Timber Structures - Lectures

OVERVIEW
This section will:
TIMBER STRUCTURES
describe the fire behaviour of timber construction give design methods for heavy timber structural members exposed to fire briefly discuss fire behaviour of connections in timber structures
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Design of Wood Structures
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DESCRIPTION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

Timber structures are divided into two categories:
heavy timber structures light timber/wood frame construction
Glulam
'Glue laminated timber' (glulam) are members made from several laminations glued together Fire tests have shown that glulam members exposed to fires behave in the same way as solid sawn-timber members of the same cross section
Heavy timber construction describes all uses of large-dimension timber framing in buildings Heavy timber structures are principal structural elements (beams, columns, decks or truss) Light timber frame construction uses smaller sizes of wood framing (studs in walls, joists in floors)
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Fire Behaviour of Timber Structures

Heavy timber members have good fire resistance When large timber members are exposed to fires the wood surface initially burns rapidly The burned wood becomes a layer of char which insulates the solid wood below and slow down the burning rate The char layer does not usually burn Above 100C, moisture in the wood evaporates Some of this moisture travels out to the burning face, but some travels into the wood
Fire-retardant Treatments
Fire-retardant chemicals are available for treating wood to reduce its combustibility The purpose of the chemical treatments is to reduce the rate of flame spread Chemical pressure impregnation is effective Impregnation can have some negative effects
loss of wood strength corrosion of fasteners
Fire-retardant chemicals do not significantly improve the fire resistance of timber members
FIRE-RESISTANCE RATINGS
Design process for fire-resistance requires that: provided fire-resistance > design fire severity Verification is usually in time or strength domain Temp. domain is not used for timber structures (no critical temp for fire-exposed timber) Usually, fire design of heavy timber structures is by calculation methods Some countries have generic fire-resistance ratings for heavy timber construction There are very few proprietary ratings
WOOD TEMPERATURES
When heavy timber members are exposed to severe fires, the outer layer of wood chars Boundary between the char layer and remaining wood corresponds to about 300C temp. Below the char layer there is a layer of heated wood about 35 mm thick Layer above 200C is the pyrolysis zone (thermal decomposition to gases, see Figure below) Moisture evaporates in the wood above 100C Structural design of heavy timber members is based on the rate of charring of the wood surface
WOOD TEMPERATURES
Char layer and pyrolysis zone in a timber beam
Temperatures Below the Char

Temp. in wood below char layer was measured For semi-infinite solid wood, temp. T (oC) below the char layer is given by: T = Ti + (Tp - Ti)(1 - x/a)2 Ti is the wood initial temp. (oC), Tp is the temp. at which charring starts (300C), x is the distance below the char layer (mm), and a is the thickness of the heat-affected layer (40 mm) Janssens and White (1994) show that a better fit to experimental data is obtained with a = 35 mm
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Thermal Properties of Wood

Temp. inside fire-exposed timber members can be calculated using FEM Thermal properties are not well defined (especially at 100C and over 300C) Wood density varies greatly between species After 100C, density drops to 90% of its original and to 20% of its original value above 300C Thermal conductivity varies greatly between authors (see Figure below as an example) Figure below shows specific heat variation with temp. (spike means moisture evaporation)

Variation of thermal conductivity of wood with temperature
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Variation of specific heat of wood with temperature
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Wood is greatly different from other materials wood strength is very variable mechanical properties are different in different directions strength and ductility are different in tension and compression failure stresses depend on the specimens size strength reduces under long duration loads Figure below shows different ways of loading of wood with different failure modes
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MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Loading of wood in different directions
Mechanical Properties of Wood at Normal Temperatures

Tension and compression behaviour Bending behaviour Design values
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Tension and compression behaviour

Figure below shows typical stress-strain curves for wood specimens with no defects Parallel to grain vs. Perpendicular to grain Compression vs. Tension The wood is ductile in compression
Tension and compression behaviour

