1.

PORT TIMING DIAGRAM OF SINGLE CYLINDER TWO STROKE SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

AIM: To draw the port timing diagram of a two stroke spark ignition engine. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. A two stroke petrol engine 2. Measuring tape 3. Chalk BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: The port timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place in an engine cycle. The two stroke engines have inlet and transfer ports to transfer the combustible air fuel mixture and an exhaust port to transfer exhaust gas after combustion. The sequence of events such as opening and closing of ports are controlled by the movements of piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in two strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every crankshaft revolution. Two operations are performed for each stroke both above the piston (in the cylinder) and below the piston (crank case). When compression is going on top side of the piston, the charge enters to the crank case through inlet port. During the downward motion, power stroke takes place in the cylinder and at the same time, charge in the crank case is compressed and taken to the cylinder through the transfer port. During this period exhaust port is also opened and the fresh charge drives away the exhaust which is known scavenging. As the timing plays major role in exhaust and transfer of the charge, it is important to study the events in detail. The pictorial representation of the timing enables us to know the duration and instants of opening and closing of all the ports. Since one cycle is completed in one revolution i.e. 360 degrees of crank revolution, various positions are shown in a single circle of suitable diameter. PROCEDURE 1. Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction when viewing in front of the flywheel. 2. Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel. 3. Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel. 4. Mark the IPO, IPC, EPO, EPC, TPO, and TPC on the flywheel observing the following conditions. 5. Inlet port open (IPO) when the bottom edge of the piston skirt just opens the lower most part of the inlet port during its upward movement.

6. Inlet port close (IPC) when the bottom edge of the piston fully reaches the lower most part of the inlet port during its downward movement. 7. Transfer port open (TPO) when the top edge of the piston just open the top most part of the transfer port during its downward movement. 8. Transfer port close (TPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most part of the transfer port during its upward movement 9. Exhaust port open (EPO) when the top edge of the piston just opens the top most part of the exhaust port during its downward movement. 10. Exhaust port close (EPC) when the top edge of the piston fully reaches the upper most part of the exhaust port during its upward movement 11. Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from BDC whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles. 12. Draw a circle and mark the angles. OBSERVATION TABLE: Circumference of flywheel (X) = Sl.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Description IPO before TDC IPC after TDC EPO before BDC EPC after BDC TPO before BDC TPC after BDC mm Distance in mm Angle in Degrees

FORMULA: L Angle = ----- 360 X Where, L Distance from nearest dead center in mm X- Circumference of the Flywheel in mm

RESULT: The given two-stroke petrol engine is studied and the Port timing diagram is drawn for the present set of values.

2. VALVE TIMING DIAGRAM OF A SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR

STROKE COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE

AIM: To draw the valve timing diagram of the four stroke compression ignition engine.

REQUIREMENTS:
1. Experimental engine 2. Measuring tape

3. Chalks

BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: The valve timing diagram gives an idea about how various operations are taking place in an engine cycle. The four stroke diesel engines have inlet valve to supply air inside the cylinder during suction stroke and an exhaust valve to transfer exhaust gas after combustion to the atmosphere. The fuel is injected directly inside the cylinder with the help of a fuel injector. The sequence of events such as opening and closing of valves which are performed by camfollower-rocker arm mechanism in relation to the movements of the piston as it moves from TDC to BDC and vice versa. As the cycle of operation is completed in four strokes, one power stroke is obtained for every two revolution of the crankshaft. The suction, compression, power and exhaust processes are expected to complete in the respective individual strokes. Valves do not open or close exactly at the two dead centers in order to transfer the intake charge and the exhaust gas effectively. The timing is set in such a way that the inlet valve opens before TDC and closes after BDC and the exhaust valve opens before BDC and closes after TDC. Since one cycle is completed in two revolutions i.e 720 degrees of crank rotations, various events are shown by drawing spirals of suitable diameters. As the timing plays major role in transfer of the charge, which reflects on the engine performance, it is important to study these events in detail.

PROCEDURE: 1. Mark the direction of rotation of the flywheel. Always rotate only in clockwise direction when viewing in front of the flywheel. 2. Mark the Bottom Dead Center (BDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the lowermost position during rotation of the flywheel. 3. Mark the Top Dead Center (TDC) position on the flywheel with the reference point when the piston reaches the top most position during the rotation of flywheel. 4. Identify the four strokes by the rotation of the flywheel and observe the movement of inlet and exhaust valves. 5. Mark the opening and closing events of the inlet and exhaust valves on the flywheel. 6. Measure the circumferential distance of the above events either from TDC or from BDC whichever is nearer and calculate their respective angles. 7. Draw the valve timing diagram and indicate the valve opening and closing periods.

