CHAPTER 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION The quest to improve the comfort level and convenience for humans is a never ending process. World is getting modernized in every area which helps in increasing the comfort. This has lead to use of advanced and more sophisticated equipments that all operate on electrical energy. Almost 75 to 80 % of the consumed electrical energy is currently being generated out of the of fossil fuels. The use of fossil fuels have advantage of the established energy converting equipments such as thermal power plants which provides better efficiency. This is in turn supplemented by the availability of the fuels such as coal. Though these fossil fuels provide above said advantages, when it comes to the question of population, then these create more harm. In the above scenario the emerging trend in the past two decade is to move to much less pollution equipments for energy conversion. This drives the world to effective capture of the available renewable resources of energy such as solar, wind, tidel etc. Among the mentioned renewable resources currently higher focus is towards solar power. In our country also during the last five year plan more focus has been given towards power generation though solar and other renewable resources. This clearly provides a needs for development of the solar power conversion equipments that have better efficiency. Further the need for cost effective power generation is also high which is one another factor that determines the acceptability of a system in the commercial market. Hence improvement of the power generating efficiency of the solar panel is the need of the hour which would make the solar power generation more acceptable. This includes reducing inverter losses, storage losses, and light gathering losses. Light gathering is dependent on the angle of incidence of the light source providing power (i.e. the sun) to the solar cells surface, and the closer to perpendicular, the greater the power. If a flat solar panel is mounted on level ground,

it is obvious that over the course of the day the sunlight will have an angle of incidence close to 90in the noon. At other times, the light gathering ability of the cell is essentially nearer to zero, resulting in lesser output. From this background, it can be seen that, to maintain the maximum power output from the panel the angle of incidence needs to be close to 90. By tilting the solar panel to continuously face the sun, this can be achieved. This process of sensing and following the position of the sun is known as Solar Tracking. 1.1 IMPORTANCE OF PROJECT

1) To increase efficiency of solar power generation. 2) To minimize the cost of solar power generation. 3) To increase the acceptability of solar power.

1.2 HISTORY Solar power generation is the process of converting the light and heat energy available from the sun into usable electricity which can be store and transmitted for usage. Extracting useable electricity from the sun was made possible by the discovery of the photoelectric mechanism and subsequent development of the solar cell a semi conductive material that converts visible light into a direct current. By using solar arrays, a series of solar cells electrically connected, a DC voltage is generated which can be physically used to drive electrical equipments such as fan, lightings etc. This alternative power source is continuously achieving greater popularity especially since the realization of fossil fuels shortcomings. Renewable energy in the form of electricity has been in use to some degree as long as 75 or 100 years ago. Sources such as Solar, Wind, Hydro and Geothermal have all been utilized with varying levels of success. The most widely used are solar power, with hydro and wind being moderately used worldwide. The reason for reduced acceptance of solar power

can be attributed to the relatively high cost of solar cells and their low conversion efficiency. Solar power are being heavily researched to reduce the cost of operation. 1.3 SOLAR ENERGY The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System. It has a diameter of about 1,392,000 km, about 109 times that of Earth, and its mass (about 21030 kilograms, 330,000 times that of Earth) accounts for about 99.86% of the total mass of the Solar System. About three quarters of the Sun's mass consists of hydrogen, while the rest is mostly helium. Less than 2% consists of heavier elements, including oxygen, carbon, neon, iron, and others. SUNLIGHT Sunlight is Earth's primary source of energy. The solar constant is the amount of power that the Sun deposits per unit area that is directly exposed to sunlight. The solar constant is equal to approximately 1,368 W/m2 (watts per square meter) at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) from the Sun (that is, on or near Earth). Sunlight on the surface of Earth is attenuated by the Earth's atmosphere so that less power arrives at the surfacecloser to 1,000 W/m2 in clear conditions when the Sun is near the zenith. Solar energy can be harnessed by a variety of natural and synthetic processes photosynthesis by plants captures the energy of sunlight and converts it to chemical form (oxygen and reduced carbon compounds), while direct heating or electrical conversion by solar cells are used by solar power equipment to generate electricity or to do other useful work, sometimes employing concentrating solar power (that it is measured in suns). The energy stored in petroleum and other fossil fuels was originally converted from sunlight by photosynthesis in the distant past. Sunlight shining through clouds, giving rise to crepuscular rays. Sunlight, in the broad sense, is the total frequency spectrum of electromagnetic radiation given off by the Sun. On Earth, sunlight is filtered through the Earth's atmosphere, and solar radiation is obvious as daylight when the Sun is above the horizon.