Stress--strain relationships for clear wood
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Bending behaviour
Bending behaviour is a combination of tension and compression Some ductility is available in timber beams when the material is stronger in tension than in compression
Design values
Structural design calculations require values of the design strength of the wood material For limit states design, design stress is 5th percentile failure stress under short-duration loading Due to variations, characteristic stresses are usually obtained from in-grade tests of large numbers of representative samples The 5th percentile value for design in normal temp. conditions, may be modified to 20th percentile strength value for fire design
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Design values
Design strength of timber depends on duration of the applied load as a duration-of-load factor In limit states design, duration-of-load factor is 1.0 for short-duration loads and 0.8 or 0.6 for medium- and long-duration loads In working stress design, duration-of-load factor is 1.0 for long-duration loads and 1.25 or 1.6 for medium- and short-duration loads The duration-of-load factor for fire design should be the appropriate value for short-duration loads
Mechanical Properties of Wood at Elevated Temperatures

Sources Effect of moisture content Plasticity Parallel to the grain properties Perpendicular to the grain properties Shear Derived results
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Sources and general behaviour

Review on the effect of moisture content (MC) and temperature on the mechanical properties of wood is given by Gerhards (1982) Wood properties are affected by steam at 100C, wood begins to pyrolyse at about 200C and turns into char by 300C The range of interest for fire design is therefore from room temperature to 300C
Effect of moisture content

When testing timber at elevated temp., MC is sensitive to the test method and specimen size Some test specimens are maintained at constant MC throughout the test Some tests specimen are at a certain MC before the test and allowed to dry out when heated If wood is heated to a temperature above 100C in dry air, all moisture will evaporate after some time
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Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Figures below show the modulus of elasticity of wood at elevated temperatures The effect of temp. on modulus of elasticity parallel to the grain is roughly linear up to 200C There is a scatter over 200C Figure below is another example of results derived by Konig and Walleij (2000) from tests of 145 x 45 mm timber studs in insulated walls, exposed to ISO 834 fire while loaded in bending

Modulus of elasticity of wood parallel to the grain versus temperature
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Modulus of elasticity of wood parallel to the grain versus temperature
Parallel to the grain properties Tensile strength

Below is a Figure showing stress-strain curves for temp. of 25C and 90C at low and high MC for samples tested by Ostman (1985) Failure stress at 90C and 29.5% moisture content is about 60% of that of dry cool wood Another Figure shows a comparison among test data as derived by different researchers
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Stress-strain relationships for wood in tension parallel to the grain

Tensile strength parallel to the grain versus temperature
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Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength

Figure below shows temp. effect on compressive strength parallel to the grain These results are for dry wood except the marked shaded region (MC > 12%) The Figure also shows the relationship derived by Konig and Walleij (2000)
Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength

Compression strength parallel to the grain versus temperature
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Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength

Figure below shows limited bending test results collected by Gerhards (1982) The wood shows different slopes for different test results
Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength

Bending strength of wood versus temperature
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Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

For modulus of elasticity perpendicular to the grain, Gerhards (1982) reports eight studies as shown in Figure below for temp. up to 100C The dependence on temperature tends to be greater for moisture content above 12%, but there is a lot of overlap between the studies
Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Modulus of elasticity perpendicular to grain versus temperature
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Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength

Temp. effect on tensile strength perpendicular to the grain is shown in the Figure below There is a wide range of results for different MC, but a trend of a greater strength reduction as the moisture content increases There are no results of tests over 100C
Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength

Effect of temperature on tensile strength perpendicular to the grain
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Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Figure below shows temp. effect on strength in compression perpendicular to the grain This shows data from five studies reported by Gerhards (1982) (overlap and scatter)
Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Effect of temperature on compression strength of wood perpendicular to the grain
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Derived results - Reduction factors

Figure (a), temp. effect on mechanical properties
modulus of elasticity is assumed to drop linearly to 50% of its normal temperature value at 300C tension strength follows the same relationship to 200C, then drops to zero at 300C (wet or dry) compression strength for dry wood drops linearly to zero at 300C compression strength for wet wood drops to 50% at 100C and remain constant until it reaches 160C, after which it follows the relationship for dry wood
Derived results Reduction factors

(a) Effect of temp. on mechanical properties of wood (b) Temp. profile below char layer (c) Reduction in strength of wood below char layer
Figure (b) shows temp. profile below char layer Figure (c) shows drop in wood strength below char layer (significant reduction below 25 mm)
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Derived results Stress-strain relationship

Figure below shows stress-strain curves derived by Konig and Walleij from computer modelling The curves are idealized in a simple way In the tension region, linear elastic behaviour has been assumed until failure In the compression region, elasto-plastic behaviour has been assumed The curves include the creep effects
Derived results Stress-strain relationship