FORMULA: L Angle = ----- 360 Degrees X Where, L - Distance from nearest dead center in mm X- Circumference of the Flywheel in mm OBSERVATIONS: Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 RESULT: The given four stroke compression ignition engine is studied and the valve timing diagram is drawn for the present set of values. Description IVO Before TDC IVC After BDC EVO Before BDC EVC After TDC Distance in mm Angles in Degrees

3. PERFORMANCE TEST ON SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (MECHANICAL LOADING)
AIM: To perform a load test on the given engine and to draw the performance characteristic curves. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. The engine test rig 2. Stop-watch ENGINE SPECIFICATION: ENGINE: Type Fuel Power Speed Lub Oil : Water cooled, Constant speed : H.S. Diesel : 4.4 kW (6 bhp) : 660 rpm : SAE30/SAE 40

LOADING TYPE

: Mechanical /Hydraulic loading

FUEL PROPERTIES: Fuel: Petrol Specific gravity of fuel= 0.7 gm/cc Calorific value = 44,000 KJ/Kg

BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: A load test on an engine provides information regarding the performance characteristics of the engine. Engine performance varies with both load on the engine as well as the engine

speed. However stationary engines operate at a constant speed. The performance characteristics of such engines are obtained by varying the load on the engine. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

The compact and simple engine test rig consisting of a four stroke single cylinder, water cooled, constant speed diesel engine coupled to a mechanical loading device. The engine is started by hand cranking using the handle by employing the decompression lever. The engine is loaded mechanically by applying force on the brake drum. A burette is connected with the fuel tank through a control valve for fuel flow measurement. Provision is made to circulate water continuously through the engine jacket.

PRECAUTIONS: 1. The engine should be checked for no load condition. 2. The cooling water inlet for engine should be opened. 3. The level of fuel in the fuel tank should be checked.

PROCEDURE: 1. Start the engine at no load and allow idling for some time till the engine warm up. 2. Note down the time taken for 10cc of fuel consumption using stopwatch and a fuel measuring burette. 3. Open the fuel line to fill burette and supply fuel to run the engine from the fuel tank again. 4. Load the engine gradually to the desired valve by applying load to the brake drum. 5. Allow the engine to run at this load for some time in order to reach steady state condition, and note down the time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption. 6. Repeat the experiment by applying additional load to the engine. 7. Release the load step by step and stop the engine

OBSERVATION TABLE: M1 Kg N Kg M2 N Net load (Wnet) N N Speed (rpm) Time for 10 cc of fuel consumption (sec)

S.No

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS: X 3600 = ----- specific gravity of fuel --------- Kg/hr Time 1000

1. Total fuel consumption (T.F.C.) Where,

X Quantity of fuel consumed in cc (Burette reading) Specific gravity of fuel = 0.85 gm/cc 2N = T ----------------- kW 60 103

2. Brake power (B.P.)

Where

N= speed in rpm T = Wnet x Radius of brake drum Wnet = (m1 m2) x 9.81 N m1 = load at one end (kg) m2 = load at other end (kg) TFC 3. Specific fuel consumption = ---------- kg/kw.hr (S.F.C.) B.P

4. From the graph drawn between brake power and total fuel consumption, the frictional power is found by extrapolation method. Frictional Power (F.P.) = KW

5. Indicated power (I.P.)

= Brake power + Frictional power Brake power = ------------------------------ 100 % Indicated power

KW

6. Mechanical efficiency

7. Brake thermal efficiency

Brake power 3600 = -------------------------------------------------- 100 % Total fuel consumption Calorific value

RESULTANT TABULATION: B.P. Load (KW) (Kg/hr) (Kg/kw.hr) (KW) (KW) (%) T.F.C. S.F.C. F.P. I.P. Mech. Efficiency Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

GRAPHS: B.P. Vs T.F.C. B.P. Vs S.F.C. B.P. Vs Mechanical efficiency B.P. Vs Brake Thermal efficiency RESULT: Load test on the given engine is performed and performance characteristic curves are drawn.

