Introduction Stress, by definition, is a vector as zuch in tbe real world one would expect 3 to be requiredto fully model a sfess

field. Hower/er,sDecan often reduce dimensions that the stressin stressfield where it is assumed to a 2 dimensional complex systems one direction is zero. In this handoutthe classicanatysisof a 2D stressfield will be of in particularthe applicationof Mohr's stresscircle to the uo6"1513ading examined, of the applicationof 2D stressnnalysis examples 2D stress.Further more firndamental wiii be presented. Theory 2D Stress Consider a rectangular element, the applied forces to the structure (of is a part) give rise to which the element two orthogonal direct stresses a nominally horizontal direct stress, a nominally vertical direa stress and a shearstress(as illustratedin Figure l). Note that the orientationof the triangle ABC may be rotated zuch that it fits the criteria above,the criteria doesnot mean that the triangle ABC can only lie in one direction. Further more, considera plane at any angle0 relative to horizontalplane (note that of signifiesthe shessacting on the y plane and oy signifiesthe stressacting the x plane).It shouldbe that have beendirectly appliedto the strucfure, noted that o;, o, and rry are sfresses whicb arisefrom that loading on ctDlplane. stresses og and re a.re
Figure 1 - 2D stressmodel

is unit that the triangle ABC has unit width and tlur the hypoteneus If it is assumed lengtlr, then the area cjf AC is l, the area of AB is cosOand the area of BC is sixCI. Utilising Newton's second law of motion" and in partiorlar d'Alembert'sprinciple, for og and r0 may be obtained. expressions

-rl

Since

lr=o
therqfor og g sin0)sing+2ro cos0sin oe = (o, cos9)cosO+(o"

=(o':o,.].["-,]*rze* \ 2 ) [ 2 )
for rg

r,sn20

.......(1)

Te= 6,cos9sin0 - orsin gcosg- t,n cos' 0 + t, sin20 ( - l o ', - o ', ) l s. i . .. ....(2) co os s? 2 A 20 9-r tc A | . , n2
\ z )

(The readershouldattemptto prove both equationsI and2) it equation1 revealrthat it'is"not"the complex'equation Upon close exarninatiorg seems. Indeed,it is but an eguationfor a circle (as illustratedin Figure 2) whose ures
are t and o, whose centre
-\
xy
/ I / t , ! ' i

on ((o*+or)/2,0). Note that within the circle, lies the anglss are twice what they are in the real structure (2e), further more note that the angles are measured from a different datum to that normd$ orperienced, that is they are measured from the o* plane.

i j-,l-,

It is interesting to note tlat the combinationof the two orthogonal stressand a shearstresshas increasedthe by the horizontaloris, this actingon the system.This fact is highlighted direct stresses is the direct stressacting on the syster4 and any plane aligning with this aris bas zero shear stressaaing on it but ma,ximumdirect stresses, any two orthogonal planes aligning with this axis are called the PRINCIPAL PIIWES, and the dLect stress(o1

2 - Moht's circleof stress

and o2) which act on these planesare called PNNCIPAL.S?"ESSES. Tbe angular from equation(2). orientationof the principalplanesis easilydetermined
(

=l tzn20

't , ' '

\6'-

6' )

..................(3)

for the principle stresses, AIso, usingFigure2 it is possible to determine8n expression that is

c,,.cz=(ry)-+

(", - or)' +4to

(4)

which is just tle centreof the circle plus and minusthe radiusof the circle. It sbouldbe g a 2D stressfield, in reality the 3D stressconventionshould noted that we are aszumin be applied o1>o2>o3 is zero. Wherein a 2D stress field oneof the principalstresses Another important change,that often goes un-noticed,is the increasein mosmum shearstress(indicatedby tbe growth of the stresscircle).The ma,ximum shearstressis given by the radiusof the circle or
'
t

"

I
L

6t-cz

(s)

Note that o2 shouldbe interchanged with o3 if the stressstate is suchthat o2 is zero and o3 is lessthanzero. As with most engineering toolboxesthe problem is not how to use the equationbut where to get the values of direct stress and shear stressto put into the equation. Exa^mples of 2D stress modelswill now be erramined.

