CBT Learning Culture: The Role of Assessment for Maintaining Quality Assurance

Prof Poh Sui Hoi, Andrew (PhD) Director, HELP Centre for Teaching and Learning (HCTL) Wisma HELP, Jalan Dungun, 50490 Kuala Lumpur Tel: 603 20992958 (DID) Fax: 603 27112331 Email: pohsh@help.edu.my Website: www@help.edu.my Introduction Assessment is an integral part of the Teaching and Learning (T & L) process. Hence when people talk about Teaching and Learning, they actually mean Teaching, Assessment and Learning (TAL). Effective Teaching must result in Learning and to ascertain that Learning has taken place, some form of assessment need to be done either informally or formally to indicate the extent learned, not learned and how learning can be further enhanced. Assessment then is not an afterthought or an appendage that can be disposed of. It is one of the vital organs to ensure that Teaching and Learning have been effective. The effectiveness of Teaching nowadays is measured not by the amount of knowledge one can pour into dummies heads, but it is measured by the extent to which learning has taken place. In other words, effective teaching is teaching people how to learn; empowering the learner to take control of his/her own learning {Hativa (2000). Teaching is not just delivering content; teaching is a professional activity where learning can be maximized. Measuring the learning involves assessment of one form or the other which indicates the amount learned, not learned, and how learning can be enhanced. Hence Quality Assurance in T & L can be maintained when Assessment has been carried out appropriately and adequately to ascertain that learning is maximized. Assessment actually originates from the Latin word ad sedere meaning sitting down beside. Well, when you sit beside someone, usually you would want to communicate something to that someone. Hence assessment actually is a helping function, certainly not a threat! Assessment is innocent of all the bad connotations associated with it. This is mainly due to the fact that assessment involves value-judgments but like all good instruments they can be subjected to misuse and abuse. Before anybody wishes to criticize assessments, they should first and foremost understand the purpose for which that assessment is designed to accomplish. For example for selection purposes where some are selected and others rejected, the assessments purpose is to discriminate to separate the sheep from the goat, so to speak. The accuracy of the assessment must of necessity in this case, to tell the user who should rightfully be selected. In the case of assessment to become a pilot, for example: the assessment must be so selective and the criteria so stringent that there is no tolerance for error, this requires nothing less than 100% certainty to qualify! We can understand why, because life and death is at stake here; hence there should not be any allowance or tolerance for anything less than 100%. Assessment of achievements in certain subject areas, etc. do not involve life and death; but here we want to ensure that the results are valid indicators of what we are assessing and we must do this as
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accurately as possible which is the reliability issue to ensure Quality Assurance. Hence, for any instrument we design to measure achievement in the subject area; we must satisfy these two stringent quality assurance indicators of quality, namely validity and reliability of the results (Nitko, 2004). For selection purposes, for certification purposes then the purpose is to discriminate and the assessment must satisfy this function adequately and accurately, to be fair and unbiased. This assessment instrument is designed such that it could perform this function in the most valid and reliable manner, fair and accurate, satisfying the purpose for which it was designed to do. Here discrimination is not a dirty word but for the decision to be made, it needs to function this way. Hence people and lay users should understand the purpose before criticizing and drawing any conclusions. Selection involves making a decision to accept some and reject some; hence the interpretation of the results is norm-referenced, meaning comparing with others in the group. This is useful in final examinations, for example. However, there are occasions when the assessment is used not to rank people but to ascertain whether or not mastery of certain material learned has been reached or not reached, here the results of the assessment are not to discriminate people nor rank on a relative basis. Instead, the results indicate the extent of mastery of the material learned, for example. Here, a persons result is not compared to others in the group, but to ascertain mastery of material learned, it is criterion-referenced. This is useful for coursework assessment, for example, in continuous assessment of the subject. The importance of assessment need not be further emphasized, it is the process of obtaining information that is used for making decisions about students, the curriculum and programmes and policy. This is succinctly depicted by the diagram below, reproduced from Nitko (2004): Assessment results are used to make decisions about policy eg., deciding on a Bilingual policy, the likelihood of success is enhanced by collecting and evaluating results on students mastery of the first language achievements. Decisions about programmes and curriculum make use of results of assessments before implementing the Gifted Education programme, for example. Decisions about students in terms of selection, placement, classifying and certification are enhanced by assessment results.