Derived stress-strain relationships for wood at elevated temperatures
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DESIGN CONCEPTS FOR HEAVY TIMBER EXPOSED TO FIRE

Large timber members have good fire-resistance Fire-resistance can be calculated if charring rate is predicted on surfaces exposed to standard fire Figure below shows common fire exposures (three-/four-sided of rectangular members) The original cross section b x d is reduced to residual cross section bf x df after charring The depth to the char front c (mm) is given by: c=xt is the charring rate (mm/min), and t is the fire exposure time (min)

Design concepts for large timber members
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Dimensions of the residual cross section are: bf = b - 2c df = d - c (three-sided exposure) df = d - 2c (four-sided exposure) Char temperature is about 300C There is a layer of heated wood about 35 mm thick below the char layer Structural design of timber members is based on the strength and stiffness of the residual member
Verification
Verification of strength during fire exposure: U*fire Rfire U*fire is the design force and Rfire is the load capacity The design force U*fire may be axial force N*fire , bending moment M*fire or shear force V*fire The load capacity is calculated as axial force Nf, bending moment Mf or shear force Vf
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Verification - Simply supported beams

For a beam under a bending moment: M*fire Mf M*fire is the bending moment and Mf is the design flexural capacity under fire conditions given by: Mf = Zf ff ff is the design strength of wood in fire conditions (MPa) and Zf is elastic section modulus (mm3) The value of ff should always be the strength under short-duration loads For rectangular sections with no corner rounding: Z f = bf d f 2 / 6
Charring rate
Rate of charring (under standard fires) depends on the density and moisture content of the wood Many codes specify a constant charring rate of:
0.60 - 0.75 mm/min for softwoods about 0.5 mm/min for hardwoods
The effect of density, (kg/m3), and MC on the charring rate is shown in Figure below, given by the equation below for charring rate (mm/min): = 0.4 + (280 / )2 Table below shows recommended charring rates
Charring rate
Charring rate as affected by density and MC
Charring rate
Charring rates for design
Material Glue-laminated softwood timber Solid or glue-laminated hardwood timber Softwood panel products (plywood, particle board) minimum thickness 20 mm Minimum density (mg/m3) 290 450 450 Char rate 1 (mm/minute) (mm/minute) 0.64 0.70 0.50 0.55 0.9
for actual cross sections with rounded corners 1 (10% larger notional charring rate) is for no corner rounding
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Charring rate
In North America, recommendations for charring rate are given by AFPA (White, 1988) The proposed charring rate is the average charring rate (mm/min) given by: = 2.58 n / t0.187 n is a nominal charring rate ( n=0.635 mm/min) and t is the time (min) The resulting char layer thickness c (mm) is: c = t = 2.58 n t0.813 Figure below shows the resulting depth of char during 4 hours of standard fire exposure
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Charring rate
Depth of char from North American recommendations
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Corner Rounding
All fire tests of large rectangular timber sections show some rounding of the corners Figure below shows a typical charred cross section Most design codes assume the radius of the rounding as equal to the depth of the charred layer If corner rounding is considered in beams exposed to fire on 3 sides, the section modulus Zf,r of the reduced cross section is given by: Zf = bf df2 / 6 - 0.215 r2 df bf is the beam residual width, df is beam residual depth, and r is the radius of the charred corner
Corner Rounding
Residual cross section of timber beam exposed to fire
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Effect of Heated Wood Below the Char Line

There are several alternative design methods to allow for heated wood below the char line Some codes ignore any reduction of wood strength below the char, which can lead to unsafe results for small cross sections There are two methods to account for variable temperature inside the unaffected region:
the effective cross section method the reduced properties method
Effective cross section method

The effective cross section method accounts for heated wood below char by removing a nominal layer of zero strength from the cross section Wood in the effective cross section is assumed to have normal temperature properties The flexural capacity, Mf = Zf ff, is calculated with no corner rounding, with Zf for 3-sided exposure: Zf,z = (bf - 2z)(df - z)2 / 6 z is the thickness of zero-strength layer (mm) The design strength of wood is the strength at normal temp. fb (MPa) so that ff = fb
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Effective cross section method