When the direct solar radiation is not blocked by clouds, it is experienced as sunshine, a combination of bright light and radiant heat. When it is blocked by the clouds or reflects off of other objects, it is experienced as diffused light. The World Meteorological Organization uses the term "sunshine duration" to mean the cumulative time during which an area receives direct irradiance from the Sun of at least 120 watts per square meter. Sunlight may be recorded using a sunshine recorder, pyranometer or pyrheliometer. Sunlight takes about 8.3 minutes to reach the Earth. Direct sunlight has a luminous efficacy of about 93 lumens per watt of radiant flux, which includes infrared, visible, and ultraviolet light. Bright sunlight provides illuminance of approximately 100,000 lux or lumens per square meter at the Earth's surface. SOLAR CONSTANT The solar constant, a measure of flux density, is the amount of incoming solar electromagnetic radiation per unit area that would be incident on a plane perpendicular to the rays, at a distance of one astronomical unit (AU) (roughly the mean distance from the Sun to the Earth). When solar irradiance is measured on the outer surface of Earth's atmosphere, the measurements can be adjusted using the inverse square law to infer the magnitude of solar irradiance at one AU and deduce the solar constant. The solar constant includes all types of solar radiation, not just the visible light. It is measured by satellite to be roughly 1.366 kilowatts per square meter (kW/m). SUNLIGHT INTENSITY IN THE SOLAR SYSTEM Different bodies of the Solar System receive light of an intensity inversely proportional to the square of their distance from Sun. A rough table comparing the amount of light received by each planet on the Solar System follows

Table 1.1 Solar Energy for various planets Planet Mercury Venus Earth Mars Jupiter Saturn Uranus Neptune Distance (AU) 0.3075 0.4667 0.7184 0.7282 0.9833 1.017 1.382 1.666 4.950 5.458 9.048 10.12 18.38 20.08 29.77 30.44 Solar radiation maximum and minimum (W/m) 14,446 6,272 2,647 2,576 1,413 1,321 715 492 55.8 45.9 16.7 13.4 4.04 3.39 1.54 1.47

The actual brightness of sunlight that would be observed at the surface depends also on the presence and composition of an atmosphere. For example Venus' thick atmosphere reflects more than 60% of the solar light it receives. The actual illumination of the surface is about 14,000 lux, comparable to that on Earth "in the daytime with overcast clouds". COMPOSITION SOLAR IRRADIANCE SPECTRUM ABOVE ATMOSPHERE AND AT SURFACE

The spectrum of the Sun's solar radiation is close to that of a black body with a temperature of about 5,800 K. About half that lies in the visible short-wave part of the electromagnetic spectrum and the other half mostly in the near-infrared part. Some also lies in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum. When ultraviolet radiation is not absorbed by the atmosphere or other protective coating, it can cause damage to the skin known as sunburn or trigger an adaptive change in human skin pigmentation.The spectrum of electromagnetic radiation striking the Earth's atmosphere is 100 to 106 nanometers (nm). This can be divided into five regions in increasing order of wavelengths.

1. Ultraviolet C or (UVC) range, which spans a range of 100 to 280 nm. The term ultraviolet refers to the fact that the radiation is at higher frequency than violet light (and, hence also invisible to the human eye). Owing to absorption by the atmosphere very little reaches the Earth's surface (Lithosphere). This spectrum of radiation has germicidal properties, and is used in germicidal lamps. 2. Ultraviolet B or (UVB) range spans 280 to 315 nm. It is also greatly absorbed by the atmosphere, and along with UVC is responsible for the photochemical reaction leading to the production of the Ozone layer. 3. Ultraviolet A or (UVA) spans 315 to 400 nm. It has been traditionally held as less damaging to the DNA, and hence used in tanning and PUVA therapy for psoriasis. 4. Visible range or light spans 380 to 780 nm. As the name suggests, it is this range that is visible to the naked human eye. 5. Infrared range that spans 700 nm to 106 nm [1 (mm)]. It is responsible for an important part of the electromagnetic radiation that reaches the Earth. It is also divided into three types on the basis of wavelength: Infrared-A: 700 nm to 1,400 nm Infrared-B: 1,400 nm to 3,000 nm Infrared-C: 3,000 nm to 1 mm.

1.4 SOLAR PANEL A solar panel, or photovoltaic module, is composed of individual PV cells. This crystalline-silicon panel has an aluminium frame and glass on the front.

Figure 1 : Solar panel array

A solar panel (photovoltaic module or photovoltaic panel) is a packaged interconnected assembly of solar cells, also known as photovoltaic cells. The solar panel can be used as a component of a larger photovoltaic system to generate and supply electricity in commercial and residential applications. Because a single solar panel can only produce a limited amount of power, many installations contain several panels. This is known as a photovoltaic array. Photovoltaic systems are used for either on- or off-grid applications, and on spacecraft. CONSTRUCTION PV cells connected together in a solar panel. Solar panels use light energy (photons) from the sun to generate electricity through the photovoltaic effect. The structural (load carrying) member of a module can either be the top layer (superstrate)

or the back layer (substrate). The majority of modules use wafer-based crystalline silicon cells or thin-film cells based on cadmium telluride or silicon. Crystalline silicon is a commonly used semiconductor.

