BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Protein synthesis

Science
Protein synthesis
Genes are sections of the DNA. Each gene has the code for creating a specific protein. The sequence of bases in the gene controls which amino acids are created and joined to make a specific new protein (or enzyme) molecule.

Amino acids and proteins

Each gene acts as a code , or set of instructions, for making a particular protein. Some of these proteins control the cell's internal chemistry. They tell the cell what to do, give the organism its characteristics, and determine the way its body works.

Diagram showing how a protein is produced

To enable genes to code for proteins, the bases A, T, G and C get together not in pairs but in triplets. This is how it works:

1. Each protein is made up of large numbers of amino acid molecules. 2. Each triplet of bases codes for one particular amino acid. 3. Amino acids are made in the number and order dictated by the number and order of base triplets.
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BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Protein synthesis

4. Finally, the amino acid molecules join together in a long chain to make a protein molecule. The number and sequence of amino acids determines which protein results.
Since many of the proteins made are enzymes, genes control the cell's internal chemistry.

Proteins and their uses

Each protein has a unique sequence of amino acids. This means that the number and order of amino acids is different for each type of protein. The proteins fold into unique shapes.

Molecular model of haemoglobin

Molecular graphic of the protein keratin

The different shapes and sequences give the proteins different functions, eg keratin is a fibrous protein found in hair and nails. Enzymes are also proteins.

Mutations
Causes and effects
Mutations are changes that can occur in genes. These changes are random and can be caused by background radiation and chemicals that we come into contact with, eg the chemicals in cigarette smoke. The change causes an alteration to the base pairbase pair: The pair of nitrogenous bases that connects the complementary strands of DNA. sequence in the
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BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Protein synthesis

genetic code. Sometimes these changes can be so severe that the cell dies , sometimes the cell can divide uncontrollably and become cancerous , and sometimes the changes are small and the cell survives . Very rarely, the changes may even be beneficial to us and produce new and useful characteristics.

Passing on mutations
If these changes occur in normal body cells, the changes are lost when we die. But if the changes occur in our sex cells such as sperm and ova, there is the possibility that the changes in the gene will be passed onto the next generation . It is when these changes are passed on to the next generation that natural selection can either ensure that they are selected if they are useful, or disappear from the gene pool if they are not.

New species
The combined effect of these mutations, environmental changes, and natural selection, can sometimes produce changes in the organism that are so great that a new species is produced. This does not happen very often and only occurs when the mutated organism can no longer breed with the original species and is capable of producing fertile offspring. Now try a Test Bite. Read on if you're taking the higher paper.

Transcription - Higher tier

Transcription is the first part of the process of making a protein. It takes place inside the cell nucleus. Transcription involves copying the DNA and the stages are:

1. The DNA in a gene unzips so that both strands are separate one strand is used as a template 2. Complementary bases attach to the strand being copied C joins to G and so on
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BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Protein synthesis

3. Thymine (Base T) is not present and a different base, U, joins with A in the way that T would have done 4. This forms a strand of messenger RNA (mRNA)
Messenger RNA is small enough to move out of the nucleus and so it travels to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

DNA helix unzipping and being copied

Translation - Higher tier

Translation takes place in the ribosomes that are found in the cytoplasm. This is where the messenger RNA is 'interpreted' and the new protein formed. The stages are:

1. The mRNA attaches to a ribosome. The ribosome "reads" the mRNA. 2. The ribosome decodes the mRNA in groups of three base triplets or codons which are complementary to bases in transfer RNA (tRNA). 3. The tRNA is specific to an amino acid that it collects and returns to the mRNA. 4. The amino acids are now lined up in order of the instructions on the mRNA. 5. Bonds form between the amino acids and a polypeptide chain is formed. 6. The polypeptide chain folds and becomes a specific shape forming a protein.

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BBC - GCSE Bitesize - Protein synthesis

Diagram showing a translation taking place

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