In Eurocode, the thickness of zero-strength layer:
z = 7 mm for more than 20 min fire exposure 0 < z < 7 mm for less than 20 min fire exposure (reduced proportionately)
Reduced properties method

The reduced properties method (Eurocode) is based on a strength reduction factor kf applied to all of the wood below the char layer The flexural capacity is Mf = Zf ff, with Zf and ff as Zf = bf df2 / 6 - 0.215 r2 df ff = k f f b Zf includes corner rounding ( from earlier Table)
The AFPA North American design method increases the nominal charring rate by 20% to allow for the heated wood below the char line Using the effective cross section method in accordance with Eurocode, the charring rate 1 should be used (earlier Table)
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Reduced properties method

kf is strength reduction factor for residual sections approximated by:
kf = 0.8 for NA design equations (Lie,1977) kf = 1.0 - 1/g (Ar / p) for Eurocode design equations, where p is the perimeter of the fire-exposed residual cross section (m), Ar is the area of the residual cross section (m2), g is a factor (m-1), with the value of 200 for bending, 125 for compression and 330 for tensile strength and modulus of elasticity
Characteristic strength of wood

For normal temp. design, characteristic design strength is taken as the 5th percentile value In most limit states design, 5th percentile strength value f0.05, obtained from tests, is listed in codes For fire design, most codes use 5th percentile strength value f0.05 so that fb = f0.05 Some codes modify 5th percentile strength f0.05 to 20th percentile for fire design so that design strength fb for fire conditions is fb = k20 f0.05 k20 is a correction factor to convert 5th percentile to 20th percentile values (1.25 for solid timber, 1.15 for glulam in Eurocode)
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Characteristic strength of wood

The AFPA method uses the mean value of wood strength for fire design (working stress design) In the method, the allowable stress in the code fa is modified to give an allowable stress in fire conditions fa,f using fa,f = kmean fa fa is the code allowable stress (MPa), kmean is a correction factor to convert allowable stresses to mean values (2.85 for tension and bending, 2.58 for compression, 2.03 for buckling failures)
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Consider a softwood glulam beam, 130 mm wide by 720 mm deep, spanning 7.5 m with a dead load G = 4.0 kN/m (including self weight) and live load Q = 7.0 kN/m. The beam is laterally restrained with timber decking nailed to the top edge. Check the design for normal conditions and for 60 minutes fire-resistance rating, exposed to fire on three sides. Use the Eurocode method with the charring rates from Table 8-52 and the factor k20 = 1.15.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
The characteristic flexural strength is fb = 17.7 MPa. The strength reduction factor is = 0.8 for normal design and f = 1.0 for fire design. The durationof-load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold design and kd = 1.0 for fire design. Check design for normal conditions Design load wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x4.0+1.6x7.0 = 16.0 kN/m Bending moment M* = wcL2/8 = 16.0x7.52/8 = 112 kNm Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Nominal strength Mn = kd f0.05 Z = 0.8x17.7x11.2 = 159 kNm Design strength Mn = 0.8x159 = 127 kNm M* Mn so design is OK. Loads for fire conditions Design load wf = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x4.0+0.4x7.0 = 6.8 kN/m Bending moment M*fire = wfL2/8 = 6.8 x 7.52/8 = 47.8 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Method I (effective cross section, no corner rounding) Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm Reduced depth: df = 720-42 = 678 mm Thickness of zero-strength layer: z = 7 mm Effective breadth: be = 46-2x7 = 32 mm Effective depth de = 678-7 = 671 mm Section modulus: Zf = be de2/6 = 32x6712/6 = 2.40 x 106 mm3
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Flexural strength: Mf = kd ff Zf = kd k20 f0.05 Zf = 1.0x1.15x17.7x2.4 Mf = 48.9 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK. Method II (reduced properties, no corner rounding) Rate of charring: 1 = 0.7 mm/min Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.7 = 42 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x42 = 46 mm Reduced depth: df =720-42 = 678 mm
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Section modulus: Zf = bf df2/6 = 46x6782/6 = 3.52x106 mm3 Beam area: A = bf df = 46x678/106 = 0.0312 m2 Beam perimeter: p = bf + 2df = (46+2x678)/103 = 1.40 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.40/(200x0.0312) = 0.775 Flexural strength: Mf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.775x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.52 Mf = 55.6 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Method III (reduced properties, corner rounding) Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/minute Depth of char: c = 60 x 0.64 = 38.4 mm Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2 x 38.4= 53.2 mm Reduced depth: df =720-38.4=682 mm Section modulus: Zf = bfdf2/6-0.215c2df Zf =53.2x6822/6-0.215x38.42x682=3.90x106 mm3 Beam area: A =bf df = 53.2x682/106 = 0.0363 m2
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WORKED EXAMPLE 1
Beam perimeter: p =bf+2df =(53.2+2x682)/103 = 1.42 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.42/(200x0.0363) = 0.805 Flexural strength: Mnf = kfkdk20f0.05Zf = 0.805x1.0x1.15x17.7x3.9 Mnf = 63.9 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Repeat Example 1 using the NA charring rate in the working stress design format. The allowable stress under long duration loading in flexure is fa = 8.0 MPa. The factor to convert allowable stress to mean failure stress is kmean = 2.85. Check design for normal conditions Design load: w = G+Q = 4.0+7.0 = 11.0 kNm Bending moment: M*w = wL2/8 = 11.0x7.52/8 = 77.3 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 130x7202/6 = 11.2x106 mm3 Flexural stress: f*b = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/11.2x106 = 6.91 Mpa f*b fb so design is OK. Fire design (NA char rate, no corner rounding) Time of calculation: t = 60 minutes Depth of char: c = 2.58 n t0.813 = 2.58x0.635X600.813 = 45.7 mm
WORKED EXAMPLE 2
Reduced breadth: bf = 130-2x45.7 = 38.6 mm Reduced depth: df = 720-45.7 = 674 mm Section modulus: Z = bf df2/6 = 38.6x6742/6 = 2.92x106 mm3 Flexural stress: fb,f = M*w/Z = 77.3x106/2.92x106 = 26.4 MPa Allowable stress: fa,f = kmean fa = 2.85x8.0 = 22.8 Mpa f*b,f fa,f so the beam fails in fire.
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Design for Real Fires