Figure 2 : Operation of a basic photovoltaic cell

Electrical connections are made in series to achieve a desired output voltage and/or in parallel to provide a desired amount of current source capability. Separate diodes may be needed to avoid reverse currents, in case of partial or total shading, and at night. The P-N Junctions of mono-crystalline silicon cells may have adequate reverse current characteristics that these are not necessary. Solar cells become less efficient at higher temperatures and so it desirable to minimize heat in the panels. Very few modules incorporate any design features to decrease temperature, but installers try to provide good ventilation behind solar panels. Depending on construction, photovoltaic panels can produce electricity from a range of frequencies of light, but usually cannot cover the entire solar range (specifically, ultraviolet, infrared and low or diffused light). Hence much of the incident sunlight energy is wasted by solar panels, and they can give far higher efficiencies if illuminated with monochromatic light. Therefore another design concept is to split the light into different wavelength ranges and direct the beams onto different cells tuned to those ranges.

The solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity. MODULE PERFORMANCE AND LIFETIME Module performance is generally rated under Standard Test Conditions (STC) : Table 1.2 Standards for solar energy measurements Sl. NO 1 2 3 Parameters Irradiance of 1,000 W/m Solar spectrum of AM 1.5 Module temperature at 25C.

Electrical characteristics include nominal power (PMAX, measured in W), open circuit voltage (VOC), short circuit current (ISC, measured in amperes), maximum power voltage (VMPP), maximum power current (IMPP), peak power and module efficiency (%). Nominal voltage refers to the voltage of the battery that the module is best suited to charge; this is a leftover term from the days when solar panels were used only to charge batteries. The actual voltage output of the panel changes as lighting,

temperature and load conditions change, so there is never one specific voltage at which the panel operates. Nominal voltage allows users, at a glance, to make sure the panel is compatible with a given system. Open circuit voltage or VOC is the maximum voltage that the panel can produce when not connected to an electrical circuit or system. VOC can be measured with a meter directly on an illuminated panel's terminals or on its disconnected cable. The peak power rating, kWp, is the maximum output according to STC (not the maximum possible output). Solar panels must withstand heat, cold, rain and hail for many years. Many crystalline silicon module manufacturers offer a warranty that guarantees electrical production for 10 years at 90% of rated power output and 25 years at 80%. PRODUCTION The basic component of a solar cell is pure silicon, which is not pure in its natural state. Silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz are first placed into an electric arc furnace, where a carbon arc is applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. At this point, the silicon is still not pure enough to be used for solor cells and requires further purification. Pure silicon is derived from such silicon dioxides as quartzite gravel (the purest silica) or crushed quartz. The resulting pure silicon is then doped (treated with) with phosphorous and boron to produce an excess of electrons and a deficiency of electrons respectively to make a semiconductor capable of conducting electricity. The silicon disks are shiny and require an anti-reflective coating, usually titanium dioxide. The solar module consists of the silicon semiconductor surrounded by protective material in a metal frame. The protective material consists of an encapsulant of transparent silicon rubber or butyryl plastic (commonly used in automobile windshields) bonded around the cells, which are then embedded in ethylene vinyl acetate. A polyester film (such as mylar or tedlar) makes up the backing. A glass cover is found on terrestrial arrays, a lightweight plastic cover on

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satellite arrays. The electronic parts are standard and consist mostly of copper. The frame is either steel or aluminum. Silicon is used as the cement to put it all together. PURIFYING THE SILICON 1. The silicon dioxide of either quartzite gravel or crushed quartz is placed into an electric arc furnace. A carbon arc is then applied to release the oxygen. The products are carbon dioxide and molten silicon. This simple process yields silicon with one percent impurity, useful in many industries but not the solar cell industry. 2. The 99 percent pure silicon is purified even further using the floating zone technique. A rod of impure silicon is passed through a heated zone several times in the same direction. This procedure "drags" the impurities toward one end with each pass. At a specific point, the silicon is deemed pure, and the impure end is removed. MAKING SINGLE CRYSTAL SILICON 3. Solar cells are made from silicon boules, polycrystalline structures that have the atomic structure of a single crystal. The most commonly used process for creating the boule is called the Czochralski method. In this process, a seed crystal of silicon is dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. As the seed crystal is withdrawn and rotated, a cylindrical ingot of silicon is formed. The ingot withdrawn is unusually pure, because impurities tend to remain in the liquid. MAKING SILICON WAFERS 4. From the ingot, silicon wafers are sliced one at a time using a circular saw whose inner diameter cuts into the rod, or many at once with a multiwire saw. (A diamond saw produces cuts that are as wide as the wafer. 5 millimeter thick.) Only about one-half of the silicon is lost from the boule to the finished circular wafermore if the wafer is then cut to be rectangular or hexagonal.