Some useful Definitions

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Very often people use tests, exams, evaluation and assessment interchangeably, but there are shades of differences among them. TEST: A task, an instrument, is a standard procedure for observing, describing one or more characteristics of a person, with the aid of a numerical/categorical system. Essentially a technique for obtaining information in some organized form. Essentially, a test is the instrument or a systematic procedure for collecting data on one or more characteristics of a person in either a categorical scale or numerical scale. The important points to note here is that the test is an instrument or tool, developed in a systematic way to collect data on certain characteristics that an individual is capable of displaying. For example Math is a specific subject and a persons Math performance or characteristic that he is capable of displaying can be shown by his/her score in a test that is systematically developed to elicit information on his/her performance in Math achievement. And his/her achievement can be described in a numerical scale like a number score 10, 54 or 95. Sometimes, his/her achievement in this characteristic, can be described in a categorical scale like excellent, very good or good or A, B, C, D, etc. MEASUREMENT: The process of obtaining a numerical description of the degree to which a person possesses a particular characteristic. Essentially a procedure for assigning numbers (scores) to a specific characteristic of a person -- an estimate of how much of something an individual possesses or is able to display. Essentially, measurement is the quantification of data. When the performance of the person in any characteristic is expressed as a number (quantification), it is a measurement of the degree of achieve of the individual in that particular characteristic and this number can be compared to other numbers that students received from this systematically designed test to measure the degree of achievement in the characteristic called Math, for example. EVALUATION: The systematic process of collecting, analyzing and interpreting data to determine the worth of a programme, process or product, to assist decision-makers in choosing among several decision alternatives such that the decision arrived at would be more credible. Evaluation then, is the process of gathering all the related data from different sources to enable the evaluator to make an informed decision at the end of the evaluation. In an evaluation study, one can make use of Tests, or other instruments like interviewing, using questionnaires, etc. to gather all the data required to make better judgments of the results from the study. Evaluation should end up making valued judgments, for example, whether or not a certain programme is to be continued or modified in some way or that the programme has to be terminated. This will be followed by some recommendations. ASSESSMENT: The overall process of collection and evaluation of data involving inputs to, transactions within and outputs from an education system. Assessment begins with the analysis of the criterion and the environment in which one lives, learns and works; his/her strengths, weaknesses, needs, characteristics, abilities and skills. In other words assessment is the all-encompassing word. Assessment is that all inclusive term used. Nowadays we have the conventional assessment of tests and examinations of the paper and pencil type or alternative
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assessments which can take the form of a given assignment to be completed in a period of time. This can also be a project given, also to be completed in a period of time. Again, the instruments whether for conventional or alternative assessments, must be systematically constructed so as to arrive at results that are more valid and reliable. Conventional Assessment and Alternative Assessment Conventional Assessment refers to the paper-and-pencil Tests and Exams that all of us are familiar with. This could be selection-type objectives tests, quizzes, and supply-type essay questions. These mainly measure cognitive abilities in the subject area. Alternative Assessments or sometimes referred to as Authentic Assessments refers to other ways of assessing abilities using various means: For example, assignments given as a form of evaluation of a persons work and projects given on specific topics where certain tasks are set for students to accomplish; either individually or in groups. One must understand that all forms of assessments are authentic; the conventional as well as the alternative assessments. Hence, we must use these appropriately to get the results