For realistic fires the Eurocode gives charring rates and strength reduction factors for a particular class of real fires This method is based on the work of Hadvig (1981) Table below shows values of char rate for real fires More details are given in the textbook
Design for Real Fires

Char rate, char time and char depth for parametric fire exposure
Opening factor (ml/2) 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.20 0.30 Char rate bar (mm/min.) 0.39 0.70 0.85 0.95 1.05 1.15 1.20 80 24 12 8.0 6.0 4.0 2.4 1.6 Initial char time to (min) Fuel load (MJ/m2 total area) 160 240 320 400 24 16 12 8.0 4.8 3.2 36 24 18 12 7.2 4.8 80 19 17 14 11 8.4 5.5 3.8 Total char depth c (mm) Fuel load (MJ/m2 total area) 160 240 320 400 34 27 23 17 11 7.7 50 41 34 25 16 11
32 24 16 10 6.4
40 30 20 12 8.0
55 45 34 22 15
68 57 42 27 19
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Empirical Equations
Most NA codes include equations to calculate fire resistance of beams and columns (Lie, 1977) Lies simple equations assumed:
a uniform charring rate of 0.6 mm/min section remains rectangular and the residual core has 80% of initial strength under char layer
Empirical Equations
For columns, the time to failure tf (min) is: tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/2b) (3-sided exposure) tf = 0.1 z b (3 - d/b) (4-sided exposure) For long columns, z is calculated by trial and error (see textbook) For short columns, z is based on better fitting with experimental results for columns of low slenderness ratio, given by: z = 0.9 + 0.3 / Ra
For beams, the time to failure tf (min) is given by: tf = 0.1 z b (4 -b/d) (3-sided exposure) tf = 0.1 z b (4 -2b/d) (4-sided exposure) z = 0.7 + 0.3 / Ra Ra is ratio of actual to allowable load at normal temp. and dimensions are in mm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 3
Calculate the time to failure for the beam in Worked Example 1 using NA empirical design equation. Design bending moment: M* = 112 kNm Design strength: Mn = k1 fb Z = 127 kNm Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 112/127 = 0.882 z factor: z = 0.7 +0.3/Ra = 0.7+0.3/0.882 = 1.04 Time to failure: tf = 0.1 z b (4-b/d) tf = 0.1x1.04x130 (4-130/720) = 50.1 min Time to failure is less than 60 minutes, so the beam fails in the fire.
DESIGN OF HEAVY TIMBER MEMBERS EXPOSED TO FIRE

