Outline

: :
Development & Innovation in Geotechnical Research: A Few Examples
Chu Jian Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
06 April 2010 at Hohai University
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Present state and future needs Common approaches for doing something different Examples in fundamental research Examples in technology development

Present state and future need

Soil mechanics has not fully developed into a proper branch of science yet There are new demands for new knowledge to support pp new development p and new challenges g R&D works are still carried out by adopting traditional geotechnical engineering approaches Need a multiple disciplinary approach for innovation or development of new knowledge New emphasis on sustainability development
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Approaches Challenge established Be critical you must have sound fundamentals Check Ch k alternatives lt ti Be innovative Merge different technologies Be open minded
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Dense sand
Deviator stress

Strain softening

Loose sand

-Old concept
Drained behaviour of sand in triaxial tests

Same 3

Example 1: Challenge established

STRAIN SOFTENING
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Volumetric strain

+ compression

Axial strain%

-- dilation 6

R = 1/3

Is there strain softening?

Strain softening is referred to as a behaviour where the shear resistance (or shear stress) reduces with continuous development of plastic shear strains. So we cannot use stress path tests to study strain softening. softening Can we do strain path tests? How? Can strain softening be observed in strain path tests?

After Ch Aft Chu and dL Lo (GTJ, 1993)

What it should be: There is no strain softening in traixial CD tests even for dense sand.
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Strain path tests

One way to do strain path test is to control the strain incremental ratio, e.g., dv/d1 It also offers a way to model drainage conditions other than drained or undrained

Depending on the strain path dv/d1, dense sand can behave like loose sand.

Strain path dv/d1 testing

> 0, Compression = 0, Undrained < 0, Dilation

dv/ d1 = -0.67 on dense sand

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Strain softening in strain path testing

0.6 1.0 0.5 0.68 0.7

Void Ratio, ec
0.8

0.9 Hardening Region

1.0

dv/d1 = -0.11 for dense sand Strain softening is controlled by strain path

d / d1

0.0 -0.4

-0.5 -1.0 -1.5 15

C1 C2
Softening Region

C0
ecr = 0.884 dv/d1 = 0.0

pc' = 200 kPa

Strain Hardening Strain Softening Boundary Critical Point

0 1.0

200

400

pc' (kPa)
Hardening Region

600

800

1000

0.5

Medium Dense Sand (ec = 0.68 0.71)

d / d1

0.0

-0.5 -1.0 -1.5

Softening Region

Strain Hardening Strain Softening Boundary

Softening softening surface

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Example 2: Challenge established

EFFECT OF TOTAL STRESS PATH ON UNDRAINED BEHAVIOUR

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I Introduction

Type Axial compression (AC) Lateral extension (LE) Axial extension (AE) Lateral compression (LC)

Axial stress, a da >0 da = 0 da < 0 da = 0

Lateral stress, r dr = 0 dr < 0 dr = 0 dr > 0

dq/dp 3 -3/2 3 -3/2

0 0 90 90

AE and LC Results on very loose MT specimens

Bishop and Wesley (1976

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Why? How to model?

Three possible reasons for the test results: Wrong testing data The effective stress principle may not be valid There is no unique relationship between strain path and d( (effective) ff ti ) stress t path, th i.e., i for f a given i strain t i path, th the resulting stress path can be different (although the asymptotic behaviour is still path dependent). If so, what are the factors causing the differences? How to model it using a constitutive model?

Methods of calculation
Method 1: Method 2:

Example 3: Be critical

where:

INCREASE IN UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH OF SOIL DUE TO CONSOLIDATION

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Two Sets of Failure Equations For effective stress analysis:

Alternative method

f = c + (nf u) tan
F total For t t l stress t analysis: l i

f = cu + nf tanu
c & , or cu (& u=0) are shear strength parameters of soil and need to be determined by either lab or in-situ tests
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(cu/ v0 )OC = (cu/ v0 )NCOCRm

cu = (c/p)v
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We can establish the above relationship based on the FVT before consolidation.

Example

0 2 4 6 Elevation (m) uo(z)

Initial 30 days 60 days 90 days

ue uh + ue0 ue ue

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 -100 -50 us(z)

50

100 150 200 250

Pore water pressure (kPa)

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v = 75 kPa cu = 75 x 0.22 = 16.5 kPa

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Retaining wall for layered soil

Example 4: Check alternatives

EARTH PRESSURE CALCULATION

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Earth pressure calculation

Using cu: Pa=279 kN/m Use = 25o for clay Ka = 0.4 D = Kav = 29 kPa E = Kav = 42 kPa uE = whw = 60 kPa
uE

Using : Pa = 329 kN/m Pa can be even bigger! or smaller with drains!

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Example 5: Be innovative

BIOCEMENT & MICROBIAL GEOTECHNOLOGY

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Biocement

Microbial Geotechnology
is a new branch of Geotechnical Engineering aiming to improve the mechanical properties of soil so that it will be more suitable for construction, environmental purposes, as well as for ddisaster mitigation and coastal management.

Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM) to show the mineralization of calcite onto sandy grains.
Slime bonding

Sand grain

Bonding of sand grains by slime

Sand grain

Two Approaches
Bioclogging is the production of pore-filling materials through microbial activity so that the porosity and hydraulic conductivity of soil can be reduced. Biocementation is generation of particlebinding materials through microbial so that the strength and stiffness of soil can be increased. Some methods exert combined effects of the two approaches.