that we can interpret properly and accurately, to ensure Quality. Assessments, essentially are ways and means, one uses to gather information about performance of students in tests, exams, assignments, projects, etc., to enable individuals to describe themselves, as well as their position relative to others; both are important, only depends upon the purpose for which the type of assessment is designed to measure: whether for selection or for mastery, for example. Hence the more information one gathers, the more one can describe the performance of the students more holistically. Hence more assessments need to be used rather than less; but the stringent quality criteria of assessments in terms of validity and reliability of results need to be satisfied first. In the case of alternative assessments, three other criteria of quality also need to be taken care of. These are: Integrity, Equity and Fairness. Assignments, project work given individually or in groups, needs to ascertain that the work is done by the assessee or person doing the work, not anybody else (Integrity). Facilities and resources provided to accomplish the assignments or tasks also need to be fairly and equally given (Equity). Then the questions set should not involve any form of biases (Fairness). The rationale for using alternative assessments then, is that there are indeed certain skills, not measured by the conventional assessments which concentrated on cognitive abilities mainly. However, alternative assessments can never produce results as valid and reliable as the conventional ones. They are used to complement and supplement conventional assessments, so that students can be assessed more holistically; reflecting real life situations. The constructivists views on Education and the advent of multiple intelligences, justify the use of alternative assessments to supplement and complement results obtained by conventional procedures, so as to get a more holistic picture of all the abilities that one wants the students to demonstrate as evidence of his/her accomplishments. Blooms taxonomy is used as the thinking skills framework to help in assessing all the cognitive skills but one needs other thinking skills framework also in assessing skills other than the cognitive ones. Marzanos
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Dimensions of Learning taxonomy is the other thinking skills framework, used for these purposes. Besides cognitive abilities covered by Blooms taxonomy, Marzanos dimensions of learning covers information processing, complex thinking skills, communication skills both oral and written, performance measures as well as habits of the mind. Both these thinking skills framework (Blooms and Marzanos) would give a more holistic coverage of the desirable outcomes that we wish our students to be able to demonstrate. There are about 50+ plus taxonomies of educational objectives or thinking skills frameworks in the world today, eg. Krathwohls (1964) Taxonomy of the affective domain and Simpsons (1972) Taxonomy of the psychomotor domain; Biggs Solo Taxonomy, etc.. For purposes of interpretation of results more holistically, appropriately and adequately; the use of Blooms Taxonomy and Marzanos Dimensions of Learning are sufficient to give meaningful interpretation of all the results necessary up to the University level. These two thinking skills framework are sufficient to give a more valid and reliable estimate of almost all the desirable knowledge and skills expected of students in Higher Education. One must also realize that inherent in the type of assessment one brings to the equation, the standard error of measurement is there. Hence we need to ascertain that this error remain minimal and controllable. The reliability coefficient of the results shows this, in terms of accuracy. And in terms of complex thinkin g skills in Marzanos taxonomy, it encompasses: Deep understanding, Problem Solving, Critical and Creative Thinking and Decision-Making (also known as the BIG 5 in Thinking skills, personal preferences). If we can use these appropriately and know how to interpret the results appropriately and adequately, it will be enough to judge Quality for Higher Education. There is no necessity to further split these into Affective and Psycho-motor measures because all these are covered by the above two taxonomies, depicting the important and desirable skills and values we want our students to demonstrate from schools to university. Why Assess? When we ask the question WHY ASSESS? We are referring to the purpose for which the assessment is designed to measure and the following are the main purposes in broad categories: Instructional Administrative Guidance & Counseling Research

