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other farming requirements that the companies mandate to get the proper yields. A proper regulation/legislation to hold seed companies accountable for false claims is the need of the hour as companies use legal loopholes to push the blame on to the farmers in the case of failed crops. 4. Sustainability problems Indian agricultural productivity is very less compared to world standards due to use of obsolete farming technology. Coupled with this, lack of understanding of the need for sustainability in the poor farming community has made things worse. Companies promise higher yields by usage of their fertilisers and farmers, most of the time, exceed the prescribed limits of fertiliser use. Water usage is also unplanned with some arid areas misusing the irrigation facilities provided by planting water intensive crops. In areas where irrigation in the form of rivers and canals is not sufficiently available, ground water resources are heavily exploited. Sustainability in agriculture is of utmost importance as many problems faced by farmers are related to this. Excess fertiliser usage not only makes the plants dependent on artificial fertilisers but also erodes the land quality, polluted ground water and in case of a surface runoff, pollutes the nearby water bodies. Similarly, planting crops which require more water like rice on the basis of irrigation facilities extended to areas which are water deficient uses up more water than required. Besides, the excessive evaporation cause salts to accumulate on the fields making them lose their fertility quickly. Lack of proper understanding of the need to grow crops sustainably will push farmers into a vicious circle of debts, heavy use of fertilisers, water mismanagement, low productivity and thus more debts for the next cycle. 5. Over dependence on traditional crops like rice and wheat Every crop requires certain climatic conditions to give the best yields. Though rice and wheat are produced in a large area in India, certain areas can readily switch to other crops to get better productivity. India is importing cooking oil from abroad though we have the necessary conditions to grow more oilseeds here 2. Heavy dependence on traditional rice and wheat points to the lack of a proper national plan on agriculture. Excess stocks in a few crops lead to problems in the selling of the produce, storage and shortage of other essential farm output. Moreover, if the farm output is skewed towards crops like rice, irrigation and ground water facilities are misused by farmers, which leads to a host of other problems. 6. Supply channel bottlenecks and lack of market understanding Supply channel bottlenecks and lack of a proper marketing channel are serious problems for a farmer who is already burdened with a host of troubles. These are issues which need to be tackled at the regional, state and national levels. Lack of a proper marketing channel forces the farmers to distress sale, makes them victims in the hands of greedy middlemen and ultimately restricts their income.
2 http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2013-08-20/india-seen-defying-rupee-plunge-to-import-recordcooking-oils.html
An improper marketing and storage channel also leads to storage problems in the years where productivity is good, leads to poor agricultural exports due to problems in maintaining quality and in many cases leads to gross wastage of valuable food grains and other farm output. Food wastage3 running into thousands of crores of rupees every year is nothing short of a crime in a country where more than 20% is below poverty line and where millions go hungry day after day. Lack of a national strategy in terms of agricultural production leads to production of some crops exceeding the requirement and to some crops well below the minimum limits. The problem is more acute in case of perishable agri output like vegetables and fruits where estimates of wastage are around 40%4. 7. Government handling of the issue MSP, overall agricultural strategy of the country, PDS, storage/granaries, lack of export market creation India lacks the required number of storage facilities (granaries, warehouses, cold storage etc) which negates the advantage of having a bumper crop in years of good monsoon. Exports in agricultural sector are also not very encouraging with a share of just 10% of the total exports, for a country where more than 50% of population is dependent on agriculture. The Minimum Support Prices (MSP) offered by the Government is a double edged sword MSPs protect farmers from being exploited by middlemen but during times of excess crop, Government runs the risk of an unnecessary fiscal deficit by buying the excess produce. Lack of proper storage facilities and lack of a proper international market linkage leads to lower exports and in many cases leads to huge amount of wastage.
designated crops in particular areas, it can surely educate them about the alternatives. Irrigation and water mismanagement is an issue that can reach crisis proportions in the years to come if proper steps are not taken to avert it today. This can be achieved only by making farmers aware of the future problems and showing them alternative economic channels. Farmers also will shift from the traditional crops and look for alternative crops provided Government gives them the confidence that alternative crops too are economically profitable. When proper techniques (in water management at the regional, state and national levels as well as a crop plan of what to produce and where to produce) are employed, it will be a win win situation for both the farmers as well as the country. Irrigation problems as well as problems due to single/traditional crop dependence can be solved by a national level plan for agricultural production. Government can encourage farmers to shift to cash crops (oil seeds etc) instead of food crops in areas where food crops are not at an advantage to reduce imports and also to boost exports. 3. Seed problems can be overcome by creating in house seed banks at the village level for traditional crops (thereby reducing farmer dependence on external seed banks), selling Government approved seeds through proper channels (to eradicate spurious seeds) and strict penalties on seed marketing companies in case the seeds do not match the claims germination and yield - of the companies. Terminator seeds should not be encouraged as a matter of principle as they force farmers to buy seeds for every crop. Scientific research in this subject is to be encouraged to promote seeds which are mild on resource requirements but help the farmers in boosting the yields. Sometimes small innovations at the grass root levels can solve a host of problems specific to a particular region. District agricultural officers must make it a habit to encourage such ideas and also take part in knowledge sharing to implement the ideas at a regional level. 4. Some sustainability solutions are proper crop management on the basis of water availability, crop rotation, deploying modern agricultural practices to boost productivity, switching over to organic farming (village pools will reduce costs), thrust on allied activities. For organic farming, first of all, a proper awareness has to be built among both the farmers as well as consumers. Organic farming reduces the unnecessary usage of artificial fertilisers, reduces water consumption, strikes a good balance between the local environment and the farm output, helps the land retain its fertility for a long time, reduces costs in the long run and also with the creation of a proper market in the towns and cities establishes a virtuous cycle between consumers and farmers. 5. Storage facilities can be boosted by small cold storage or granaries at village level which can be established from Panchayat funds and loans to the village society (this eliminates dumping of excess crops in the market yard). A 700 ton cold storage cum warehouse will cost around Rs. 1.5 crores6 which is very reasonable cost for a group of villages or a large Panchayat, provided the State or Union Government funds the cost. EMandis will also help the farmers to correctly predict the prices and thus market them profitably.
