What is the future of micro algae as an energy resource compared to other biofuels?

In 2008 the annual world primary energy consumption was estimated at 11, 295 million tonnes of oil equivalent. With global populations rising, global migration into cities and growth of economies in many countries around the world, there has been a rise in energy consumption, with more competition for fuel for cars and more energy needed for homes. Most of this energy is generated by fossil fuels which add to the green house gasses (GHG) in the air and has an adverse affect on our climate. As part of the CEM 700 module at the Centre for Alternative Technology, biofuels were studied which gave rise to a broader debate of the use of biofuels on the global arena and it's impact on an economic, social and environmental level. First and second generation biofuels have their drawbacks in terms of their water use, land intensity, competition with food and animal feed as well as affects on biodiversity, however these biofuels are still being used in many countries around the world giving rise to rural development, lowering carbon emissions and providing energy security. This essay will look at these drawbacks and look at algae as a replacement for these fuels and whether there is a future for algae as a biofuel. The advancement of biofuels is dictated by three factors, these include energy security, climate change and rural development. Certain criteria are more important than others for individual nation states. The United States are one of the largest consumers of energy and relies heavily on foreign oil therefore has a vested interest in energy security. The EU is more concerned with Climate Change and has invested millions on biodiesel, which is widely used in mainland Europe to lower carbon emissions. First and Second generation biofuels Current global biofuels consist of first and second generation biofuels. First generation biofuels are food crops including sugar cane, corn, palm oil and soy bean, however other food crops such as jutropha and cassava were later introduced as they are less competitive with food crops. Second generation biofuels are made from lignocellulosic material which is widely available and is present in low value materials, for example wood chip, grasses and crop residues. Both types of crops have an impact on a social, economic and environmental level. The global impact of biofuels The growth of global biofuels tripled from 4.8 million in 2000 to 16.0 million in 2007 but still accounts for only 3% of the global transportation supply. 90% of the production is concentrated in the US, Brazil, EU and consists of corn, sugar cane and vegetable oils. The economic impact on economies include 10% food price rises due to increases in demand for fuel crops. Brazil in 2006, saw the rise of sugar prices to a 10 year high. In the US, there was a rise in meat prices due to a decrease in feedstocks for animal feed (Coyle 2007). The environmental impact can be seen in countries such as Africa. Monoculture plantations of eucalyptus and pine offers rural development and work for plantation workers, however results in the depletion of the water table, increased soil acidity, biodiversity loss, pesticide contamination and affect resiliency of local ecosystems ( Friends of the Earth 2007). The huge water requirements for first and second generation biofuels is one of the biggest disadvantages of using these biofuels. Structural water shortages affect 300-400 million people in Africa and Asia , and shortages of water may be a fact of life for 2.5- 6.5 million people by 2050 (Reijnders and Huijbregts 2009). Water requirements for China and India are expected to rise, making these developing countries rely on foreign oil and unable to produce their own.

These are some of the effects of the production of current biofuels on world economies. Energy security Energy security is the need for countries to regulate fuel in order that future demand is met and to resist fluctuations in price changes. Organisations such as the International Energy Agency have been set up for this purpose. Some member states grow crops for fuel however compared to demand, the production of biofuel is minuscule and therefore they must rely on other ways of securing their energy resources. Many countries cannot produce their own biofuels whilst others are restricted in the production of their biofuels by climatic, geographical and land area factors. Countries which are in cold climates cannot grow fuel crops and many often use other countries to build their refineries, whilst countries such as the US, grow some of their own fuel, however, are affected by feedstocks which do not provide enough energy to replace fossil fuels, this is due to the quantity of feedstocks and the amount of energy they release, which is affected by the feedstock that is grown, the fuel demand and the land area available for feedstocks (Reijnders and Huijbregts 2009). Ethanol for example, has 2/3 of the energy value of gasoline and biodiesel has 90% of the energy value of diesel. The energy value of bioethanol from sugar cane is higher than corn or canola, also, blended biofuels are less efficient than pure fossil fuels (Reijnders and Huijbregts 2009). These factors contribute to the limitations of biofuels and the reasons why many countries are not self sufficient in the generation of their own fuel. William Coyle in his article The future of biofuels 2007, argues countries such as Brazil have energy security due to the production of their own biofuels. They are able to be self sufficient as per capita demand is low, they blend biofuel with fossil fuels and have flexible cars which take two different fuels, in addition, they make biofuels available at each fuel station and produce blends that do not need existing engine modifications. In this way they lower carbon emissions and are not reliant on foreign oil, furthermore, even though there are the negative aspects of plantations, biofuel production enables many people in poverty in rural areas enjoy a better standard of living. Climate change Biofuels are considered to be carbon neutral due to the fact they release carbon absorbed in the short term compared to fossil fuels which release carbon that was absorbed millions of years ago, adding to the carbon in the air, however, even though biofuels do not add to the carbon, they do not sequester it either, and the energy efficiency of biofuels requires more to be used in order to travel the same distance as fossil fuels. In 2006, Carbon dioxide emissions resulted in 29 Gtonnes of which only 12 Gtonnes can be removed by natural processes. Kyoto Protocol in 1997 called for a 5.2% reduction in GHG emissions worldwide from 1990 values to halt the warming of the planet. This resulted in countries around the world making changes to the way in which they develop their energy resources. One way in which countries have dealt with the climate change problem is to reduce emissions by requiring member states to use a certain percentage of renewables. The EU set climate change goals with Renewable Obligations (RO) on electricity production and a Renewable Obligation on Fuel which requires a certain percentage of renewables in the energy mix. The UK has a renewable obligation of 15% of all energy to be generated from renewables by 2020. Failure to follow EU goals results in penalties for member states. Therefore EU nation states have an incentive to produce energy from renewable resources. Under the EU industrial Emissions Directive (IED), the majority of the nuclear plants will be closed by 2023, and the 2012 Renewables Obligations Banding created a new band for conversion of fossil fuel power stations to biomass power generation. These two factors will influence the development of biofuels and the search for newer fuels which are able to satisfy requirements and legislation,