ExampleI : Shaftundertorsion. Considera drive shaft, a tran$nissionshaft in a car or a PTO shaft in a tractor for example.If the shaft has an externaldiarneterof 50 *, is constructedfrom thick walled tubing where F7 mm and is transmitting 6 kW at 3600 rev/min; determinethe principalstresses in the system. A circular shaft in torsion may be modelled using the torsion eguation, this may be rearranged to yield :t : TrlI 6000 = 1 5.92Nm T=P/w= 3600x2xn/60 . zr(o4-6+) z(.054-.0364) -r : 32 r/therefore,the appliedshearstress to the zurfaceof the shaftis 15.92 x.025

t:ffi:0.887

MN/m2

It is notedthat for a systemacting undertorsion only, the systemis in pure shear,that is o" andoy are both zero. An examination of equation4 with this informationshows '1-!, the principle that stresses ?r o1 e'2: 0 and o3 : -1. An examination of equation 3 showsthat the principalplanes lie at 45o to the x-y planes. That is as illustrated in Fieure E l .l

\--lgrlo.

llv-Zlt
ll \,/

'
ll.

llr.\
,/-\"2

ll"

Figure El.l This corresponds to a stresscircle as illustratedin FigureBl.2

to

ry

e450

ry

FigrneE1.2 that is positiveif a planecarries for shearstress, the convention This alsodemonstrates shear.Thereforein this problernthe horizontalplaneis negativeand an anti-clockwise the vertical planepositive.Note that the shearis actuallyappliedto the vertical plane, shear. the shearir the horizontalplaneis complementfrT propellorshaft. 2 : Ship/boat Example in exanple I but where the power is being Considerthe sameproblem discussed to a propellor.Tbe actionof tbe propelloris to "push"the water bacwards transmitted in relation to the sbip. Newton's 3rd law statesthat every action has an equal and oppositreaction,as zuchtbe water must be "pushing"back by the sameirmount.Since there is nothing retaining the boat it moves forward. However this action inducesa as illusffatedin FigrneE2.l compressive load on the shaft.ffis 6edifies the system

FigureE2.l stressis load aaing on the propellor shaftis I kl,I. The compressive The compressive tberefore F=

oy:f

-1000

n(.0252-.on21

: -1.06MN/m2

substiruting the known valuesinto equation3 yields

t\

Staffo r dshi r e Uni ven i ty School of Engineering Solid MechanicsGroup :

Tutorial analysi.s 2D stre.ss

1. An a:deof a go-kart is loaded in sucha way that on the surfacea plane aligned sEess of 100MN/m2 is applied-In association a direct compressive circumferentially with the compressive sbess is a shear stess applied from the driving torque equivalent to -45 MN/m2. On a plane pcrpendicular to the one carrying the shearexists. stressonly complementary compressive a) Sketcha portion of the a;de higblightingthe stresssystem. b) Determinethe principal stresses. c) Deterrrine the maximum shearstress. d) Sketcha Moh/s stess circle for the systemand comparetbe estimateof the orientationof the principal planesfrom the circle with that obtained exactly. (17.3,-11?.3 & 67.3MN/m2) 2. A componentis sfengthenedusing high strengthfibres. The componentis loadedsuchthat on one plane a direct stressof 15 MN/m2 and a shearof 5 MN/m2 exists.The fibreshavebeenalignedsuchthat the long axesof the fibres are at 25o to the loading.If the maximum stength of tbe fibres is 60 MN/mZ and maximum shear the factorof safetyforthe fibres. 10 MN/m2 deterrnine (1.12) 3. A thin walled steel tube of 150 mm internal diameter and wall thicknes 2mm to I I bar. Determinethe tensile stressand shearstress containsa gas pressurised actingon a helical seeminclined at25o to the crosssection. (24.4&7.92MN/m2) force of l5kN. The column is 4. A shortcolumn is loadedaxially with a compressive from a also subjected to a torsional load of 150 Nm. ffthe column is constnrcted hollow steeltube of 250 mm internal diameterand wall thickness25 mm determine actingon a rectangular element(aligned and shearstresses a) The compressive with the long axis of the column)onthe surfaceof the column. b) The principal stresses. c) The maximrrm shearstress. (-0.85,0. 008,{. 86,0.43 083,0. MN/m2)

t3

=f - I . 01,62 [.fJ

0 6 \ 1 -

t7r/(t.oo)'+ 4x 0 8872

0 1 = 0 . 5 30 2 : 0 & o 3 = - 1 . 5 4M N / m 2 . Which when plotted on a stresscircle becomes

t

l-t.up.*nz1
xy

\
C'

o ?