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Rectangular or hexagonal wafers are sometimes used in solar cells because they can be fitted together perfectly, thereby utilizing all available space on the front surface of the solar cell. After the initial purification, the silicon is further refined in a floating zone process. In this process, a silicon rod is passed through a heated zone several times, which serves to 'drag" the impurities toward one end of the rod. The impure end can then be removed. Next, a silicon seed crystal is put into a Czochralski growth apparatus, where it is dipped into melted polycrystalline silicon. The seed crystal rotates as it is withdrawn, forming a cylindrical ingot of very pure silicon. Wafers are then sliced out of the ingot. 5. The wafers are then polished to remove saw marks. (It has recently been found that rougher cells absorb light more effectively, therefore some manufacturers have chosen not to polish the wafer.) DOPING 6. The traditional way of doping (adding impurities to) silicon wafers with boron and phosphorous is to introduce a small amount of boron during the Czochralski process in step #3 above. The wafers are then sealed back to back and placed in a furnace to be heated to slightly below the melting point of silicon (2,570 degrees Fahrenheit or 1,410 degrees Celsius) in the presence of phosphorous gas. The phosphorous atoms "burrow" into the silicon, which is more porous because it is close to becoming a liquid. The temperature and time given to the process is carefully controlled to ensure a uniform junction of proper depth. A more recent way of doping silicon with phosphorous is to use a small particle accelerator to shoot phosphorous ions into the ingot. By controlling the speed of the ions, it is possible to control their penetrating depth. This new process, however, has generally not been accepted by commercial manufacturers.

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PLACING ELECTRICAL CONTACTS 7. Electrical contacts connect each solar cell to another and to the receiver of produced current. The contacts must be very thin (at least in the front) so as not to block sunlight to the cell. Metals such as palladium/silver, nickel, or copper are vacuum-evaporated. This illustration shows the makeup of a typical solar cell. The cells are encapsulated in ethylene vinyl acetate and placed in a metal frame that has a mylar backsheet and glass cover through a photoresist, silkscreened, or merely deposited on the exposed portion of cells that have been partially covered with wax. All three methods involve a system in which the part of the cell on which a contact is not desired is protected, while the rest of the cell is exposed to the metal. 8. After the contacts are in place, thin strips ("fingers") are placed between cells. The most commonly used strips are tin-coated copper.

THE ANTI-REFLECTIVE COATING 9. Because pure silicon is shiny, it can reflect up to 35 percent of the sunlight. To reduce the amount of sunlight lost, an anti-reflective coating is put on the silicon wafer. The most commonly used coatings are titanium dioxide and silicon oxide, though others are used. The material used for coating is either heated until its molecules boil off and travel to the silicon and condense, or the material undergoes sputtering. In this process, a high voltage knocks molecules off the material and deposits them onto the silicon at the opposite electrode. Yet another method is to allow the silicon itself to react with oxygen- or nitrogen-containing gases to form silicon dioxide or silicon nitride. Commercial solar cell manufacturers use silicon nitride.

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ENCAPSULATING THE CELL 10. The finished solar cells are then encapsulated; that is, sealed into silicon rubber or ethylene vinyl acetate. The encapsulated solar cells are then placed into an aluminum frame that has a mylar or tedlar backsheet and a glass or plastic cover.

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1.5 TRAKING SYSTEM Solar power systems are an investment both financially and environmentally. Solar power system will save money on electricity and ensure a greener future. The only drawback with solar is that most system are fixed whereas the sun is continually changing positions in the sky. However, with the use of solar tracking systems this loss of energy can be largely mitigated. The tracking systems when applied will track the sun, and cause the panels to rotate to receive sunlight for as long a possible. This increases your power output by as far as 30 to 50%, though the amount can be significantly less than that depending on the photovoltaic tracking system and location. Of course this energy generated does not take into account the amount of power the tracking system itself uses, but it's minuscule compared to the additional power being gathered solar panel. Photovoltaic trackers can be grouped into classes by the number and orientation of the trackers axes. Compared to a fixed mount, a single axis tracker increases annual output by approximately 30%, and a dual axis tracker an additional 6%. TRACKER TYPE SELECTION The selection of tracker type is dependent on many factors including 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Latitude Local weather. Installation size Electric rates Government incentives Land constraints

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Horizontal single axis trackers are typically used for large distributed generation projects and utility scale projects. The combination of energy improvement and lower product cost and lower installation complexity results in compelling economics in large deployments. In addition the strong afternoon performance is particularly desirable for large grid-tied photovoltaic systems so that production will match the peak demand time. Horizontal single axis trackers also add a substantial amount of productivity during the spring and summer seasons when the sun is high in the sky. The inherent robustness of their supporting structure and the simplicity of the mechanism also result in high reliability which keeps maintenance costs low. Since the panels are horizontal, they can be compactly placed on the axle tube without danger of self-shading and are also readily accessible for cleaning. A vertical axis trackers pivots only about a vertical axle, with the panels either vertical, at a fixed, adjustable, or tracked elevation angle. Such trackers with fixed or (seasonably) adjustable angles are suitable for high latitudes, where the apparent solar path is not especially high, but which leads to long days in summer, with the sun traveling through a long arc. Dual axis trackers are typically used in smaller residential installations and locations with very high government Feed In Tariffs.

