CHAPTER 2

FLUID STATICS
FLUID STATICS
Fluid Statics deals with problems associated
with fluids at rest.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion
between adjacent fluid layers.
Therefore, there is no shear stress in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress in fluid statics is normal stress
Normal stress is due to pressure
Variation of pressure is only due to the weight of the
fluid fluid statics is only relevant in presence of
gravity fields.
Applications: Floating or submerged bodies,
water dams and gates, liquid storage tanks, etc.

PRESSURE
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a
fluid per unit area.

Units of pressure are N/m
2
, which is called a
Pascal (Pa).

Since the unit Pa is too small for pressures
encountered in practice, kilopascal (1 kPa = 10
3

Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa = 10
6
Pa) are
commonly used.

Other units include bar, atm, kgf/cm
2
, lbf/in
2
=psi.
FLUIDS AT REST CHAPTER 02 2- 01
Pressure: Normal force exerted by fluid per unit area.
Unites: N/m
2
, also called Pascal, 1Pa=1N/m
2

Pressure at a point:
How the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane passing through the point.
Consider Free body, the forces in X-direction are ignored and there is no shear stress. Either wedge
is stationary or moving as solid.

.

If area is reduced at which force is
applied, the resultant pressure will be
greater
FLUID AT REST CHAPTER 02 02 - 02


how does the pressure in a fluid in which there are no shearing stresses vary from point to
point.
Consider a small rectangular element of fluid removed from some arbitrary position within
the mass of fluid of interest. Two major forces acting on body are
1. Surface forces
2. Body forces


FLUID AT REST CHAPTER 02 02 - 03
FLUID AT REST CHAPTER 02 02-03
PRESSURE VARIATION IN A FLUID AT
REST
For a fluid at rest


or in component form



These equations show that the pressure does not depend on x or y.
Thus, as we move from point to point in a horizontal plane (any
plane parallel to the xy plane), the pressure does not change. Since
p depends only on z, the last equation can be written as the ordinary
differential equation
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID
INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID

FLUIDS AT REST CHAPTER 02 03
Compressible fluid

For compressible fluid, the density changes considerably with pressure and
temperature, however their specific weights are very small compared with liquid.
The pressure gradient in vertical direction is small and we can neglect that
change. But for large distances like thousands feet, we have from ideal gas
equation:



The last equation shows that we need relation of temperature with elevation and in
case of isothermal layer between z1 and z2 we can assume temperature constant
we have

EXAMPLE
Because of a leak in a buried gasoline storage tank, water
has seeped in to the depth shown in Figure. If the specific
gravity of the gasoline is determine the pressure at the
gasoline-water interface and at the bottom of the tank. Express
the pressure in units of N.m
2
and N.cm
2
, and as a pressure head
in feet of water.
17 m
3m
PASCALS LAW
1 2 2 2
1 2
1 2 1 1
F F F A
P P
A A F A
= = =
Pressure applied to a
confined fluid increases the
pressure throughout by the
same amount.
In picture, pistons are at
same height:



Ratio A
2
/A
1
is called ideal
mechanical advantage
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
The concept of a standard atmosphere was first
developed in the 1920s.
Ideally, we would like to have measurements of
pressure versus altitude over the specific range for the
specific conditions (temperature, reference pressure)
for which the pressure is to be determined.
However, this type of information is usually not
available.
Thus, a standard atmosphere has been determined
that can be used in the design of aircraft, missiles, and
spacecraft, and in comparing their performance under
standard conditions.
The standard atmosphere is an idealized representation
of mean conditions in the earths atmosphere.
MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
Since pressure is a very important characteristic of a fluid field,
it is not surprising that numerous devices and techniques are
used in its measurement.
The pressure at a point within a fluid mass will be designated
as either an absolute pressure or a gage pressure.
Absolute pressure is measured relative to a perfect vacuum
(absolute pressure), whereas gage pressure is measured
relative to the local atmospheric pressure.
Thus, a gage pressure of zero corresponds to a pressure that is
equal to the local atmospheric pressure. Absolute pressures are
always positive, but gage pressures can be either positive or
negative depending on whether the pressure is above
atmospheric pressure (a positive value) or below atmospheric
pressure (a negative value).