Beams Tension Members Columns Beam-columns Decking Timber-concrete Composite Structures
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Beams
Beams can be designed using the same design equations as for normal temperature conditions, with modifications for strength and cross section It is important to determine which surfaces of the beam are exposed to fire (see Figure below) In addition to flexural strength calculations, lateral torsional buckling must also be checked Shear stresses are not a concern for rectangular beams, but should be considered for I-beams Deflections are not usually of concern
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Beams
Three-/four-sided beam exposure
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Tension Members
Tension members are not affected by the possibility of buckling The tensile load capacity of a fire-reduced cross section can be calculated using one of the design methods
effective cross section Reduced properties
Columns
Short columns strength depends on material crushing strength and reduced cross section Long columns strength (buckling increases with time) depends on moment of inertia and modulus of elasticity of reduced cross section Lateral stability is very important for columns Columns built into walls may have better fire resistance (less charring and lateral restraint) Tests on 16 columns (Malhotra et al. 1970) achieved fire-resistance ratings between 30 and 90 min, depending on load and slenderness ratio
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Beam-columns
A 'beam-column' is a member subjected to combined bending and axial loading The design approach is to check the general interaction formula including both flexural strength and axial load capacity, such as: (N/Nu)2 + M/Mu 1 N = applied axial load (kN), Nu = axial load capacity with buckling effects (kN), M = applied bending moment (kN-m), and Mu = flexural capacity with lateral buckling effects (kN-m)
Decking
Assessment of fire resistance of decking must consider all three possible failure criteria of stability, integrity and insulation Solid wood decking includes solid timber or glulam timber planks laid flat and butted together with tongue and groove edges, and timber planks set on edge and nailed together (see details in textbook)
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Decking - Stability
The stability criterion can be assessed in the same way as for beams and columns Janssens (1997) proposed an empirical design formula for structural performance of solid decks (based on a temperature and charring model) The time to structural failure tsf (min) is given by: tsf = 1.25 d (1 - 0.4Ra) - 11.3 d is the thickness of the deck (mm), and Ra is the ratio of the applied load to the allowable design load
Decking - Integrity
The integrity criterion may be the most difficult to satisfy for wood deck systems The difficulties arise at the junctions between the planks, which may increase in width due to shrinkage of wood which often occurs during the life of a building Tongue and groove joints between the planks are the best solution
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Decking - Insulation
If the integrity and stability criteria are satisfied, there will be no problem meeting the insulation criterion, because the thickness of remaining wood required to carry applied loads will be greater than that required to prevent excessive temperature rise on the top surface
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
A solid timber deck consists of 150 mm thick planks joined with central splines as shown in Figure 10.35(c). The deck spans 5 m with a superimposed dead load of 1.25 kN/m2 and live load 5.0 kN/m2. Calculate the failure time using Janssen's formula. Use the Eurocode reduced properties method to calculate if the deck has a 90 minute fire-resistance rating.
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
The characteristic flexural strength of the decking timber is fb = 25.0 MPa. The density of the wood is 5.0 kN/m3. The strength reduction factor is 0.8 for normal design and f = 1.0 for fire design. The duration of load factor is kd = 0.8 for cold design and kd = 1.0 for fire design. The factor kf is 1.15 for fire design.
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Check for normal conditions Thickness of deck: d = 150 mm Self weight of deck: ws = d =5x0.15=0.75 kN/m2 Total dead load: G = 0.75+1.25 = 2.0 kN/m2 Design load: wc = 1.2G+1.6Q = 1.2x2.0+1.6x5.0 = 10.4 kN/m2 Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed load = 1.0 x 10.4 = 10.4 kN/m Bending moment: M* = wcL2/8 = 10.4x52/8 = 32.5 kNm
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WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Section modulus: Z = bd2/6 = 1000x1502/6 = 3.75x106 mm3 Design strength: Mn = k1 fb Z = 0.8x0.8x25x3.75 = 60.0 kNm M* Mn so design is OK. Janssen's formula Load ratio: Ra = M* / Mn = 32.5/60 = 0.54 Time to failure: tsf = 1.25 d (1-(0.4Ra))-11.3 tsf = 1.25x150 (1- (0.4 X 0.54))-11.3 = 89 min
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Eurocode reduced properties method Design load: wc = 1.0G+0.4Q = 1.0x2.0+0.4x5.0 = 4 kN/m2 Design a strip 1 m wide. Uniformly distributed load = 1.0 x 4.0 = 4.0 kN/m Bending moment: M*fire = wc L2/8 = 4x52/8 = 12.5 kNm Rate of charring: = 0.64 mm/min Depth of char: c = 90 x 0.64 = 57.6 mm
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8-94
WORKED EXAMPLE 4
Reduced depth: df = 150-57.6 = 92.4 mm Section modulus: Zf = bdf2/6 = 1000x92.42/6 = 1.42 x 106 mm3 Section area: A = b df = 1000x92.4/106 = 0.00924 m2 Exposed perimeter: p = b = 1.0 m Reduction factor: kf = 1-p/200A = 1-1.0/(200x0.00924) = 0.46 Design strength: Mf = kf kd k20f0.05 Zf Mf = 0.46x1.0x1.15x25x1.42 = 18.8 kNm M*fire Mf so design is OK.
BEHAVIOUR OF TIMBER CONNECTIONS IN FIRE