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CHAPTER 2

SUN TRACKING
2.1 SUN TRACKING TECHNIQUES The tracking system based on the type of drive and control mechanism is classified in three categories 1. 2. 3. 2.1.1 Active Chronological Passive

ACTIVE TRACKING Active trackers use motors and gear trains to direct the tracker as commanded

by a controller responding to the solar direction. Active two-axis trackers are also used to orient heliostats - movable mirrors that reflect sunlight toward the absorber of a central power station. As each mirror in a large field will have an individual orientation these are controlled programmatically through a central computer system, which also allows the system to be shut down when necessary. Light-sensing trackers typically have multiple photo sensors, such as photodiodes, configured differentially so that they output a null when receiving the same light flux. Mechanically, they should be omni directional (i.e. flat) and are aimed 90 degrees apart. Since the motors consume energy, they needs to be used only as necessary. So instead of a continuous motion, the motor is moved in discrete steps. Also, if the light is below some threshold there would not be enough power generated to warrant reorientation. When there is not enough difference in light level from one direction to another, such as when clouds are passing overhead. Advantages: 1. The panel faces the sun more accurately.

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2. Since the accuracy level is high, more amount of power is generated. 3. The efficiency improvement of the solar panel is high. 4. Tacking system uses minimal power by avoiding sun tracking during rainy and cloudy days. Dis Advantages: 5. System is complicated . 6. Requires more number of sensing devices. 7. The capital cost is high considering the advantage. 8. More complicated system brings in more maintenance.

2.1.2 CHRONOLOGICAL TRACKER A chronological tracker counteracts the Earth's rotation by turning at an equal rate as the earth, but in the opposite direction. Actually the rates aren't quite equal, because as the earth goes around the sun, the position of the sun changes with respect to the earth by 360 every year or 365.24 days. A chronological tracker is a very simple yet potentially a very accurate solar tracker specifically for use with a polar mount. The drive method consists of a simple gear motor that rotates at a very slow average rate of one revolution per day . This is at the rate of 15 degrees per hour. The tracker needs to be reset every evening in order to avoid twisting of the wires. Advantages: 1. Less complicated system 2. Lesser maintenance. 3. Lesser capital cost. Dis Advantages:

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4. Accuracy is less and hence comparatively lesser efficient. 5. Tracking system works irrespective of rainy / cloudy days. 6. Power consumption of the tracking system is comparatively more.

2.1.3 PASSIVE TRACKER Passive trackers use bimetallic strips with mass at end to cause the tracker to move in response to an imbalance. As this is a non-precision orientation it is works fine for common PV panel types. These will have viscous dampers to prevent excessive motion in response to wind gusts. Shader /reflectors are used to reflect early morning sunlight to "wake up" the panel and tilt it toward the sun, which can take nearly an hour. The time to do this can be greatly reduced by adding a self-releasing tie down that positions the panel Advantages: 1. Almost nil power consumption for tracking mechanism. Dis Advantages: 2. Accuracy is very poor. 3. Efficiency improvement is comparatively very less. 4. Requires more maintenance. 5. Tracking system works irrespective of rainy / cloudy days.

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2.2 SELECTION OF TRACKING PROCESS

The above chapters provided the various types of tracking system and the merits and demirits of the trckers. Inorder to over come the disadvantages and to make the tracking system more effective and to increase the efficency of the tracker the following method is adopted. The chronological tracker advantage and active tracker advantages have been combined. The solar panel is made to track the sun by moving the panel at the rate of 15 every hour. The starting of the movement in the early morning is triggered by a Light dependant resistar which ensures that the tracking system starts only when the sun rays are incident on the equipment. Further this sensor also ensures that the panel tracker will be turned off when enough sun light is not availble, This helps to avoid unnecessary movements of the panel during cloudy or rainy environment. Thus the advantage of the simplicity of the chronological tracker is combined with the effectiveness of the active trackero bring out a better tracking system.

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2.3 LITERATURE SURVEY [1] Hull et al (2009) in their work on the improvement of the solar panel efficiency states that automatic tracker can improve the efficiency of the solar panel substantially up to 40 percentages. If a manual and an automatic tracker are considered then the manual tracker is only half the efficiency of the automatic tracker. If one compares a single axis automatic tracker and dual axis automatic tracker then the efficiency of the dual axis tracker will be 5 to 10 percentage more than that of the single axis tracker. The complexity of the dual axis tracker is very high compared to single axis tracker. When the cost to efficiency ratio is considered, the single axis tracker scores the best. Considering cost to efficiency ratio single axis automatic tracker is the best compared to dual axis tracker, Manual tracker and fixed panel. To overcome the above disadvantage it is better to use automatic tracker for one axis and achieve the secondary axis tracking use manual adjustment which would require adjustments once in every fortnight. [2] Kriss (2010) on his extensive study on the solar tracking systems found the tracking system to have an advantage of 40 to 50 percent during summer and 20 to 25 percent during winter. Further energy consumed by the automatic tracking mechanism is normally very negligible when compared to the efficiency improvement achieved through the automatic tracker. Also tracking system is one of the best method in order to maximize output of the solar panel in a given space constraint. The tracker power consumption needs to be maintained minimal in order to enhance the advantage automatic tracker. [3] David (2009) it its extensive research on renewable energy found that twin axis automatic tracker increases the complexity of the tracking system over the advantage obtain from the same. Further passive trackers are better in terms of operating cost, when compared to active tracker. Whereas the accuracy of the passive tracker is less, leading to lesser efficiency improvement when compared to automatic tracker. Singe axis automatic tracker have lesser maintenance and are more reliable than dual axis tracker. Few of the disadvantages of tracking system include increased capital cost,