MEASUREMENT OF PRESSURE
The measurement of atmospheric pressure is
usually accomplished with a mercury barometer,
which in its simplest form consists of a glass tube
closed at one end with the open end immersed in a
container of mercury. The tube is initially filled with
mercury (inverted with its open end up) and then
turned upside down (open end down) with the
open end in the container of mercury. The column
of mercury will come to an equilibrium position
where its weight plus the force due to the vapor
pressure (which develops in the space above the
column) balances the force due to the atmospheric
pressure.
ABSOLUTE, GAGE, AND VACUUM PRESSURES
ABSOLUTE, GAGE, AND VACUUM
PRESSURES
Actual pressure at a give point is called the
absolute pressure.

Most pressure measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and
therefore indicate gage pressure,

P
gage
=P
abs
- P
atm
.

Pressure below atmospheric pressure are
called vacuum pressure, P
vac
=P
atm
- P
abs
.
VARIATION OF PRESSURE WITH DEPTH
Pressure in a fluid at rest is independent of the
shape of the container.
Pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal
plane in a given fluid.
HYDROSTATIC PRESSURE
( )
,2 3 2
,2 ,2
1
998 9.81 100
3.28
1
298.5 2.95
101.325
2.95 1 3.95
gage
abs gage atm
kg m m
P gz ft
m s ft
atm
kPa atm
kPa
P P P atm atm atm

| |
| || |
= =
| | |
\ .\ .
\ .
| |
= =
|
\ .
= + = + =
Pressure on diver at
100 ft?



100 ft
1
2
THE MANOMETER
1 2
2 atm
P P
P P gh
=
= +
A manometer consists of a
U-tube containing one or
more fluids such as
mercury, water, alcohol, or
oil.
Heavy fluids such as
mercury are used if large
pressure differences are
anticipated.
MULTI-FLUID MANOMETER
For multi-fluid systems
Pressure change across a fluid
column of height h is DP = rgh.
Pressure increases downward,
and decreases upward.
Two points at the same elevation
in a continuous fluid are at the
same pressure.
Pressure can be determined by
adding and subtracting rgh
terms.
2 1 1 2 2 3 3 1
P gh gh gh P + + + =



THE BAROMETER
C atm
atm
P gh P
P gh

+ =
=
Atmospheric pressure is
measured by a device called a
barometer; thus, atmospheric
pressure is often referred to
as the barometric pressure.
P
C
can be taken to be zero
since there is only Hg vapor
above point C, and it is very
low relative to P
atm
.
Change in atmospheric
pressure due to elevation has
many effects: Cooking, nose
bleeds, engine performance,
aircraft performance.



MEASURING PRESSURE DROPS
Manometers are well--
suited to measure pressure
drops across valves, pipes,
heat exchangers, etc.
Relation for pressure drop
P
1
-P
2
is obtained by
starting at point 1 and
adding or subtracting rgh
terms until we reach point
2.
If fluid in pipe is a gas,
r
2
>>r
1
and P
1
-P
2
= rgh
NUMERICAL#01
A mountain lake has an average temperature of 10
o
Cand a
maximum depth of 40 m. For a barometric pressure of 598
mm Hg, determine the absolute pressure (in Pascals) at
the deepest part of the lake.
SOLUTION:

MANOMETRY:
Manometers use vertical or inclined liquid columns to
measure pressure.
A standard technique for measuring pressure involves
the use of liquid columns in vertical or inclined tubes.
Pressure measuring devices based on this technique
are called manometers.
The mercury barometer is an example of one type of
manometer, but there are many other configurations
possible, depending on the particular application.
Three common types of manometers include the
piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, and the
inclined-tube manometer.
PIEZOMETER TUBE
The simplest type of manometer consists of a
vertical tube, open at the top, and attached to
the container in which the pressure is desired
Since manometers involve columns of fluids
at rest, the fundamental equation describing
their use


which gives the pressure at any elevation
within a homogeneous fluid in terms of a
reference Pressure Po and the vertical
distance h between P and Po Remember that
in a fluid at rest pressure will increase as we
move downward and will decrease as we
move upward.