6
http://www.indianspices.com/html/wp_wcs.htm
6. At the National level an agricultural strategy or policy to improve information exchange, national level cold storage chains and logistic network (If Walmart can do, then Government of India can also do!) is the need of the hour. Proper management of PDS has to done to cut down wastes so that a reliable estimate of the food grain needs will be made. The excess (after keeping reserves for a potential draught year) can be exported provided the quality is maintained by means of proper storage. Food wastage can thus be cut down and agricultural trade balance can be improved if there is a national level plan.
Conclusion
Agriculture is a sector that feeds millions directly, has a considerable influence on the whole economy and in a country like India well being of the agricultural sector as a whole brings a psychological advantage to a multitude of other sectors. Millions depend on the farm lands for their sustenance and thus it makes it all the more important to eradicate the problems in this field. India cannot develop in the actual sense if its farmers lead a life of dire poverty and helplessness. A careful balance of industrialisation and agriculture is crucial for the overall prosperity of the nation.
Other References
1. http://www.indianspices.com/html/wp_wcs.htm 2. http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2013-07-27/indiabusiness/40832327_1_bumper-harvest-panel-discussion-madan-sabnavis 3. http://paepard.blogspot.in/2013/07/utilization-of-fruit-and-vegetable.html 4. http://www.foodnavigator-asia.com/Policy/India-damned-by-food-wastage-report
by S. Venkateswara Prasad
Economics of animal-rearing
Livestock contributes 25 per cent of gross value added in the agriculture sector. provides self-employment to about 21 million people. Rapid growth of this sector can be even more egalitarian and inclusive than growth of the crop sector because those engaged in it are mainly small holders and the landless. Growth of livestock output averaged 4.8 per cent per annum during the Eleventh Plan. The animal production system in India is predominantly part of a mixed crop-livestock farming system vital for the security and survival of large numbers of poor people. In such systems, livestock generate income, provide employment, draught power and manure. This production system assumes special significance in the present context of sustained economic growth, rising income, increasing urbanization, changes in taste and preference that have lead to dietary changes reflecting the importance of milk, meat, egg and fish.
have been established for delivery of breeding services. In order to improve the quality of semen production a Minimum Standard Protocol (MSP) for semen production has been enforced at all semen stations; 49 frozen semen bull station have been strengthened as per this MSP. A central Monitoring Unit (CMU) has been constituted for evaluation of one semen stations in two years. Thirty four semen stations in the country have acquired ISO certification against 3 during 2004. MSP for progeny testing and standard operating procedures for AI technicians has also been formulated. Challenges The challenges facing the dairy sector are given below: Small herd size and poor productivity Inadequate budgetary allocation over the years Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries Lack of equity with crop production Inadequate availability of credit Poor access to organized markets deprive farmers of proper milk price Poor AI service net-work Shortage of manpower and funds Limited availability of quality breeding bulls Low acceptability of AI in buffaloes Disease outbreaks: mortality & morbidity Deficiency of vaccines and vaccination set-up Induction of crossbred animals in areas poor in feed resources Majority of grazing lands are either degraded or encroached Diversion of feed & fodder ingredients for industrial use The Way Forward Continuous support to the States is essential for further genetic upgradation programmes to meet the fast increasing demand for milk in the country. There is further need to consolidate and improve the breeding infrastructure created under NPCBB, scientific programmes like Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT), Multi Ovulation Embryo Transfer Technology (MOET), Markers Assisted Selection (MAS) and development of semen sexing technology and use of sexed semen for faster propagation of elite germplasm and for increasing bovine productivity. The following policy initiatives are required to attract investment and for further development of dairy and livestock sector: Incentivize investment in this sector Increase public investment.