additionally, research into fuels which can solve some of the current issues of carbon emissions including sequestering carbon dioxide and ideally, being able to produce biomass that can be used for the new power plants is of advantage. For energy generation in the EU, many countries are using renewables such as solar and wind energy, however solar and wind energies can be intermittent in temperate and cold climates, and are affected by seasonal variations, producing less energy in low periods, when there is less sun or wind, therefore a renewable which is more constant and can be used year round is an advantage. William Coyle (2007) states that the outlook for biofuels will depend on interrelated factors including future price of oil, availability of low cost feedstocks, sustained commitment to supportive policies by governments and competition from fuel alternatives. The high price of oil stimulates energy conservation, and an increase in energy supply from alternative energy supplies. Any future alternative sources of energy must ideally be at least carbon neutral additionally sources which have the potential to remove carbon from the air ( carbon sequestration) and take into consideration other resources including food, water, biodiversity, is easy to produce on a large scale economically is has a strong possibility of investment as it is likely to fulfil many of the obligations and legislation that many countries are bound by. Algae as a biofuel Much has been written about algae as a biofuel, including it's high yields of 12,000 1ha -1compared to biodiesel yield from rapeseed of 1190 1ha-1 (Brennan and Owende 2009) and it's ability to flourish in all kinds of environments including brackish and waste water and in marginal lands, algae need less water than terrestrial crops, and does not compromise food production or fodder, is capable of year round production, has an oil content of 20-50% of dry weight, can biofix carbon dioxide, does not need herbicides, and produces co products that have value. However, the growth of algae for production purposes and high yields is affected by many variables, including sunlight, temperatures and strain of algae. Factors such as photoinhibition ( sun over exposure) and respiration have an affect on yield with optimum locations being 35 degrees north or south of equatorial regions. (Brennan and Owende 2009).

fig 1 Image of Photobioreactor

(Brennan and Owende 2009)

fig 2 Image of Raceway Open Pond system

(Brennan and Owende 2009)

Algae is produced in photobioreactors or open ponds, both have their advantages and disadvantages in terms of cost and output. Photobioreactors are more expensive to build, but have higher yields, whereas open pond systems cost less to build, however are easily contaminated and do not produce a high yield, and due to this the cost of the end product is more expensive in comparison to

photobioreactor end products. Algae cultivation is flexible adding to it's many advantages as a fuel. There are different methods of cultivating algae encourage different yields. The flexibility of algae is that it is able to grow with sunlight (phototrouphic) or without sunlight using glucose (heterotrouphic), and as a mix of both methods (mixotrouphic) . Both phototrophic and heterotrophic have their limitations therefore the mixotrophic method combines the positive yields of both and reduces loses of night respiration when oxygen is produced. Therefore during the day the phototrophic method is used, and at night the heterotrophic method. Feedstocks are a significant costs of any biofuel production. Currently Chisti (2007) states that 1kg of biofuel from algae costs $2.95 from photobioreactor generation and $3.80 from raceway open pond system, in order to reduce costs, economies of scale exist, therefore productions of 10,000 kg +, costs reduce to $0.40 for photobioreactor and $0.60 for raceway open pond system. This therefore results in the production of algae in large biorefineries rather than in small scale production.

Table 1 This table illustrates the different types of fuels that can be produced by micro algae. (Brennan and Owende 2009)

The benefits of using algae is that it is able to create continual energy without the need for seasonal variations, (Chisti 2007) which affect solar and wind power. The different processes used in the production of algae include thermochemical and biochemical processes which give rise to different fuel types, which include Syngas, bio-oil, electricity, methane, hydrogen, ethanol and a host of co products which include bio fertilizer, proteins, animal feed and aquaculture and polyunsaturated fatty acids. Algae can be carbon neutral through it's life-cycle, by using it's many fuels to fuel it's production and growth. Once it is used as a fuel, it then releases the carbon that is stored in it. Theoretically thermochemical and biochemical processes can be used together to create an all