Of course, predominantly, assessment results are used for instructional purposes where they show, to ascertain that learning has taken place and to what extent and how students could be helped to enhance their strengths and overcome their weaknesses. For purposes of selection to limited places, etc., we need to ascertain that the best ones are selected so that this decision will ascertain that success is more likely and it would also help any country in the development of human capital. The wrong choices of people selected when in fact they should be rejected involve costs to the individual as well as to the Government of the country, unable to upgrade the standard of performance of those selected; Quality, to a certain extent is compromised.
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The above four categories are the broad classifications of the general purposes for any form of assessments. The more specific purposes are as follows: To grade or rank students To stream students To select for future courses To ascertain material learned To predict success in future work To predict success in employment To provide feedback to improve learning & teaching To motivate students & teachers To evaluate teaching and learning

These are some of the more specific purposes that assessments are designed to accomplish and this list is not exhaustive. There are plenty of reasons that assessments are designed to accomplish, but that will be for another discussion. For the first three purposes, the conventional assessment procedures continue to do a real good job. For the rest of the specific purposes in the list, some alternative assessment procedures are necessary to complement and supplement those ascertained by the conventional approaches to give a more holistic picture of the students overall performance and abilities. One should understand that alternative assessments cannot produce results as valid and reliable as the conventional assessment approaches because of inherent errors of measurement due to the subjective nature of data collection and hence alternative assessments can never replace the conventional types. Another valid point to note is that alternative assessment procedures are even more difficult to craft, because they must now satisfy, not two but five stringent criteria of quality. The justification for their use is that they open up avenues for skills and knowledge not assessed by the cognitive abilities and skills alone. One has to come up with superior techniques to craft alternative assessments to assess those characteristics deem to be useful for development of human capital. These need to be well-thought through and we should be able to ascertain the characteristics to be assessed, then come up with really great instruments to assess these in the most valid and reliable manner. Of course, it goes without saying, that these may not be the same as conventional measurement procedures where we mark students work as right or wrong. Here, we need to develop better scoring rubrics with proper criteria to assess these characteristics in the best way possible so that the results are valid and reliable, indicating those desirable skills and knowledge that we want the students to demonstrate. Assessments of all forms: Conventional as well as Alternative ones should be employed to gather sufficient data and information to help students to describe themselves more fully in the most valid and reliable manner, so that they are more representative of the individuals abilities being assessed. The problem of misassessing are many, and the problems of misinterpreting the results are also many and these would go a long way to help or not help individuals succeed in life. The best assessments should give a true picture of the persons standing with respect to himself as well as with
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respect to others, so that the individual, armed with self-knowledge knows exactly what are his/her strengths and weaknesses and how to go about improving himself/herself at all times and in all places. This poses a great challenge to the people at large and all teachers must of necessity, be exposed to and trained properly and have sufficient knowledge of this specialized area, to be able to function adequately as a great and effective teacher and assessor. This points out that the curriculum for Teacher-Training must incorporate a large portion to assessment and alternative assessments, because assessment is an integral part of the instructional process, without which the education system may not be that great or even lamed. A basic knowledge of assessment and assessment-related matters is an essential element in all teacher-preparation courses/curriculum to produce teachers able to teach effectively with conviction and commitment. This is one area that any intending teacher should master adequately, although a little more difficult than other areas, to function effectively as an effective teacher. Assessment is an integral part of the teaching and learning process and should be treated as such; not as an appendage or an after effect. If this is done well, all teachers should be able to teach better and more effectively also. Teachers should use all resources available: in terms of methodologies like active learning, blended teaching; all pointing to teaching people first and foremost, so that individuals can take control of their own learning for better good. This is empowering the learner to take control and we will find that teaching will become more interesting and students too will find learning exciting because they are now more aware of what they know and dont know through assessments and how to make up for improvements always. Assessments, including conventional and alternative ones, after all are designed and properly constructed instruments to gather data about a persons abilities. Hence, the more data collected, the more we are able to help students describe themselves better; so that they know their strengths and weaknesses and how they can perform better each time and every time. All forms of assessments are useful; if designed and crafted well, they should be able to help students describe themselves more fully, to ensure that learning is maximize. What to assess? This, of course refers to the outcomes the desirable outcomes that we desire and want all our students to be able to demonstrate after instruction. The outcomes can be Cognitive outcomes (Thinking skills, mainly) and Affective and Psychomotor outcomes (Involving doing or performance; individually or in groups). All these are desirable outcomes that a person going through the Education system should be able to demonstrate (See diagrams below). As effective teachers, we are not the fountain of knowledge and as students, they are not dummies waiting for knowledge to be thrust into their heads! We are more interested in teaching people first and foremost, we are teaching people how to learn and this is more challenging than just lecturing and hoping that they are able to regurgitate and reproduce what we gave them. In other words, in teaching people learn, we are more facilitators than lecturers. We seldom talk down instead we get the students involved in substantive conversations to maximize learning {Poh(1997), Biggs (2007)}. What this means is that, effective teacherlecturers need to prepare more; plan activities to excite their charges always. These need not
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involve any sophisticated equipment or facilities; only require the teacher-lecturers to exercise their brain powers a little more, to be more creative and use ones ingenuity to ensure that learning is maximized.