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increased maintenance cost and reliability issues. Hence tracking system needs to be simple, efficient and reliable with low maintenance cost. [4] Damm and Issue (2000) in their study on active solar tracking found that the efficiency of dual axis tracker will be 5 to 10 percent in comparison to the manual tracker. [5] Sinha (2009 Feb) in his study on photovoltaic cell observed that in many case it is better to from a matrix array to enhance the power output. Further it is better to mount the solar panel on the equipment itself to have the advantage of the reduced transmission losses between the panel and the equipment. Generating enough electricity to power a house requires several hundred square feet of solar panels. As each house must be custom-fitted with panels, the cost of materials and labour can run to tens of thousands of dollars. Solar cells are relatively inefficient sources of power. Only 12%-15% of the energy that falls on a cell in the form of sunlight gets converted to electricity. By contrast, modern hydroelectric power plants have efficiencies of 90% or more. Many corporations, universities and institutions around the world are studying ways to increase the efficiencies of solar cells. There have been occasional breakthroughs in raising efficiencies to the 25% or higher range. However, these discoveries have mostly remained at the experimental stage, and have not proven to be commercially viable. [6] Dobrzaski and Drygaa (2008) in their research paper presents results of multicrystalline silicon texturization by means of Nd: YAG laser. The best solar cells manufactured from the laser-textured wafers with texture corresponding to parallel grooves after removal by etching of 80 mm of laser damage layer demonstrate 10.51 % efficiency. Laser processing of crystalline silicon surface is interesting alternative in comparison with chemical texturization methods. It gives possibility of precise surface processing independent on grains crystallographic orientation. However, laser surface treatment introduce defects into the top layer of processed material that deteriorate performance of the solar cells. Fortunately, applied post-laser texturing etching step makes it possible to remove distorted layer and improve efficiency of corresponding solar cells. It can be drawn a conclusion that obtained results are

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significant from the development of photovoltaics viewpoint. It seems that presented laser texturing method may be successfully incorporated into production line of hightech multicrystalline silicon solar cells. [7] Daniels (1964) states that the Solar Energy in any form of energy radiated by the sun, including light, radio waves, and X rays, although the term usually refers to the visible light of the sun. The energy in fossil fuels such as coal, oil and other organic fuels like wood is derived from solar energy. Difficulties with these fuels have led to the invention of devices that directly convert solar energy into usable forms of energy, such as electricity. Solar batteries, which operate on the principle that light falling on photosensitive substances causes a flow of electricity, play an important part in space satellites and, as they become more efficient, are finding increasing use on the earth. Thermoelectric generators convert the heat generated by solar energy directly into electricity. Several projects have produced electricity on a large scale by using the solar energy available in desert areas. The heat from the oil is then converted into electricity. Heat from the sun is used in air-drying a variety of materials and in producing salt by the evaporation of seawater. Solar heating systems can supply heat and hot water for domestic use; heat collected in special plates on the roof of a house is stored in rocks or water held in a large container. Such systems, however, usually require a conventional heater to supplement them. [8] Brian (1991) in his development states that the large-scale use of photovoltaic devices for electricity generation is prohibitively expensive at present: generation from existing commercial devices costs about ten times more than conventional methods. Here we describe a photovoltaic cell, created from low-to medium-purity materials through low-cost processes, which exhibits commercially realistic energyconversion efficiency. The device is based on a 10 mm thick, optically transparent film of titanium dioxide particles a few nanometres in size, coated with a monolayer of a charge-transfer dye to sensitize the film for light harvesting. Because of the high surface area of the semiconductor film and the ideal spectral characteristics of the dye, the device harvests a high proportion of the incident solar energy flux (46%) and shows exceptionally high efficiencies for the conversion of incident photons to electrical current (more than 80%). The overall light-to-electric energy conversion

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yield is 7.1-7.9% in simulated solar light and 12% in diffuse daylight. The large current densities (greater than 12 mA cm-2) and exceptional stability (sustaining at least five million turnovers without decomposition), as well as the low cost, make practical applications feasible. [9] Schwede et al (2010) in their research on natural materials found that a new process that simultaneously combines the light and heat of solar radiation to generate electricity could offer more than double the efficiency of existing solar cell technology. They have figured out how to simultaneously use the light and heat of the sun to generate electricity in a way that could make solar power production more than twice as efficient as existing methods and potentially cheap enough to compete with oil. Unlike photovoltaic technology currently used in solar panels -- which becomes less efficient as the temperature rises -- the new process excels at higher temperatures. This heat from unused sunlight and inefficiencies in the cells themselves account for a loss of more than 50 percent of the initial solar energy reaching the cell. If this wasted heat energy could somehow be harvested, solar cells could be much more efficient. The problem has been that high temperatures are necessary to power heat-based conversion systems, yet solar cell efficiency rapidly decreases at higher temperatures. While most silicon solar cells have been rendered inert by the time the temperature reaches 100 degrees Celsius, the PETE device doesn't hit peak efficiency until it is well over 200 degrees C. Because PETE performs best at temperatures well in excess of what a rooftop solar panel would reach, the devices will work best in solar concentrators such as parabolic dishes, which can get as hot as 800 degrees C. They have calculated that the new process can get to 50 percent efficiency or more under solar concentration, but if combined with a thermal conversion cycle, could reach 55 or even 60 percent -- almost triple the efficiency of existing systems. [10] Danko (2011) studied on a fairly new type of solar cell that uses tiny particles of semiconductors called quantum dots. Quantum dot solar cells are cheaper to produce than traditional silicon cells, but they havent caught on due to their relative inefficiency. Solar cells made of a single material have a maximum efficiency of about 31 percent, a limitation of the fixed energy level they can absorb, and that quantum dot solar cells didnt share this limitation. Quantum dots can be tuned to

