Motion Picture Experts Group. It is used to compress video. Because movies contain both images and sound, MPEG can compress both audio and video. MPEG-1 has three parts: audio, video and system, which integrates the other two. The audio and video encoders work independently which raises the issue of how the two streams get synchronized at the receiver. MPEG-1 output consists of Four kinds of frames: 1. I (Intracoded) Frames: Self-contained JPEG-Encoded Still pictures. 2. P (Predictive) Frames: Block-by-block difference with the last frame. 3. B (Bidirectional) Frames: Differences between the last and next Frame. 4. D (DC-coded) Frames: Block averages used for fast forward.
Macroblocks, which cover 16 * 16 pixels in luminance space and 8* 8 pixels in chrominance space.
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A macroblock is encoded by searching the previous frame for it or something only slightly difference from it. *******************************************************************
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Unit I

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COMPUTER NETWORKS - ANGELIN ANGEL

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3. Need of computer Networks

3) To provide distribution of processing function

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4. Advantages of Computer Networks

b) An [Automated Teller Machine] ATM in a bank.

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e)Directory Services f)Information Services g) Teleconferencing h) Cellular Telephone

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6. Uses Of Computer Networks

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Social issues (e.g privacy issues,)

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: Physical connection of computers (or) how the nodes are

geometrically arranged and connected to one another is called as topology.

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Fig: Star Topology

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2. LAN -Local Area Network 4. MAN -Metropolitan Area Network

1.Bus Network 5.Star Network

6.Mesh Network 7.Hybrid Network 2.Peer To Peer network 2.Wireless Network

1.Client Server Network Medium 1. Wired Network

2.VPN-Virtual Private Network

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determines who goes next.

Fig: ETHERNET STAR

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IDU-Interface Data Unit

SDU-Service Data Unit

ICI-Interface Control Information

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DIFFERENCE BEWTWEEN THE VIRTUAL CIRCUIT & DATA GRAM

Only crashed packets lost

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Fig Example : Information flow supporting virtual communication in layer 5

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FIG: A virtual circuit

FIG: An ATM Cell

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FIG: ATM Reference Model

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FIG: Architecture of the original Ethernet

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UNIT II PHYSICAL LAYER Transmission media

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