Entrepreneurship skills are to be improved through an exploratory pilot project, Poultry Estates in two States. It is meant primarily for educated, unemployed youth and small farmers with some margin money, for making a profitable venture out of various poultry related activities in a scientific and bio-secure cluster approach. Poultry Venture Capital Fund The scheme provides finance through NABARD for components like establishment of poultry breeding farm with low input technology birds, establishment of feed go-down, feed mill, feed analytical laboratory, marketing of poultry products, egg grading, packing and storage for export capacity, retail poultry dressing unit, egg and broiler carts for sale of poultry products and central grower unit, etc. Central Poultry Development Organizations & Central Poultry Performance Testing Centre The four centres of the Central Poultry Development Organizations are located at Chandigarh (Northern Region), Bhubaneswar (Eastern Region), Mumbai (Western Region) and Bangalore (Southern Region) while one Central Poultry Performance Testing Centre is at Gurgaon, Haryana. These centres are promoting the development of poultry through the following measures: Availability of quality chicks of identified low-input technology poultry stocks is ensured. Diversification into rearing of Duck and Turkey (Southern Region), Japanese Quail (Northern and Western region) and Guinea fowl (Eastern region). Training of trainers, farmers, women beneficiaries, various public and private sector poultry organizations, NGOs, Banks, Cooperatives and foreign trainees etc. Regular testing of various stocks available in the country to assess their performance. Challenges The challenges facing the meat and poultry sector include: Maize availability and cost: maize is the single most important ingredient of poultry feed, its availability at a reasonable cost is the major problem of poultry sector. Diseases: Pathogenic and emerging diseases namely AI often cause heavy losses both in domestic market and international trade. Lack of Marketing Intelligence: There is a dire need for realistic national marketing intelligence to bridge the gap between supply and demand of poultry & poultry products. Human Resource Development: To meet the growing demand of sustainable and safe production there is a huge demand for trained and skilled manpower in poultry sector. Large size of target population to be improved in terms of productivity with application of science and technology pose a formidable challenge. Low level of processing and value addition in animal products. The Way Forward The following measure are suggested to strengthen the meat and poultry sector for accelerated and sustainable growth: Long-term sustainable production measures have to be looked into to increase the production & quality of maize. Active surveillance, monitoring and control in case of any outbreaks in rapid manner. Network for a realistic national and global poultry database and marketing intelligence may be developed. Sufficient trained manpower should be developed in the existing institutions. With growing urbanization and increasing quality consciousness, the market for scientifically produced meat products is expected to grow rapidly. The market is growing for ready-to-eat and semiprocessed meat products because of a changing socio-economic scenario and an increase in exports to neighboring countries, especially the Middle East.
The mechanized slaughter houses produce huge quantities of offal and digesta from the slaughtered animals which could be profitably utilized for production of value added products, like Meat-cumBone Meal (MBM), Tallow, Bone Chips, Pet Foods and methane as a source of energy for value addition in most of the modern plants. There is a need to support pig rearing in order to improve sow productivity, growth rate of piglets and feed conversion efficiency. It is important to encourage proper utilization of by-products of livestock slaughter for higher income of livestock owners. The environmental pollution and spread of livestock diseases has to be prevented.
Production of seeds of high yielding fodder varieties needs to be increased in the organized/cooperative sector. High yielding fodder varieties need to be introduced throughout the country, instead of dual purpose varieties. Production of condensed fodder blocks needs to be encouraged by creating an assured market, coupled with providing a transport subsidy for supply to distant areas.
Livestock Health
Infectious Diseases High prevalence of various animal diseases like Foot & Mouth Disease (FMD), Peste des Petits Ruminants (PPR), Brucellosis, Classical Swine Fever and Avian Influenza is a serious impediment to growth in the livestock sector. Most of these losses can be prevented through timely immunization. The Department of Animal Husbandry, Dairying & Fisheries (DADF) has initiated National Programmes for prevention and control of FMD, PPR and Brucellosis. Similar programmes have been initiated to control PPR and Brucellosis. Shortages of vaccines and lack of proper cold chain facility are among the major hindrances to a faster implementation of these programmes. Veterinary Support Services Most of the veterinary hospitals and polyclinics and veterinary dispensaries have poor infrastructure and equipment. Further, the technical manpower is too inadequate to support health programmes for the massive livestock population. The DADF has now initiated a programme for the Establishment and Strengthening of existing Veterinary Hospitals and Dispensaries (ESVHD). There is a dire need to strengthen veterinary hospital facilities for timely diagnosis and treatment of animal diseases. Emphasis also needs to be given to strengthen art mobile veterinary services to ensure door-step veterinary support. Disease Reporting The present system of disease reporting is slow. A computerized National Animal Disease Reporting System (NADRS) linking Taluka, Block, District and State Headquarters to a Central Disease Reporting and Monitoring Unit at the DADF in New Delhi has been initiated in 2010-11. A faster and reliable disease reporting and processing of data will help in the development of appropriate policies and intervention for disease prevention and containment. Challenges The main challenges confronting the animal health sector include: Veterinary hospitals, dispensaries and technical manpower are inadequate. The disease reporting is neither timely nor complete which delays proper interventions. Inadequate availability of vaccines and lack of cold storage. The Way Forward The following measures will strengthen the animal health sector: Adequate veterinary disease diagnosis, epidemiology, hospital infrastructure and manpower need to be developed. A strong programme for supply of sufficient veterinary vaccines is necessary.