inclusive energy resource that has wider implications and could make all current energy resources obsolete. It has the potential to create all the energy that is required in our environment, including all our energy needs in the home, in industrial and for transport, which are many the of highest energy consuming sectors. Theoretically algae as a resource also has many other possibilities. There is still much research that needs to be done in order to fully understand the potential of algae, however, according to a report on marine algae by Sustainable Energy Ireland, 2009, it states there is a lot of commercial activity and investment in marine algae, which it argues is difficult to understand considering the research that still needs to be done, furthermore, activity seems to be concentrated on the co products rather than the energy aspect. However, there are many opportunities for job creation and spin-off technology as well as export potential, however it argues that there are many policy issues which will affect the development of algal biomass as a resource. Currently integrating the process with other industries such as aquaculture, sewage treatment and power plants can be part of the business model enabling synergistic benefits (Sustainable Energy Ireland 2009). This would result in social, environmental and economic benefits, including carbon capture and storage (CCS), therefore reducing the pollution from power stations, promoting jobs in aqauculture, and treating sewage sustainably. In terms of UK legislation and it's obligation for renewables, algae as an energy resource could also solve many of the current issues. This includes the need for low carbon emissions. For developments in architecture, currently algae is in the experimental stages of use in building. In one scheme in Hamburg algae is used as a biofilm in louvres which has a dual function of photobioreactor and offers shading to the south facing housing. The algae is then processed and used as biogas, however, the energy output is minuscule as economies of scale are important in the production of micro algae as fuel, therefore it is not suited to such small scale production, and therefore biofilm is not suitable for the energy production of algae. Further, heat is stored in the biofilm and is released at night, this was a design feature of the algae being part of the overall design concept for sustainability by the architect, however this heat output is very small, and is lost to the night air, as the louvre is on the outside terrace of the scheme, therefore has no affect to the internal room temperature. In another project, La Denfse in Paris, algae is used for it's property to treat sewage. The faade of the building contains algae which is used to treat sewage, however, again this also has some drawbacks in it's design, as it uses biofilm which is also difficult to remove from the facade. Conclusion If algae biofuel was to become a major player in world energy markets, it would have a number of positive social, economic and environmental implications and mitigate the negative effects of first and second generation biofuels, including the effects to biodiversity and the damage to the environment, economic and social benefits. The economic factors would be the change of land use, therefore plantations would revert back to agricultural land, producing food, stabilising food prices and could potentially create work in the energy industry and through it's co products. If integrated with other industries as part of it's business model, work in the spin off industries, creating new products, transferring those working on plantations to biorefineries, fish farms etc. The positive environmental implications would be the increase soil fertility from the biofertilisers, create animal feed and the large carbon sequestration opportunities that are present through algae production. The social impacts would be linked with the economic and environmental impacts. More money for workers and in economies has a knock-on effect in other sectors, creating work in other areas as well as improving living standards and the ability for individual choice and control.

A negative impact which is common for all biofuels is that for sustainability behaviour patterns must be changed. Sources of energy which are cleaner however encourage more energy use, therefore human behaviour patterns need to change to encourage more conservation and less use. Also there may be a negative economic effect in terms of current cars having to be modified or scrapped to accommodate new biofuels, this could result in huge landfill sites and would require far more new cars to be built than current production, to replace cars that need new biofuel engines. Also it may also create job losses in sectors such as solar and wind energy, which currently is one of the growth sectors around the world, including the UK where there are many wind power developments in the pipeline. And this in turn would require the demolishment of these devices. Integration with solar and wind could be achieved, if algae was used just as a biofuel or it if it's other fuels were used instead, however it may not necessitate their solar or wind if it was the only energy source. It could be argued that the many different types of fuels that can be produced from micro algae could make it the only source of energy, however for it is to be cost effective it must be produced in large quantities, making the use of solar and wind power obsolete, as solar power is not carbon neutral; as the process of creating solar cells requires large amounts of heat, and there is much opposition to wind turbines who regard them as a distasteful element in the landscape. In terms of climate change and the UK's obligations to the EU of 15% of all energy coming from renewables, it could quite easily achieve this, as biofuel or as the many other fuels that can be produced from it. It could also create the biomass to create energy for the power plants that are being converted to biomass power generation plants. Algae also could reduce carbon emissions generally as it sequesters carbon. Currently however, it is not suitable for production due to the British climate. As a future way of decentralising energy production by producing it in building as part of it's architectural elements as illustrated in the examples above, the evidence would suggest at the moment the production of algae in building seems to have many limitations and whether it could work is questionable as to produce fuel from algae requires economies in scale. However creating production by grouping housing blocks together and creating large surface areas, could be an avenue to investigate, and maybe it could provide district level energy in this way. Further algae could be used as part of an overall design which includes sewage treatment, sustainable drainage, power generation, and internal heating. The experimental examples have tried to use heating, however this idea needs to be developed further before it can work. Currently countries are limited to the production of biofuels due to constraints, however with further research into new strains allowing growth in different climates and increasing yields as well as new production processes, it may in the future allow many more countries to grow their own biofuels and provide energy security to countries around the world.

What is the future of micro algae as an energy resource compared to other biofuels? Student number: u1246295 Centre for Alternative Technology word count: 3269

References
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