Applications
Bioclogging: To form curtains to reduce the mitigation of pollutants in soils To prevent piping of earth dams and dikes g reservoir leakage g To mitigate Biocementation: To control erosion To reduce liquefaction potential To enhance stability of slopes and dams To increase bearing capacity of foundations

Advantages of biocement
It consumes much less energy and is more environmentally friendly, as biocement made of naturally occurring microorganisms and could be used to replace energy intensive cement and other chemical products; The construction processes can be much simplified, as the biocement can be used in either liquid or powder form and the microorganisms can reproduce and spread themselves in-situ without using intensive mechanical mixing; It is much more cost effective, as the biocement costs much less to produce and the construction processes is simpler.
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Biogrouts
The possible biogrouting methods include: Ferrous/ferric- containing solution produced by iron-reducing bacteria from iron ore Exopolysaccharides E l h id produced d db by oligotrophic li hi bacteria Conventional biogrout containing calcium chloride, urea, and urease-producing bacteria

Increase in strength of sand by biocementation

Unconfined Compre essive Strength (kPa) 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 Mass CaCl2/Mass Sand (%)

Pictures of the samples

Sand columns treated by microbial polysaccharides (left) and by ferrous salts produced by iron-reducing bacteria from iron ore (right)

Wet Samples

Dry Samples

using CaCO3 precipitation method

Hydraulic conductivity (Fe(OH)2 precipitation method)

Application-1: Water pond in desert

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ApplicationApplication -2: Mitigation of liquefaction damages

The effect of partial saturation

Recent studies have shown that liquefaction potential of sand can be largely reduced by introducing a small portion of gas into the soil. The presence of gas bubbles could reduce the pore water pressure generated, and hence improve the stability against liquefaction. One of the most convenient way to introduce gas bubbles in sand is to use micro-organisms. Denitrification is one of the processes adopted by He Jia.

S av . = 64 cm

5m

10m

TA-102

Improved by vibroflotation method

7m

0m

Reclimed sand Alluvial clay -10m

Diluvial gravel -20m

0m

50m

100m

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-30m

Denitrification process
Denitrifying bacteria are used to produce nitrogen gas from nitrate. Denitrifying bacteria are heterotrophic anaerobic microbes. The reaction equation is:
5 C 2H 5O H + 12 K N O 3 = 6 N
2

Use gas bubbles to increase resistance to liquefaction of loose sand

+ 10C O 2 + 9H 2O + 12K O H

Besides the chemicals mentioned above, above some other chemicals need to be add into the media for the growth of the bacteria. In both cultivation and sampling stage, anaerobic condition should be ensured. In both cultivation and sampling stage, one batch of cultivation lasts two days.

No more compaction?

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Microbiologically-influenced corrosion (MIC)

Pigeon poo blamed for deadly Minnesota bridge collapse. A bridge collapse in America, which killed 13 people, has been blamed on a build of pigeons' poo. Experts say that the birds' droppings deposited over the bridge's framework helped the steel beams to rust faster through bacterial formation of ammonium and its bacterial oxidation to nitric acid. NH4+ + 2 O2 NO3- + 2H+ + H2O Nitric acid

This could be a result of bacteria effect

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Photo: Aaron Becker Daily Mail , 08/27/2007

Reclamation in deeper water

Example 6: Be innovative

UNDERWATER CITY

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Objectives
To develop a new space creation approach NEUSpace (NEw Underwater Space) to make use of the sea space to construct underwater infrastructure and at the same time use the top-side of the infrastructures as reclaimed land.

Underwater City built using seawalls

A underwater city in Bulgaria. Diameter = 459 m and depth = 22 m http://www.techeblog.com/index.php/tech-gadget/underwater-city)

Suction caisson method

Underwater hotels in Dubai

(http://weburbanist.com/wp-content/uploads/2007/11/underwater-hotel-3d-diagram.jpg

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Construction

After Anderson 2005

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Cost Estimation for Oil Storage

Method for space creation Construction cost S$/ m3 storage space Underwater structure Cavern Reclaimed Land for oil tanks $600 to $900 (actual cost in HK)

$82 (by assuming the total cost is 2

times of material cost)

$11 to $34 /m3 (after subtracting

the cost for reclamation the land on top

$242 (actual cost in Spore)

Example 7: Merge different technologies

SOIL IMPROVEMENT METHODS

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Use of jet-grouting layer for excavation in soft clay

Jet mechanical mixing (JMM) method

NicollHighwayfailurein Singapore

Itcombinesjetgroutingwithcementmixing toforagroutslabatthebottomandcement mixedpileontop(OsborneandNg08)

JMM application in deep excavation

Hybrid or Bi-modulus method

Reconstructionofthe NicollHighwayStationin Singapore(Osborneand Ng08)

Peat
CMC displacement aurger CMC bottom Stone columns top TSM drilling tool

Thelowerpartofthecolumnisperformedbycontrolled moduluscolumns(CMC)andtheupperpartbystonecolumns.

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Can PVD be recycled?

Example 8: Be open minded

USE OF PLASTIC WASTE

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Plastic + Soil Specimens

Unconfined compressive strength

Pros & Cons of using plastic waste

It is not cost effective to remove PVDs at the moment It is not cost-effective to use plastic waste as a construction materials However, the method offers a better solution for fast repair of runways or roads.

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