Fisheries Sector
India is the second largest producer of fish in the world. The policy for fishery development emphasizes inland fisheries, particularly aquaculture in recent years, which has been instrumental in increasing production, enhancing exports and reducing the poverty of fishermen. Allocations made for the development of fisheries sector through the Centrally Sponsored Schemes and Central Sector Schemes are utilized for implementation of both development and welfare oriented schemes through the respective states and UTs. In addition to the allocations made through CSS and CS, assistance is
provided through other flagship programmes like Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) and the recently launched National Mission for Protein Supplements (NMPS) Challenges The main challenges facing the fisheries sector include: Shortage of quality and healthy fish seeds and other critical inputs. Lack of resource-specific fishing vessels and reliable resource and updated data. Inadequate awareness about nutritional and economic benefits of fish. Inadequate extension staff for fisheries and training for fishers and fisheries personnel. Absence of standardization and branding of fish products. The Way Forward The following measures will help to further strengthen the fisheries sector: Schemes of integrated approach for enhancing inland fish production and productivity with forward and backward linkages right from production chain and input requirements like quality fish seeds and fish feeds and creation of required infrastructure for harvesting, hygienic handling, value addition and marketing of fish. Existing Fish Farmers Development Authority (FFDAs) would be revamped and cooperative sectors, SHGs and youths would be actively involved in intensive aquaculture activities. L arge scale adoption of culture-based capture fisheries and cage culture in reservoirs and larger water bodies are to be taken up. Sustainable exploitation of marine fishery resources especially deep sea resources and enhancement of marine fish production through sea farming, mariculture, resource replenishment programme like setting up of artificial reefs.
Swagata Tarafdar
CONDITIONS FOR CANAL IRRIGATION: 1.areas of low and level relief so that water flow would be by the gravitation force 2.deep soft rock layer so that canal excavation would be easy 3.perennial source of water AREAS FULFILLING THE CONDITIONS: North plains of india especially the areas comprising Punjab; Haryana and uttar Pradesh and the coastal and delta regions of the south india. ADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION: 1.most of the canals provide perennial irrigation and supply water as and when needed. 2.canals carry a lot of sediment brought down by the rivers. This sediment is deposited in the agricultural fields which adds to the fertility of soil. 3.some of the canals are parts of multipurpose projects and, therefore, provide cheap source of irrigation. 4.although the initial cost involved in canal irrigation is much higher, it is quite cheap in the long run. DISADVANTAGES OF CANAL IRRIGATION: 1.the canal water soaks into the ground and leads to the problem of water-logging along the canal route 2.the marshy areas near the canals act as breeding grounds of mosquitoes which result in widespread diseases 3.many canals over flow during rainy season and flood the surrounding areas. 4.canal irrigation is suitable in plain areas only. WELL&TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION A well is a hole dug in the ground to obtain the subsoil water. A tube well is a deeper well with a tube surrounding the peripheral from which water is lifted with the help of a pump set. CONDITIONS FOR WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION: 1.sufficient sweet ground water should be available 2.soft rock
Large part of great plain, the deltaic regions of the Mahanadi, the godhavari, the Krishna, and the Cauvery, parts of the narmada and the tapi valleys and the weathered layers of the deccan trap. ADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION: 1.simplest and cheapest source of irrigation and the poor Indian farmer can easily afford it 2.well is an independent source of irrigation and can be used as and when the necessity arises 3.several chemicals such as nitrate, chloride, sulphate, etc. Are mixed in well water. They add to the fertility of soil when they reach the agricultural field along with well water 4.there is a limit to the extent of canal irrigation while a well can be dug at any convenient place DISADVANTAGES OF WELL AND TUBE-WELL IRRIGATION: 1.only limited areas can be irrigated 2.the well may dry up and may be rendered useless for irrigation if excessive water is taken out of it 3.tubewells can draw a lot of ground water from its neighbouring areas and make the ground dry and unfit for agriculture 4. for tube-wells electricity or diesel needed.
R.DHARMENDRA,
IRRIGATION
IRRIGATION TANK WELLS CANAL TANKS most feasible and widely practiced method Small in size built by raising bunds across seasonal streams. Excavated type in WB,ORISSA, BIHAR & mostly used for raising fishes beside irrigation Get silted up soon so need to be desilted High rate of evaporation and occupation of fertile land At many places dried up surface used for cultivation Most of the tanks are non perennial Karnataka , TN, AP, ORRISA, MAHARASHTRA have more area under tank irrigation.