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absorb a certain wavelength of light just by changing their size. They can be used to build more complex solar cells that have more than one size of quantum dot, allowing them to absorb multiple wavelengths of light. Titanium dioxide semiconductor in their quantum dot solar cell with a very thin single layer of organic molecules. They found that just that single layer, less than a nanometer thick, was enough to triple the efficiency of the solar cells.

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CHAPTER 3 EQUIPMENT CONSTRUCTION

SOLAR PANEL

Figure 3.1 Sola Panel 20W

Solar panel selected is 20W peak power output panel, capable of generating 20 Volts under open load condition and 17 Volts when connected to load. The tolerance limit of the panel is +/- 5%. The solar panel is mounted on a supporting a steel panel though which the panel is mounted on the fixed fram. The output of the panel is provided though two screwed terminals to which all the solar cells are interconnected.

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FRAME

Figure 3.2 Frame

The frame form the basic back born of the equipment. The frame is made out of a square steel extrusion of 19x19 mm x 1 mm. The ground support is provided at four points in the frame which ensures better stability under in order to take care of the wind forces. This also helps in taking care of load when the panel is moved to extreme east or west conditions. The solar panel is mounted to the frame and frame is at six points which provide the pivoting action to the panel.

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STEPPER MOTOR DRIVERS LDR CONTROL CIRCUITS

MICRO CONTROLLER

``
PROTECTIVE CIRCUITS

TIMER & DISPLAY TRANSFORMER

Figure 3.4 Sensor & Control Ciruit

The contorl circuitary is with sensors is mouted on the frame through two mounting screws. The ciruit consists of the following components. o Micro controller for stepper motor drive and timer control. o Resettable Timer. o Stepper motor drivers. o Light dependant resistar circuitary. o Transformers and input controls. The transformer is a step down tracnsformer that brings down 230 V of 12V . This transformer has the capacity of support 1 Amp output current.

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 A light dependant resistar is provided which is used to sense the sun light. This inturn triggers a relay which is used to control the power input to the microntroller circuitary. The micro processor 1019A is provided to take the input from the timer and to control the signals to the stepper motor driver. The stepper motor driver is used to provide signals to the stepper motor based on the input from the micro controller. The timer and display is unit is provide to support the micro controller. The timer is resettable through two adjustment switches.

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DIVE GEARS

Figure 3.5 Drive Gears

The drive gear consists of one set of worm gear. These gears are made up of fibers and are capable of handling 10 Nm of troque. Worm gears provide a re reduction ratio of 1:26 which helpd in rotating the solar panel. Further this gear also helps increasing the braking torque inorder to avoid unnecessary panel movements. The drive gears have been housed into a square extrusion of 100 mm x 100 mm of 2 mm thickness. This also acts as the mounting base for the stepper motor.

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CHAPTER 4 TRACKING PROCESS

The tracking process is based on the movement of the earth at the rate of 15 degree every hour. Hence the panel needs to be indexed at the rate of 15 Degrees every hour. The resolution can be as close as 1 degree. For experimental purpose 15 Degree resolution has been considered.

4.1 SENSING MECHANISM

In order to avoid the unwanted movement of the panel when the direct sun rays are not available, sensing mechanism has been provided in the circuitry. The circuit has been provided with Light dependant resistor which is used to achieve the same. The power connection to the micro controller is controlled by the LDR circuit. A main relay is used to switch the circuit between the transformer and the stepper motor driver circuit based on the input signal from the LDR.

Figure 4.1- Sensing circuit

Once the direct sun rays are available, the LDR resistance reduces allowing enough voltage signal. This voltage signal is communicated to the relays energizing coil which closes the contacts allowing the current to pass to the stepper motor driving

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circuit. This ensures that the stepper motor and the driver receive power only when the sun rays are available. Thus stepper motor and hence the tracking mechanism will not get actuated during the following conditions. 1. Cloudy condition 2. Rain Days 3. Early morning when enough sun ray are not available. By this unwanted movement of the panel is avoided and hence the power consumption to the tracker mechanism is effectively minimized.