DISADVANTAGE
Although the piezometer tube is a very
simple and accurate pressure measuring device, it has
several disadvantages.

It is only suitable if the pressure in the container is
greater than atmospheric pressure (otherwise air
would be sucked into the system)
The pressure to be measured must be relatively
small so the required height of the column is
reasonable.
Also, the fluid in the container in which the pressure
is to be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas.
U-TUBE MANOMETER
The contribution of gas columns in manometers is
usually negligible since the weight of the gas is so
small.

SOLUTION:



DIFFERENTIAL MANOMETER
QUIZ#03



SOLUTION:



INCLINED-TUBE MANOMETER



INCLINED-TUBE MANOMETER



NUMERICAL#04



NUMERICAL # 05


NUMERICAL # 06

Specific gravity

SAE 30 oil = o.89
Olive oil = ?
Mercury = 13.6

NUMERICAL # 07



NUMERICAL # 08



NUMERICAL # 09
A differential manometer is attached to two tanks. Calculate
the pressure difference between chambers A and B?
Numerical # 10
Calculate the pressure difference between chambers A and B?














HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON PLANE SURFACES
When a surface is submerged in a fluid, forces
develop on the surface due to the fluid.
For fluids at rest we know that the force must be
perpendicular to the surface since there are no
shearing stresses present.
We also know that the pressure will vary linearly
with depth if the fluid is incompressible
For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a
liquid-filled tank, the magnitude of the
resultant force is simply where p is the uniform
pressure on the bottom and A is the area of the
bottom.
if atmospheric pressure acts on both sides of the
bottom, the resultant force on the bottom is simply
due to the liquid in the tank.
Since the pressure is constant and uniformly
distributed over the bottom, the resultant force acts
through the centroid of the area.

For the more general case in which a submerged
plane surface is inclined, the determination of the
resultant force acting on the surface is more
involved.
For the present we will assume that the fluid
surface is open to the atmosphere.
Let the plane in which the surface lies intersect
the free surface at 0 and make an angle with the
surface.
The xy coordinate system is defined so that 0 is the
origin and y is directed along the surface as shown.
The area can have an arbitrary shape as shown.
We wish to determine the direction, location, and
magnitude of the resultant force acting on one side
of this area due to the liquid in contact with the
area.












PRESSURE PRISM







HYDROSTATIC FORCE ON A CURVED SURFACE



BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
Buoyancy is due to the fluid displaced by a body.
F
B
=r
f
gV.
Archimedes principal : The buoyant force acting on a
body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the
fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward through
the centroid of the displaced volume.
BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
Buoyancy force F
B
is equal
only to the displaced
volume r
f
gV
displaced
.
Three scenarios possible
1. r
body
<r
fluid
: Floating body
2. r
body
=r
fluid
: Neutrally buoyant
3. r
body
>r
fluid
: Sinking body
EXAMPLE: GALILEAN THERMOMETER
Galileo's thermometer is made of a sealed
glass cylinder containing a clear liquid.
Suspended in the liquid are a number of
weights, which are sealed glass containers
with colored liquid for an attractive effect.
As the liquid changes temperature it changes
density and the suspended weights rise and
fall to stay at the position where their density
is equal to that of the surrounding liquid.
If the weights differ by a very small amount
and ordered such that the least dense is at
the top and most dense at the bottom they
can form a temperature scale.

EXAMPLE: FLOATING DRYDOCK
Auxiliary Floating Dry Dock Resolute
(AFDM-10) partially submerged
Submarine undergoing repair work on
board the AFDM-10
Using buoyancy, a submarine with a displacement of 6,000 tons can be lifted!
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND
BALLAST
Submarines use both static and dynamic depth
control. Static control uses ballast tanks
between the pressure hull and the outer hull.
Dynamic control uses the bow and stern planes
to generate trim forces.

EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND
BALLAST
Normal surface trim
SSN 711 nose down after accident
which damaged fore ballast tanks
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND
BALLAST
Damage to SSN 711
(USS San Francisco)
after running aground on
8 January 2005.
EXAMPLE: SUBMARINE BUOYANCY AND
BALLAST
Ballast Control Panel: Important station for controlling depth of submarine
STABILITY OF IMMERSED BODIES
Rotational stability of immersed bodies depends upon
relative location of center of gravity G and center of
buoyancy B.
G below B: stable
G above B: unstable
G coincides with B: neutrally stable.
STABILITY OF FLOATING BODIES
If body is bottom heavy
(G lower than B), it is
always stable.
Floating bodies can be
stable when G is higher
than B due to shift in
location of center
buoyancy and creation of
restoring moment.
Measure of stability is
the metacentric height
GM. If GM>1, ship is
stable.
RIGID-BODY MOTION
There are special cases where a body of fluid can undergo rigid-
body motion: linear acceleration, and rotation of a cylindrical
container.





In these cases, no shear is developed.
Newton's 2nd law of motion can be used to derive an equation of
motion for a fluid that acts as a rigid body


In Cartesian coordinates:
P gk a V + =
( )
, ,
x y x
P P P
a a g a
x y z

c c c
= = = +
c c c
LINEAR ACCELERATION
Container is moving on a straight
path



Total differential of P


Pressure difference between 2 points


Find the rise by selecting 2 points on
free surface P
2
= P
1
0, 0
, 0,
x y z
x
a a a
P P P
a g
x y z

= = =
c c c
= = =
c c c
x
dP a dx gdz =
( ) ( )
2 1 2 1 2 1 x
P P a x x g z z =
( )
2 1 2 1
x
s s s
a
z z z x x
g
A = =
ROTATION IN A CYLINDRICAL CONTAINER
2
2
, 0
, 0,
r z
a r a a
P P P
r g
r z
u
e
e
u
= = =
c c c
= = =
c c c
Container is rotating about the z-
axis


Total differential of P


On an isobar, dP = 0


Equation of the free surface
2
dP r dr gdz e =
2 2
2
1
2
isobar
isobar
dz r
z r C
dr g g
e e
= = +
( )
2
2 2
0
2
4
s
z h R r
g
e
=
EXAMPLES OF ARCHIMEDES
PRINCIPLE
THE GOLDEN CROWN OF HIERO II, KING OF
SYRACUSE
Archimedes, 287-212 B.C.
Hiero, 306-215 B.C.
Hiero learned of a rumor where
the goldsmith replaced some of
the gold in his crown with silver.
Hiero asked Archimedes to
determine whether the crown
was pure gold.
Archimedes had to develop a
nondestructive testing method
THE GOLDEN CROWN OF HIERO II, KING OF
SYRACUSE
The weight of the crown and
nugget are the same in air: W
c
=

c
V
c
= W
n
=
n
V
n
.
If the crown is pure gold,
c
=
n

which means that the volumes
must be the same, V
c
=V
n
.
In water, the buoyancy force is
B=
H2O
V.
If the scale becomes unbalanced,
this implies that the V
c
V
n
,
which in turn means that the
c

n

Goldsmith was shown to be a
fraud!
HYDROSTATIC BODYFAT TESTING
What is the best way to
measure body fat?
Hydrostatic Bodyfat Testing
using Archimedes Principle!
Process
Measure body weight
W=
body
V
Get in tank, expel all air, and
measure apparent weight W
a
Buoyancy force B = W-W
a
=

H2O
V. This permits
computation of body volume.
Body density can be computed

body
=W/V.
Body fat can be computed
from formulas.
HYDROSTATIC BODYFAT TESTING IN AIR?
Same methodology as
Hydrostatic testing in water.
What are the ramifications
of using air?
Density of air is 1/1000th of
water.
Temperature dependence of air.
Measurement of small volumes.
Used by NCAA Wrestling
(there is a BodPod on PSU
campus).