WELLS most widely distributed source of irrigation. water from underground so possible in areas of low rainfall where adequate amount of GW is present within the reach of small farmer the great plains, deltaic region of Krishna, Godavari, narmada, kaveri, Mahanadi and tapti large tracts of peninsula holds little sub surface water in some parts of Haryana ,Rajasthan , Gujarat, Punjab ground water is saline so not suitable for irrigation 41 % of the net irrigated area
CANAL principal source of irrigation 40% of the net irrigated area Require an adequate source of water supply, allow relief and an extensive command area Inundation canals are taken out of river without any regulating system at their heads ( to use flood water) Perennial canals take off from perennial rivers with a weir system (to regulate flow of water) In great plains canals take off from barrages, while in peninsula large dams and reservoirs necessary for taking off canals Half of the net canal irrigated area lie in UP, PUNJAB, HARYANA AND A.P Upper and lower ganga canal, eastern Yamuna canal, sarda canal ramganga canal, betwa canal, agra canal Canal system taken off from Krishna, Godavari,Tungabhadra, dowlaiswaram anicut
IRRIGATION
(Godavari delta), prakasam barrage(Krishna delta), penner canal,canals of nizamsagar,pochampad project, nagarjunsagar & Tungabhadra project (mainly irrigate rayalseema districts) DVC (hooghly), mayurakshi,kangsabati deltaic regions of tambraparni & kaveri, grand anicut, katalai high level canal, mettur canal system,lower bhawani project,manimuthar project(tambraparni) Eastern kosi canal, eastern gandak canal, son canal Bikaner canal (satluj), ottu feeder(ghaggar), bhakra canal, Chambal project canals, rajasthan canal Chambal project , barna project, tawa project canal Tungabhadra project canals, malprabha project, ghatprabha project,bhadra project, visvesaraya canal (kaveri)(krishnaarjunsagar dam) Mutha canal(khadakwasola reservoir),mula canal , upper Godavari canal, girna canal , nira canal, pravara canal,ghod and purna canal Canals of Mahanadi (hirakund project) Malampuzha canal, periyar canal, pamba canal
OTHER SOURCES OF IRRIGATION - irrigation from temporary dams called ahars & pynes, spring channels, direct lift from water channels. *Great plains and east coastal lowlands have more area under irrigation than the uplands in the peninsular regions due to greater concentration of the sown area and availability of more surface and sub surface water. NATIONAL WATER POLICY 2002 emphasis on integrated water resource development. Management for optimal and sustainable utilization of water. Creation of well developed information system. Water conservation, participatory approach on water management Avg annual water availability of country -1869 billion cubic metre(bcm) Of which 1123 bcm usable of which 690 bcm surface water rest ground water In bhart nirman emphasis on extension renovation and modernization (ERM ) & repair renovation and restoration
IRRIGATION
Accelerated irrigation benefit programme To gave loan assistance to states to help in completion of major / medium irrigation project Central loan assistance scheme for surface minor irrigation schemes of north eastern states and other hilly states 25 % project grant for non special states and 30% for special states, drought prone tribal areas including. Hydro project -2 With world bank assistance in 13 states To promote the sustainable and effective use of hydrological information system(HIS) COMMAND AREA DEVELOPMENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT to bridge the gap between irrigation potential created and utilized through micro level Infrastructure development for efficient water management and enhancement of agriculture production Assistance of 50:50 basis for construction activity and 75:25 basis for training activity Parcitipatory approach with water users association Minimum 10% contribution by the beneficiary in the cost of construction of field channels, reclamation of water logged area Flood management 45 mha flood prone area in the country By way of construction of embankment , drainage channels town protection works & providing raised platforms 100% central assistance to W.B ,Tripura, N.E states Flood management programme flood control, river management drainage development ,flood proofing, anti sea erosion works A network of flood forcasting and warning system established by central water commission in major river basins for flood forcast Advisory council on artificial recharge of ground water Implementation of 5000 farmers participatory action research programme Organization of national ground water congress Institute of ground water augmentation award and national water award Preparation of policy on use of ground water by industries FPARP technologies micro irrigation system (drip and sprinkler), water conservation(jalkund, storage tanks, check dams, recharging wells), crop diversification, system of rice intensification (SRI), in-situ soil moisture conservation, micro nutrient management Ministryof water resources constituted bhoomijal samvardhan puraskars- cash award of 1 lkh. National water resource council Prime minister chairman, union minister of water resources vice chairman ,chief ministers of all states secretary (ministry of water resources) Central water commission 3 technical wings Design and research wing Water planning and project wing
IRRIGATION
River management wing 13 regional organizations to carry out techno-economic appraisal and economic aspects of irrigation, flood control and multipurpose project proposed by state government All work related to hydrological data Flood forcasting system To advise on basin wise development of water resources To advise and assist survey and investigate on designs and schemes on development of river valleys in respect of power generation , irrigation, flood management , environmental management, resettlement and rehabilitation, soil conservation, anti water logging measures, reclamation of alkaline and saline soils, drainage and drinking water supply To impart training on various aspects of water resource development Dam safety studies, promotion of modern data collection techniques such as remote sensing assessment of water erosion problems Central soil and material research station Soil mechanics, rock mechanics, construction materials Soil dynamics, geotextile, soil chemistry, rock fill technology, drilling technology Central water and power research station Khadakwasla, pune Hydraulic research River engineering, reservoir and appurtenant structures, coastal and offshore engineering, shiop hydrodynamics, hydraulic machinery, earth sciences, mathematic modeling
Central ground water board Disseminate technologies for scientific and sustainable development and management of india;s ground water resource including monitoring , assessment, exploration & augmentation RGI scheme provide training, setting up laboratories , r & d studies Farraka barrage project For preservation and management of kolkata port(bhagirathi hoogly river system) Bansagar control board On sone river M.P , U.P , bihar involved Ganga flood control commission Headquartered at patna Upper Yamuna board MoU between H.P, Haryana, U.P, rajasthan and nct delhi Allocation of available flow and also maintain the return flow Three storage project- renuka dam, Krishna dam, lakhwar vyas project National water development agency National perspective plan (NPP) under national common minimum programme Transferring water from water surplus basin to water deficit basin by interlinking of rivers
IRRIGATION
two components 1. Himalya water development component 2 .peninsular rivers development component Main river links- ken betwa link (M.P, U.P involved) Parbati- kali sindh- Chambal link(M.P , rajasthan involved) PAR-TAPI NARMADA LINK and damangana panjal link (gujrat Maharashtra involved) Godavari- Krishna link (andhrapradesh involved) Mahanadi Godavari- Krishna- pennar kaveri- gundar link system -7 states involved
VIBHOR BACHCHAN
REF. 1. ECONOMIC AND COMMERCIAL GEOGRAPHY OF INDIA BY SHARMA & COUTINHO. 2. INDIA 2013.