Teaching is not just another job, not everybody can become an effective Teacher it is one career that requires an uncommon combination of knowledge and skills to become successful. The motto should be if you have what it takes, then come to Teaching , otherwise the damage done could be cumulative; affecting individuals as well as Governments if the wrong Pegs are plugged into the wrong Holes! They certainly cannot work effectively, to the detriment and wastage of human resources. In summary outcomes can be process outcomes as well as product outcomes; cognitive as well as affective and psychomotor outcomes depicted by the diagrams. In the assessment of cognitive outcomes, we use the thinking skills framework called Blooms Taxonomy to help us arrange the knowledge and skills to be developed in students according to some hierarchical order like Lower-order thinking skills, Medium-order thinking skills and Higher-order thinking skills. Bloom (1963, 1984) together with his team members developed this taxonomy and arranged thinking skills at six levels: Knowledge, Comprehention, Application, Analysis, Synthesis and Evaluation. (A more comprehensive coverage on this topic can be found in Miller, Linn & Gronlund (2009), Nitko (2004) or any Testing and Measurement book.) In the case of non-cognitive outcomes which are also desirable that students and others need to also have, we use the thinking skills framework called Marzanos Dimension of Learning which has five categories, covering the essential knowledge and skills needed for the knowledge-based economy and globalization. The Dimensions of Learning is based on the premise that five types of thinking are essential to the learning process: (1) Positive attitudes
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and perceptions about learning, (2) Thinking involved in acquiring and integrating knowledge, (3) thinking involved in using knowledge meaningfully and (5) productive habits of the minds. (Details of this can be found in assessing student outcomes by Marzano, Pickering & McTighe, 1993). Althought, Bloom,et. al (1965, 1984) arranged the six levels of cognitive abilities in hierarchical order, the line separating these are not distinct but blurred. Hence, there is no point arguing which category a certain skill is placed, so long as there is justification for its placement. Here, it is quite clear that there are these two distinct categories of lower- and higher-order thinking skills, as shown in the diagrams below:

These thinking skills and performance outcomes are now commonplace as we progress to the knowledge-based economy and globalization. Some of the performance skills are best measured by preparing better scoring rubrics as it is ridiculous to mark these skills right or wrong. However, it is possible to reach a quantitative measure after a good scoring rubric is developed to measure the constructs identified.

How to assess? This refers to the different methods one can use to assess students in the proper and adequate manner. One must employ all resources available, understand their uses: their strengths and weaknesses. Then use these in situations for maximum effects. Over here we shall classify these under Conventional Approaches of the paper and pencil type and Alternative approaches where performance, employing affective and psychomotor outcomes as shown in the diagrams below: It should be realized here that no matter how well one can design and craft alternative assessment approaches, they cannot matched results from Conventional approaches in terms of validity and reliability; the two essential and stringent criteria of quality in the assessment results.

Normally, we use a combination of approaches in terms of continual and end of module assessments. But assessments of any form also come with errors and we need to minimize the errors as much as possible to improve the validity and reliability of the results. In the case of Alternative assessments in the form os assignments and project work; we need to craft those carefully and develop good scoring rubrics to mark the finished work.

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Conclusion Assessment is an integral part of the instructional process and should be treated thus. It is not an appendage or after-effects but should be considered together with planning for instruction, to ensure Quality. These can be informal ones like questioning in class for quick feedback or develop in more formal ways in written forms like Tests and Exams. We now realized that these are not sufficient because there are indeed knowledge and skills not assessed by the conventional means only. Hence, we need to resort to the use alternative assessment procedures in the form of assignments, project work, etc. to reflect the real life situations also, at the same time tap on the many thinking skills not assessed by those conventional means. Assessment is part of T & L and they help use, if used properly, to ascertain that learning has taken place and to what extent, so that we could help our students achieve more. Effective teachers and teacher-lecturers, teach people first and foremost, not just the content. They are of course wellversed in their respective content areas but combining content knowledge with Pedagogy and Andragogy, the teachers and teacher-lectures are in a better position to maximize learning. The teachers and teacher-lecturers need to prepare more to engage their charges (students) in Active Learning and follow-up with Blended learning to ensure that the students not only are able to regurgitate and reproduce, but also produce and be better able to survive the knowledge-based economy and globalization through their thinking abilities that Assessments have indicated. And that is Quality Assurance! In conclusion, one should also distinguish between Quality Assurance and Quality Control in assessment. Quality Assurance in Assessment covers the total process from the initial development of the assessment instruments to the completion of reporting the results, after all the stringent quality criteria have been satisfied. Quality Control, on the other hand comes into play only at the end of the process where one examines the product to take into consideration of marked differences in the scores and adjusting the scores using appropriate statistics to moderate the results. If Quality Assurance practices are done properly, there is no need to do any Quality Control procedures.

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