The ability of a structure to carry loads depends on the strength and stiffness of the structural members and connections between members Under fire, both members and connections must perform throughout the fire exposure Most connections are either metal fasteners or adhesives (very different fire performance) Little research has been done on performance of connections in timber structures exposed to fire
16
Metal Fasteners
The behaviour of metal fasteners depends on the temperature of the metal because:
it affects the strength of the fastener itself high temperatures lead to charring or loss of strength of wood in contact with the metal
Nails and Screws

Nails are one of the best types of connection in timber structures because they penetrate wood and do not weaken the wood with drilled holes Screws have many of the advantages of nails including better gripping capacity than nails Noren tested nailed splice joints in tension exposed to the ISO 834 standard test fire Time to failure was inversely proportional to applied load, varying from 6 to 21 min
Geometry and protection of metal fasteners are explained in more details in the textbook
Winter 2003
8-97
Winter 2003
8-98
Bolted Connections
Bolted connections are widely used in timber structures with excellent results Fire behaviour of bolted connections depends on the amount of heat able to enter the wood through the bolts The theory for nails could be applied to bolted connections but no comprehensive studies have been published
Truss Plates
Truss plates have been shown to have a poor reputation for fire resistance Tests (White et al. 1994) on truss plates under ASTM E-119 standard fire exposure up to 300C In the tests, unprotected plates failed in less than 6 min compared with 13 min for solid timber with no connection Various combinations of protection increased the fire resistance, the best gave over 30 min fire resistance when all 4 sides of the member were protected with 13 mm Type X gypsum plaster
Winter 2003
8-99
Glued Connections
Many timber structures and timber members are connected with adhesive When exposed to fire, glued wood members generally behave in the same way as solid wood provided that thermosetting adhesives are used Some adhesive such as epoxies are sensitive to elevated temperatures and should not be relied on in fire conditions
Winter 2003
8-101
17

Timber Structures - Lectures

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Timber Structures - Lectures

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OVERVIEW

This section will:

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

DESCRIPTION OF TIMBER CONSTRUCTION

Design of Wood Structures

Fire Behaviour of Timber Structures

Temperatures Below the Char

Design of Wood Structures

Thermal Properties of Wood

Thermal Properties of Wood

Design of Wood Structures

Thermal Properties of Wood

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Design of Wood Structures

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF WOOD

Mechanical Properties of Wood at Normal Temperatures

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Tension and compression behaviour

Tension and compression behaviour

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Mechanical Properties of Wood at Elevated Temperatures

Design of Wood Structures

Sources and general behaviour

Effect of moisture content

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Parallel to the grain properties Tensile strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Tensile strength

Parallel to the grain properties Tensile strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength

Parallel to the grain properties Compressive strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength

Parallel to the grain properties Bending strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Perpendicular to the grain properties Modulus of elasticity

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength

Perpendicular to the grain properties Tensile strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Perpendicular to the grain properties Compressive strength

Design of Wood Structures

Design of Wood Structures

Derived results - Reduction factors

Derived results Reduction factors

Derived results Stress-strain relationship