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
Land reforms after independence 1. Institutional reforms Abolition of intermediaries Tenancy reforms- security of tenure, decrease in rent, conferment of ownership rights. Ceiling on size of landholdings Cooperativization and community development programmes.
2. Technological reform Beginning around mid or late sixties ushering in green revolution .
DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF LAND REFORMS Anti poverty strategy majority of our population depends on agriculture so improvement in agriculture through the vortex of land reforms is prerequisite. Empowerment of women as it has been increased feminization of agriculture , an estimated 20 % of rural household are de facto female headed , women are often managing land and livestock . Tenurial security can empower women to assert themselves better with agencies that provide input and extension services. women with asset such as land have greater bargaining power which can lead to more gender equal allocations of benefits even from male incomes. Women without independent resources are vulnerable to poverty though they are better informed about agricultural knowledge. Moreover it would add to socio-cultural fabric.
Land alienation-the menace of naxalism has its root in land alienation . The Ministry of Home Affairs assessment, in 2006, was that 120-150 districts in 12 states were Naxal-infested. Obviously, normal writs of the State did not operate in these areas. Thus, a huge chunk of mainland India was being governed by extra-legal and, in some places, illegal authorities. The assessment also showed that militants, whoever they were, had established a rapport with the local population due to which they were able to move about freely evading and avoiding the pincers of the law-enforcing authorities. They were proving to the hilt Mao Tse-tungs doctrine of Fish in Water, where the fish were the militants and the water the mass of disgruntled, disaffected peasantry and landless agricultural workers. If the disaffection of the latter could be substantially reduced, the water would evaporate and the militants disappear. Food security- to ensure food security for such a vast population as in india land reforms becomes vital. And if we fail to ensure food security we fail to ensure nutritional security too. Equality to india- equality is our constitutional right and by land reforms this is granted to every citizen of our country.
INITIATIVES TAKEN SO FAR Land ceiling ceiling limits has been prescribed by the states above which a family cannot own a land. Bhoodan land- the land owners who had large quantities of land were persuaded to surrender some part voluntarily . Tenancy reforms- leasing out land to others needy person on written or oral agreement hence some states enacted laws to protect tenants. Common property resource- states have conferred rights to the communities over resources such as pasture land, fuel wood, minor forest produce. Waste land- states distributes the waste land available with them to the landless persons. Tribal land alienation- enactment of laws for the protection of scheduled tribes.
CHALLENGES
Land and its management land and its management fall in exclusive domain of states . each state has different set up for land and land record management so this heterogenecity is an issue. Shifting Economic Imperatives Increasing peoples access to land and creating a more equitable redistribution of land assets are important for India, particularly in view of its high and ever-increasing person-to-land ratio. Increased emphasis on industrialization should not result in an abandonment of the rural sector. Maintaining Ecological Balance ecological balance between the proportion of land designated for forestry, agriculture, and nonagricultural purposes. There is a need to explore the linkages among rural poverty, landlessness, and skewed land tenure systems with particular attention to the problems of deforestation. The reduction of forests inevitably disturbs the ecological balance. Cyclical patterns of droughts followed by floods have been clearly linked to this. At the same time, there is no guarantee that the already existing skewed distribution of land outside the forests will not be replicated. Preserving Human Diversity The concept of land as a commodity comes into conflict with traditional concepts of common property and with societies, such as those of many tribal peoples throughout India, who generally do not have a documented system of land rights. Complexities of Common Property Regimes Resources, both natural and manmade, controlled and managed as common property present another challenge in the context of land-related issues. Besides private property or property owned and controlled by the state, common property such as forests, grazing lands, water, and fisheries can also be held and managed through a community resource management system. At present the issues related to land are dealt by the various govt. department with little scope of interdepartmental coordination. Land management largely
bureaucratically controlled no resurveys to create upto date land records . To add to the misery of rural population majority of the revenue courts continue to operate in English language unknown to rural hinterlands.
MEASURES TO STRENTHGEN LAND REFORMS A massive operation should be undertaken to restore alienated tribal lands to their rightful tribal owners. Appropriate amendments of the Land Acquisition Act of 1894 and Coal Bearing Areas (Acquisition Development) Act of 1957 in tune with PESA. Issue of user pattasin the names of women and men for use of CPR including tree pattas for forest dwellers and water pattas for fisherfolk over inland or coastal CPR waterbodies. Setting up of a dispute settlement mechanism at the gram panchayat level with gram panchayat members and representatives of beneficiary groups, with a representative of the bureaucracy as a member convenor, to keep records and explain the legal position. The NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT COUNCIL so as to make it fully federal structure. The settlement of rent should be left to the village community to decide at the panchayat level and to be appropriated for their own purpose. The survey operations should be subjected to social audit The state have to device a regular method where by the updation of records of rights may take place without there being requirement of survey operation in the present mode.