Y
r FD a (0.4.887)

FigveE2.2 The angleof the principalplanes in relationthe the x-planeis givenby equation3 ,(2 x 0 .8 8 2 \ = 141-111 2e: t*-t[,:fr6:J .67):59.1o therefore 0 = +29.550

The maximumshearstress actingon the systemis

tmax:

/o.sr-(-t.srt\ 1.03 MNim2.

W)=

l'\

Staffordshire University Schoolof Enginccring Module 3.2 Engincering Mcchanics ExperimentalStrain Analysis "' JEarnLrauges In 1856 I-ord Kelvin found that when a wire is extcndedis rcsistancechanges, indeed that the change in rcsistancc is proportional to thc change in the wile's dimensions.In. the 1930'sthis fact was developcdfor usc in cxperimentalstrain analysis, madefrom fine wire bcing attached small gauges to the surfaceof an object suchthat when the objectdeformsthe wire gaugedcformswirh it.

Bas

Wres/Folls

Figure I A TypicalStrainGauge (seeFigure l) are made Srain gauges further, modernsrain gauges have developed from foil and comeanached to a basewhich canbe readilyadhered to most materials. (cross Their designhasevolvedso that axial strainscan bc measured with confidence sensitivirybcing limited to at leastlessthan27o).

t4

Since it is commonly impossibleto know the exact direction of the principat stresses (and henccprincipal strains)it is common practiceto mount strain gaugesas groups. Figure 2 illustrates some common configurations,these arc lnown as strain gauge rosenes.Although, in theory, any configuration (basedon a common centre) can be. utilised as a strain gaugerosene; ttuec strain gaugesconfigured as 120o and 45o rosenesare usual (seetheoreticalanalysislater). Indedthe useof tbrec strain gauges also facilitates a graphical solution to thc problem of detcrmining principal arc not solely uscdfor srain analysisbut they also play a strains.Indeed strain gauges of load cells. major role in expcrimentalequipmentas the primary components

-J tll LIJ+I,"W-#N
1 2 3 .

r^crsd'd o.nskr\
6

".rllfl3!' 5

ry
WN
r.:
Figure 2 Typical StrainGaugeRosenes

t5

Mohr's StrainCircle Figure 3 is a graphical rcprcscntationof a 2-D strain systemwhich exists within a material specimn. As with the stresscircle, the horizontal axis dcpicts direct strain and the vertical ods depicts shearstrain (as opposedto direct and shearstress);one subtlediffercnce,however,is that the vertical axis is infactTl2.

Figure 3 Mohr's Strain Circle Another commonfearurewith the stresscircle is that included angleswithin the circle and direct stress at are infact 20.It is therforepossibleto determine the shearstress any anglularorientationwithin the material.Arguably, the more important faciliry is that the magnitude and directions of the kincipal Strains can be found- Principal Strains are direct strainswhich lie on a plane on which there is no shear(similar to principal stresses), they are the maximum and minimum direct strainsin the system and are denotedEt Ezasindicatedon Figure 3. If three direct strains and their respective orientations are known then the constnrction of a strain circle by geomebryis a fairly simple task. For example

Lb

consider the system illustrated in Figrrrc 4, three gaugesare scparatedby included angles of 45o . The strainsmeasuredat a particular instant are -200, 150 and 200 x106e respectively. From this information alone a circle can be constructedby adhereingto the following guidelines:-