4.2 TRACKING PROCESS

The tracking mechanism is connected to an external AC power source. The 230V Ac power is converted into 12 V by the step down transformer. This power supply is then available to the timer and the LDR circuitry. At this point of time the power supply to stepper motor driver and micro controller is not available. Two switches one for hour and other for minutes adjustment has been provided in the timer circuit. This helps to adjust the time in case of any deviation and can also be used for trial purpose. Morning sun light falls on the equipment the LDR resistance starts changing. Once enough sun rays are available, then the energizing voltage is made available to the main relay through the LDR. If enough light is not available then the LDR resistance doesnt change and hence the main relay contacts remain open. This is to ensure the optimization of power supply to the tracking mechanism. Once enough sun light is available then the main relay gets energized and the switching contacts closes the circuit. This ensures power supply availability to the microprocessor and the stepper motor divers.

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Figure 4.2- Control Circuit

At this point of time the micro controller boots up. It takes the input from the timer. Now the microcontroller compares the time with the program. Based on this the micro controller provides input to the steppe motor driver. The stepper motor driver base on the input signal from the micro controller, directs the stepper motor to rotate for specified time. This inturn causes the solar panel to rotate and is positioned in the position perpendicular to sun rays. This inturn helps to maximize the power output from the panel. The layout diagram of the control panel is provided in the above diagram. Thus tracking of the sun is done at the rate of 15 degrees every hour with minimum amount of energy being spent for tracking mechanism to enhance the efficiency advantage.

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CHAPTER 5 TEST RESULT S 5.1 INTRODUCTION In order to establish the advantage of the tracking system over conventional station system, the panel out put has been tested with and without the tracking mechanism on a sunny day. The projected advantage of the tracking system by having sensing mechanism is also studied. 5.2 TEST PROCEDURE In order to establish the advantage the output from the panel, the output from the panel has been tested with and without tracker s given below. The equipment was taken for testing in a non shadow affected region. The solar panel was positioned such that the sun rays is perpendicularly incident on the panel during the noon i.e., in a flat position. The tracking mechanism has been turned off. Set of readings every half a hour has been take from morning 6am to evening 6pm and have been recorded. These readings provided the base data. In the same geographical location tracker mechanism was powered the next day. The main relay energized at 6.50AM when enough sun rays was available. Now with the panel indexing at the rate of 15 degrees every hour the output in terms of voltage and current was measured. The same frequency of half a hour was used to measure the output from the panel. The readings have been recorded till evening 6PM. The test results have been recoded with help of potentiometer.

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5.3 TEST RESULTS WITH AND WITHOUT TRACKER The observation during both the days have been recorded using a potentiometer and the reading are as provided below. The observations shows an improvement of 33% over the fixed system. Table 5.1 Power Output without Tracker
Reading No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Time 6.30 7.00 7.30 8.00 8.30 9.00 9.30 10.00 10.30 11.00 11.30 12.00 12.30 13.00 13.30 14.00 14.30 15.00 15.30 16.00 16.30 17.00 17.30 18.00 Voltage 5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 9.0 9.0 11.0 13.0 13.5 15.0 16.0 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.0 15.5 15.0 13.0 12.0 9.0 8.0 6.0 5.0 5.0 Current 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.40 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.40 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00 0.00 Output power 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.450 0.450 1.100 1.950 2.025 3.750 6.400 8.250 8.250 8.250 6.400 4.650 3.750 2.600 1.200 0.450 0.400 0.000 0.000 0.000

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Fig 5.2 Power output with tracker

Reading No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

Time 6.30 7.00 7.30 8.00 8.30 9.00 9.30 10.00 10.30 11.00 11.30 12.00 12.30 13.00 13.30 14.00 14.30 15.00 15.30 16.00 16.30 17.00 17.30 18.00

Voltage 5.0 8.0 9.5 10.5 11.5 12.5 13.5 14.5 15.5 15.5 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.5 16.0 16.0 15.5 15.0 12.0 10.0 9.0 7.0 5.0

Current 0.00 0.00 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.25 0.35 0.45 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.45 0.40 0.35 0.35 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.05 0.00 0.00

Output power 0.000 0.000 0.475 0.525 1.150 1.250 2.025 2.175 3.875 5.425 7.425 8.250 8.250 8.250 7.425 6.400 5.600 5.425 3.000 1.200 0.500 0.450 0.000 0.000

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Graphical comparison on the output is provided below. The output matches during the noon time between 12 and 13 Hrs.
Voltage comparison
18.0 16.0 14.0 Voltage in Volt 12.0 10.0 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.0 0.0
6. 30 7. 30 8. 30 9. 30 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 16 12 10 11 13 14 15 17 .3 0 .3 0

Time in Hrs With Tracker Without Tracker

Figure 5.1 Output Voltage Comparison

Current Comparison
0.60 0.50 Current In Amp 0.40 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.00
6. 30 8. 30 9. 30 7. 30 10 .3 0 12 .3 0 15 .3 0 17 .3 0 11 .3 0 13 .3 0 14 .3 0 16 .3 0

Timer in Hrs With Tracker Without Tracker

Figure 5.1 Output Current Comparison

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Power Output comparion

9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 4.00 3.00 2.00 1.00 0.00
6. 30 7. 30 8. 30 9. 30 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 .3 0 16 11 12 13 14 15 10 17 .3 0

Power in Watts

Time in Hrs With Tracker Without Tracker

Fig 5.3 Power output comparison

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