Watershed Development
Introduction
Our environment is progressively degraded due to over exploitation of natural resources. Population pressure indiscriminate tree felling, over grazing, unsound agricultural practices, all these and other factors contribute towards this degradation. In the degraded landscape with little or no tree cover and subsequently little soil cover, the rain water is not able to percolate into the ground and flows away to the streams. Along with this water we lose rich top soil which is necessary for any vegetation to grow. It is a vicious cycle no top soil means no vegetation which leads to increase run off water and further erosion of top soil.
Why Watershed?
Waters are flowing to streams and joining to sea or oceans means there is little or no contribution for rain water to be absorbed by soil which means that the ground water level is decreasing so rather that exploitation of water we have to arrange for refilling of the water and also prevent the fertile soil to get eroded.
Objective
Primary objective of the programme is to conserve our natural resources the top six inches of the land are most fertile and most of the soil nutrients are present in that layer, the top soil is eroded with flowing water every year we have to prevent that. Similarly the rain water also flows away and needs to be stopped; the speed of the flowing water has to reduce so that it doesnt wash away the top soil so the basic work involves soil and water conservation. Its like a bank if you have money in the bank only then we can withdraw similarly the bank of our watershed is our hills if there are enough trees grasses and different kinds of treatment then the hills can conserve or store water inside them. If there is enough shade then the rain water will not directly impact onto the soil but rather its impact will be cushioned by the leaves of the trees or vegetative cover otherwise the water would be carried away by the loose top soil with its force. So we dont just have to stop the water but also have to cover it i.e., to protect it direct rainfall sunlight and animals.
What is Watershed?
Along Centuries human beings have settled across rivers of catchment area which form lakes and provide regular supply of water to them Watershed of a particular river or stream is defined as that area which collects the rain water and drains it into gullys and nala bunds to a point on that river or stream. It may be small consisting of few hectares and huge covering several millions of hectares.
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Watershed Development Delineation of a Watershed Delineation of a watershed mean determining the boundary of the watershed i.e. ridgeline. A watershed consists of three types of lines Ridge Line, Drainage Line and Contour Lines. After knowing the concept of watershed, it becomes important to see how a watershed can be identified on the site. The watershed of any size can be delineated from the following: 1. Ridge Line 2. Outlet (Drainage Line) Ridge Line is the line that joins comparatively the highest elevation points and that becomes the boundary of the watershed. A ridgeline bifurcates the falling water on two opposite sides. The most important aspect for defining and delineating a watershed is to fix the outlet of the drainage course. As the outlet goes downstream of the drainage course, the area of the watershed goes on increasing. Basically location (position) of the outlet defines the area of watershed. Watersheds are classified based on the area (size): Micro watershed (upto 10 ha) Mini watershed (upto 200 ha) Sub watershed (upto 4000 ha) Watershed (upto 10,000 ha) River basin or River valley ( more than 10,000 ha) Watersheds are of different types based on their location: Runoff watershed or A class watershed (Upper reach watershed): These watersheds are at the origin of river or at the upper catchment of river basin. Runoff is the main characteristic here. Recharging watershed or B class watershed (Middle reach watershed): These are on the plateau area characterised by medium percolation and infiltration. Storage watershed or C class watershed (Lower reach watershed): These watersheds are in the plains and characterised by good infiltration and recharging. Watersheds are also based on the ground water exploitation: Dark watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water pumping is more than 85 % of annual recharging. These watersheds are also called fully developed (exploited) watersheds. Grey watershed: In these watersheds annual ground water drafting is 65 85 % of annual recharging. Yellow watershed: In theses watersheds annual ground water drafting less than 65% of annual recharging. These are called as least developed or exploited watershed. The dark watersheds need to be treated on the priority basis. Watersheds can be of different shapes: UPSC - Mysore
Watershed Development
The volume of water at the outlet of the watershed depends on the shape of the watershed and hence this needs to be taken into consideration while planning treatments for the watershed. While planning for development of any watershed, one needs to look deeply into various aspects: The size, shape, average slope of the watershed Vegetation and land use Soil texture, depth of soil, geology Average annual rainfall, rainfall period and its distribution, rainfall intensity and frequency, infiltration rate
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Watershed Development It also reduces the chances of the structure breaking as the water pressure at all point on the treatment is the same. From top of the hills downwards the series of structures is made that would ensure step by step slowing down the fast flowing of water until a part of it finally stopped. This results in control of erosion retention of soil fertility better soil moisture infiltration and ground water recharge
Water Absorption Trenches (WAT) is large size trench excavated along the contour line with the cross section of 1sq meter. It is usually excavated on highly degraded waste land where the slope is steep and sudden changes in the slope. To trap rain water enable it to percolate to underground aquifers and break the speed of fast moving water Continuous Contour Trenches(CCT) are excavated. Besides helping in percolation these CCT increase soil moisture which help in the growth of grass shrubs and trees.
Depending upon the rainfall the dimensions of the CCT will vary and so will the required volume of earth work per hectare. Since fodder is basic requirement in rural livelihood grasses of nutritional variety can be planted across the mounds of that and CCT as well as beds between the CCT. This not only provides fodder for animals it also prevents the soil erosion. When degraded land require plantation the CCTs are refilled. The top soils from the upstream side are filled in the CCT.