Figure 4 Strain GaugeConfiguration i) On graphpaper draw vertical lines qpacedsuchthat they representvalues of -200, 0, 150 and200. The 0line is the shearstrainaxis. ii) Choose somepoint on the "middle" line, in this case150 is in the "middle" of -200 and 200. Redraw the strain gauge orientation on this line such that the "middle" gaugeis alignedwith the "middle" line. Extrapolatethe other gaugesso that their orientationsintersectwith their respectivevalue lines. iii) Bisect the two gaugelines producedin ii) and mark where they intersect,this is the centreof the straincircle. iv) Using the centre and the intersectionpoints deterrrined in ii) draw the circle. Through the centrepoint draw a horizontal line (direct strain axis). v) To obtain the true gaugeorientation first frnd the true position of the "middle" gauge.This is done by ftnding the intersectionof the circle with the "middle" value line oposite to that where the constructiongaugewas initially placed-Join this point "middle" gauge. with the centre, it rcpresents the arm of t}16

t-?

vi) The two remeining gauges can thus bc found by joining their rcspective circle/valueintersections with the straincircle centre. vii) The orientation of the principal strainswith any of the three gaugescan thus be found by measuirngthe included angle benveenthe gauge arms and the horizontal axis.

(Draw Strain Circle Here)

It

NumericalAnalysis

Strain GaugeOrientation

Sincethe orientation arelnown then:of the threegauges

+ e) * i (., - e/cos e L=+(e1 2o +i Cr,- e/cos2(0+ cr) m =* (r, * E2) e n =i(e1 + e) * j C.,- e/cos2(0+ a+ P)
Thesehold rr:e for an three-gauge rosettewith any angularorientation.If the gauges are either 45o or 1200 then the following generalsolutions for the principal srains and the angularorientation may be utilised:-

rn

45o rosette

q-2e-+en
tan2g Q-en and I. .+ Et Ez - 2 \ e { + E n ) _

t(q-em)2+(En-em)21

12@ rosctte

tan 20 = and

S(r- - rn)
(2q-e--en)

Er E2=i(.t * m + en)t r=3 + (em- en)2+(q - en)21 {t(e{ e6)z For otherst'ain gaugeorientations the fundarnental equations described earliermay be solved usingnumerical techniques to obtaina solution for theprincipalstrains and

Le

their associated orientation.Further to the use of three gaugesrosettesmade of four gaugesare alsounlised, the additionof anothergaugecan improve accuracy.

1t

Staffo r dsh ir e Un iv ersity Faculty of Computing, Engineering and Technology

2-D StressStrain Manipulation

Figure 1 PlaneStress-Plane Su'ain Relationships The results obtained from experimental techniquessuch as strain analysis can be made more useful if they cal be transformedinto values of stress.Consider a 3-D stresssystemas shown in Figure 1(a), the orthogonalstrainscan be determinedform an investigation of thePoisson's ratio effect:-

er= E[o1-v(o2+o3)J ez= E[o2-v(o1+o3)J

1 1

e s =E [ o 3 - v ( o 2 + o r ) ]

E-:_

If the systemis in plane stress(the body is thin in the z axis then the stresssystemis 2-D as shown in Figue 1(b)) then 03 = 0. If however,the body is consideredto be tong in the z-anis, as shown in Figure 1(c), then the strain in that ocis can bc considcredto be zero (e3= 0), this is called plane strain;the strcssis not rcro. Removing 6i3 from the equationsabove and rcarrangingyields two cquations (for from principal strains:plane stress) which yield principal strcsses

or=-?i]'vzr

E(e1+ ve2)

oz=-lF

E(e2+ ve1)

The values of principal strainscan be deterrrined from an analysisof experimental strainsusing Mohr's straincircle or any other applicablemethod.

13

Ex4
a 60orosettestrain gauge At a point on the surfaceof a component' er:0'00046'

.,,noJi'ilfi;, positioned

and s,,: r- = 0.0002 andhencethe principalstrains the magnirude dir".tion of th-e "# E = 208GN/m2, v = A'29' stresses. princip-al

of strains measures l:t to determine circle -0.00016.-Use Mohr's sttt'in

o,,

Lo.omto
(r =

='o 000{6

r: 0.000525 and 2: -0'00019 The angle between el and tr on the circle is 34" and betwer ; and e2, 214". Therefore 0t:17" and 0z: LW"

are given by The principal stresses 208 x loe x (-0.00019)) or:ffi(o.0o0s2s +0.29

or:

x loe 208 -ffi(-0'000

525) x 0'000 19+ 0'29

from which or = 106.3MN/m2 o z: -8 6 .0 MN /m2

2tr

STAFFORDSHI RE U NIVERSITY School of Engineering and Advanced Technology

PROBLEMS ON TWO-DIMENSIONAL STRAIN ANALYSIS

1.