4. PERFORMANCE TEST ON SINGLE CYLINDER FOUR STROKE DIESEL ENGINE (ELECTRICAL LOADING)
AIM: To perform a load test on the given engine and to draw the performance characteristic curves. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 3. The engine test rig 4. Stop-watch ENGINE SPECIFICATION: ENGINE: Type Fuel Power Speed Lub Oil : Water cooled, Constant speed : H.S. Diesel : 4.4 kW (6 bhp) : 660 rpm : SAE30/SAE 40

LOADING TYPE

: Electrical loading

FUEL PROPERTIES: Fuel: Diesel Specific gravity of fuel= 0.7 gm/cc Calorific value = 44,000 KJ/Kg

BRIEF THEORY OF THE EXPERIMENT: A load test on an engine provides information regarding the performance characteristics of the engine. Engine performance varies with both load on the engine as well as the engine

speed. However stationary engines operate at a constant speed. The performance characteristics of such engines are obtained by varying the load on the engine. EXPERIMENTAL SETUP:

The compact and simple engine test rig consisting of a four stroke single cylinder, water cooled, constant speed diesel engine coupled to a electrical loading device. The engine is started by hand cranking using the handle by employing the decompression lever. The engine is loaded mechanically by applying force on the brake drum. A burette is connected with the fuel tank through a control valve for fuel flow measurement. Provision is made to circulate water continuously through the engine jacket.

PRECAUTIONS: 4. The engine should be checked for no load condition. 5. The cooling water inlet for engine should be opened. 6. The level of fuel in the fuel tank should be checked.

PROCEDURE: 8. Start the engine at no load and allow idling for some time till the engine warm up. 9. Note down the time taken for 10cc of fuel consumption using stopwatch and a fuel measuring burette. 10. Open the fuel line to fill burette and supply fuel to run the engine from the fuel tank again. 11. Load the engine gradually to the desired valve by applying load to the brake drum. 12. Allow the engine to run at this load for some time in order to reach steady state condition, and note down the time taken for 10 cc of fuel consumption. 13. Repeat the experiment by applying additional load to the engine. 14. Release the load step by step and stop the engine

OBSERVATION TABLE: N Speed (rpm) Time for 10 cc of fuel consumption (sec)

S.No

(Amps)

(Volts)

SPECIMEN CALCULATIONS: X 3600 = ----- specific gravity of fuel --------- Kg/hr Time 1000

1. Total fuel consumption (T.F.C.) Where,

X Quantity of fuel consumed in cc (Burette reading) Specific gravity of fuel = 0.85 gm/cc

2. Brake power (B.P.)

VxA = ----------------- kW a 103

Where

- alternator efficiency = 0.75

TFC 3. Specific fuel consumption = ---------- kg/kw.hr (S.F.C.) B.P

4. From the graph drawn between brake power and total fuel consumption, the frictional power is found by extrapolation method. Frictional Power (F.P.) = KW

5. Indicated power (I.P.)

= Brake power + Frictional power Brake power = ------------------------------ 100 % Indicated power

KW

6. Mechanical efficiency

7. Brake thermal efficiency

Brake power 3600 = -------------------------------------------------- 100 % Total fuel consumption Calorific value

RESULTANT TABULATION: B.P. T.F.C. S.F.C. F.P. I.P. Mech. Efficiency (%) Brake Thermal Efficiency (%)

(KW)

(Kg/hr)

(Kg/kw.hr)

(KW)

(KW)

GRAPHS: RESULT:
Load test on the given engine is performed and performance characteristic curves are drawn.

B.P. Vs T.F.C. B.P. Vs S.F.C. B.P. Vs Mechanical efficiency B.P. Vs Brake Thermal efficiency

5. PERFORMANCE TEST ON A MULTI-CYLINDER PETROL ENGINE

(MORSE TEST)
AIM: To conduct Morse test on a multi-cylinder petrol engine and determine the performance characteristics at the given speed. ENGINE SPECIFICATIONS: 4 - Stroke, four cylinders, water-cooled petrol engine. Make : Ambassador Bore : 73 mm Stroke : 90 mm Capacity : 1500 cc Power : 7.36 KW at 1500 rpm Fuel : petrol Specific gravity : 0.71 Calorific value : 44,000 KJ Type of loading : Hydraulic dynamometer Dynamometer constant : 2000 APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. Tachometer. 2. Stopwatch PROCEDURE 1. Cheek the lubrication oil level, fuel level, cooling water system and battery terminals before starting.. 2. Start the engine and allow it to run for about 10 minutes at the rated Speed to warm up. 3. Load the engine at full load and maintain the speed at rated rpm i.e., 1500 rpm by adjusting the throttle and dynamometer-loading wheel. 4. Allow the engine to stabilize for few minutes. 5. Cut- off ignition to cylinder 1 by lifting the respective switch. 6. Bring the engine again to rated speed by reducing the load on dynamometer. Throttle position should not be changed on any account. Note the dynamometer reading. 7. Restore ignition to cylinder 1 by closing the switch. 8. Repeat the procedure for cylinders 2. 3. and 4