After digging the CCT will refill them. On the hill we have the CCT which is 30cm wide, we dig soil from the upstream side up to 1m above the CCT and put this soil into the CCT. The height of the soil column that is refilled in the CCT should be around 45 60cm from the bottom of the CCT and in the centre of the refilled portion we plant trees. This treatment results in good survival rate of plants generally in place where soil depth is little. It allows proper aeration and prevents root coiling and creates a moisture bank so necessary for plant growth especially in arid areas. On the CCTs which are suitably weathered and refilled with earth, trees grasses and shrubs are planted.
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Watershed Development These are usually local species which meets the local needs of fuel fodder timber fruits and fiber. Where the soil depths are not sufficient the pastures are developed. Where there is enough soil depth CCTs are done up to 30 cm deep these are dug across the slope and maintaining the same level. Where ever the terrain is rocky and there is not enough soil we make Bunds using stones. Stone bunds are laid along the contour lines across the slope to arrest the flow of water and control erosion in areas where soil excavation work is not possible. Stone bunds can be erected in both arable and not arable lands.
Watershed development also involves taking up of area treatments in cultivable lands. Here the objective is to increase the productivity of the land for crops & horticulture through different soil and water conservation measures. Farm bund is useful areas where the land is almost flat or used for agricultural purposes. Farm bunds are erected across the slopes if not possible across the boundaries of the fields. The top level of the bund should be even throughout so that required cross section is maintained irrespective of undulations of the plot. Grasses and trees can be grown for better stability and additional income for the farmer.
Earthen bund raised along the counter line is called Contour Bund. Waterways outlets either natural or artificially constructed are necessary for safe disposal of additional water from the field in a manner that minimizes erosion. Outlets are built to remove excess runoffs from the farm or Counter Bund. Normally outlets are built at a height up to 1 foot from the ground level so as to stew some runoff. Two types of outlets are used the Stone Outlets and the Pipe Outlets.
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Watershed Development Nala Bunds Gabion Structures Loose Boulder Structures Masonry Structures
A series of structures is constructed along the drainage line these structures allow the surplus run off which has been considerably slowed down to accumulate and get stored along the entire drainage line. Which ensures entire groundwater recharge and creation of water banks. Gully plugs are usually makeup of loose rocks of stones which are locally available. Vegetation is necessary for the stabilization of the gully. Earthen Gully Plugs are the earthen embankments which are built across the slopes situated at the bed of the gully. A spillway is provided at any one side of the embankment to bring the excess runoff at the non-erosive velocity When gullies are prominent instead of small side gully plugs loose boulder structures with batter sometimes on both sides are constructed Gabion Structures is similar to loose boulder structure but to increase stability the boulders are enmeshed in wire. Gabion structure is constructed in places where the foundation is not available for the construction of check dam or there is no possibility of a spillway to construct a nala bund. Gabion Structures are silt controlled measures but through some innovation such as central concrete wall or plastering it can be converted into a water harvesting structure Nala Bund is an earthen bund of suitable dimension raised across nala or gully the purpose is to hold the run off in order to create a pond or water body on the upstream side of the bund Nala bund is always constructed with the facility of spill way for draining surplus of rain water. These structures store rain water for a particular amount of time which helps recharging of ground water. Nala bunds also help to stabilize nalas, gullys and streams Check Dams are masonry structures which are constructed to impound surplus runoff, the stored water recharges the underground water this type of structures is constructed when in nala bund or in earthen structures cannot be need or a site where a spill way is not available The objective of the different treatment is to meet the barren lands productive for forests pastures and agriculture.
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Watershed Development
If we start the work from the bottom and move up what are the disadvantages.
If we start the work from the bottom then as there is no such things as bunds and counter lines in the top there will be no resistance for the water flow and as it come with such velocity from the top that by the time the work at lower is completed itll will be destroyed.
Mythology
Once King Bhagirathi wanted to bring River Ganga from heaven but Ganga would fall from such a force that the earth would not be able to withstand the pressure so the Lord Shiva slowed the impact of the fall by taking it on this head on which his hair was tied. The water has to go through his hair and falls pressure was controlled. i.e., pressure of rain water falling on the earth is to be reduced so that water would flow without eroding the soil By doing watershed work form ridge to valley we do it the way the nature is intended. Running water is slowed down flowing water is made to walk and walking water is stopped. Spread around and made to go underground this is what that the rain water a nurturing nourishing cause of life peace and prosperity.
Summary
Treatment of the entire catchment area around the entire village to ensure conservation and regeneration of all its natural resources especially Water is called Watershed Development. Watershed development must be run from ridge to valley basis. Right from the top you dig continuous contour trenches and when you come down on waste lands you dig continuous contour bunds and on farm land you erect farm bunds along the drainage line of the rivers right from the top you do gully plugs when you come down nala bunds, gabion structures and check dams. The idea is to control soil erosion and to control the flow of gushing water; water that is running we try to make it walk, walking water we stop and stop water we try to force it under ground. The idea is to trap harvest and store the rain water where ever it falls within the area itself. Since the speed of the rain water is controlled and the soil is not washed away the rivers doesnt get flooded and silted. Thus the water shed development is an answer to two problems that of drought and that of that of fly. Earlier method of watershed development concentrated merely on the harvesting structures and ignored treating water shed as a home therefore this lead to soil erosion and siltation.
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UPSC - Mysore