= 300x 10- 6. 10{ ,er = - 600x 10- 6 andy"y As t ateo f tw o -d i me n si o n alstr ainise*=x 700 anddirection.Checkthe resultsusingMohr's theprincipalstrains in magnitude Calculate circle construction. -617x 10-6] [Ans: 717x 10-6,

2.

The following strainsare recorded by wo straingauges, their axesbeingat right angles: E*= 390 x 10-6; ev = -!20 x 10{. Findthe values of the stresses o* and o, actingalong areE = 208GN/m2andv = 0.3. these axesif therelevant elasticconstants [Ans: 80.9MNVm2; -0.69MN/m2]

3.

The following strainswererecorded on a rectangular strainrosette:E " = 4 5 0 x1 0 - 6e , u =2 3 0 x 1 0 { ; e = 0 Determine:(a) (b) the principa-l andthe directions of the principalstrainaxes; strains the principalstresses if E = 200GN/m2andv = 0.3

from A, -0.055x 105 at 91" clockwise at i" clockwise from A; 98 [Ans: 450.05x 10-6 MN/m2l

4.

The valuesof straingivenin problem3 wererecorded on a 60" deltarosettegauge. What now the valuesof the principalstnins andthe principals[esses. Checkthe analytical a-re solutionby means of Mohr's circles. x 10-6,-31.56x 10-6;rc5.22MN/m2 25.25 MN/m2) [Ans: 488.22

25

5.

to an A circular bar 50 mm diameteris subjected rectangular A torque. axial tensionand an applied strain gauge rosette is attachedto the shaft with axis. gauge B aligned parallel to the lon-eitudinal &ree = 350x 105,s = 250 x strains The measured andv = 0.3 If E = 70 GN/mz e. = -100x 10-6. 10-6; calculate the maximum tensile stess and the maximumshearstressand the valueof the applied torque. Nm] MN/m2,340.15 [Ans: 26.36MN/m2,13.86

6.

for any strain anddirections strainmagnitudes the principal Write a programto determine for prescribed stresses for prescribed stresses alsothe principal gaugeros.ti". Determine the tollowing using program ratio. Test the uutu.. of Young's modulusandPoisson's rosettes. anddeltastraingauge by rectangular dataobtained (a) rosette:straingauge Rectangular I. 2. 3(b) x 10-6; x 10{, "= 1100 e,"---420 "= 450 x 10-6, eu=900x 106, %= 600x 106; t" = 2 0 0x 1 0- 6, , u = 2 0 0 x1 0 - 6r,L = 2 0 0 x 1 0 - 6 " = 1 1 0 0 x1 0 - 6e

rosette:Deltastraingauge t. 2. 3. x 106, tL = -500x 10-6; eu= 1000 e" = 2000x 10-6, e"= -550x 106; eu= 400 x 10-6, x 10-6, r" = 1.100 eu=200x 10-6, a = -600x 10-6 r" = 1100x 10-6,

7.

Extend the prograrn for a graphical solution option by means of Mohr's circle constructions.

26

Staffordshire University Schml of Engineering Module 3.2 Engineering Mechanics Yield Criteria Introduction A srudy of Biaxial Stresstheory illustratesthat the stresswhich exists in a systemis more complex then just a force/areascenario.In fact both direct stressand shear play a major role in definingthe stress at a particularpoint. stress If one considersthe failure of materials,and in panicular the failure of a simple tensiletest specimen, one can imaginethe complex natureof materialfailure and in (as illustratedin Figure 1) commonly par-ticular yield. A round tensiletest specimen fails such that a cup and cone are produced.The failure indicatesthe existence of yet only tensilestresses were induced!Biaxial stress shear stresses theorysolvesthe dilemaof co-existence, but evenso the materialwas loadedin tensionand yet failed effectivelyin shear.

n \7
g
Figure I TensileSpecimen Failure

The abovedescription illustrates the complexnarure of yield failure anddemonstrates the need for yield failurc critcria. Indecd the dcvelopment of an cffective yield critcria has bccn a major topic of rcscarch,in this scction threc of the morc common

Et)