6. RETARDATION TEST ON A SLOW SPEED DIESEL ENGINE

AIM: To conduct a retardation test and determine the frictional power of the single cylinder Diesel engine at the given speed. APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. Stopwatch 2. Tachometer SPECIFICATIONS: 4-stroke.,vertical,water cooled, single cylinder, slow speed Diesel engine Type of Loading : Brake drum dynamometer Make : Anil Bore : 114.3 mm Stroke : 139.7 mm Cubic capacity : 1433 cc Speed : 850 rpm Power : 8 HP Compression ratio : 16 :1 Fuel : High speed diesel oil Calorific value : 44,000 kJ / kg Specific gravity of fuel : 0.8275 DESCRIPTION: This test involves the method of retarding he engine by cutting the fuel supply. The engine is made to run at NO load and at the rated speed. When the engine is running under steady operating conditions the supply of fuel is cut-off and simultaneously the time of fall in speeds say 20%, 40%, 60%, 80% of the rated speed is recorded. This test is repeated with 50% load on the engine.

PROCEDURE I. Check the fuel level. 2. Check lubricating oil level. 3. Open the three way cock, so that the fuel flows to the engine. 4. Supply cooling water through the inlet pipe. 5. Start the engine. 6. Adjust the speed by screwing and unscrewing the governor nut. 7. Allow cooling water in the brake drum. 8. Adjust the cooling water to the engine to the required value.

7. RED WOODS VISCOMETER

AIM To determine the kinematic and dynamic viscosity of the given oil at various temperature.

APPARATUS REQUIRED 1. Redwood viscometer 2. Thermometer (0-1000C) 3. A narrow necked cylindrical cup with 50 cc gravity. 4. Stop watch

DESCRIPTION The Redwood viscometer consists of a cylindrical cup with a centre of hole which can be closed by a ball resting in a hemispherical cavity. The oil for which the viscosity is to be measured is taken in the viscometer container. Some quantity of water is filled in the vessel surrounding the oil container. The water in the vessel is heated by means of an electric heater. The heat transfer takes place between the water and the oil and the viscosity of the oil changes. The change in viscosity with respect to different temperature is determined by going through the following procedures.

PROCEDURE: 1. Clean the cup and make sure the jet is free from void. 2. Close the cup with the help of the ball valve and fill the cup with given oil up to the tip of the hook 3. Insert the thermometer in the holder coupled in the oil cup and other in the stirrer mouth and read the room temperature at oil. 4. 5. 6. Place the clean standard receiver flask of 50 cc capacity kept below the opening of the jet Stir the water and oil to obtain the uniform temperature Stop the heating process when the oil reaches the desired temperature.

7. Then the ball valve is lifted up and the oil is collected in the 50 cc beaker. This is called Red woods Seconds. 8. Repeat the experiment of various temperatures and the observation are tabulated.

TABLE
S.no 1. 2. 3. 4. Temperature in 0C (T) Time in seconds (t) Density Kg/m3 Kinematic viscosity stokes Dynamic viscosity Ns/m2

GRAPH: 1. Temperature Vs Redwoods second 2. 3. Temperature Vs Kinematic viscosity Temperature Vs Dynamic viscosity

RESULT: Thus the viscosity of the given oil at various temperature is observed by using Redwoods viscometer and various graph have been plotted.

8. FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST BY CLEAVE LAND OPEN CUP APPARATUS
AIM: To find the flash and fire point of the given fuel / oil by cleave land open cup apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: 1. Open cup tester 2. Thermometer (0 300C) 3. Sample of fuel / oil

DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT: This apparatus consists of a cylindrical cup of standard size. It is held in place in position in the metallic holder that is placed on a wire gauge and is heated by means of an electric heater housed inside the metallic holder. A provision is made on the top edge of the cup to hold the thermometer in position. A standard filling mark has been scribed on the inner side of the cup and the sample oil is filled up to this mark.

PROCEDURE: 1. Fill the cleaned open cup with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark of the cup. 2. Insert the thermometer in the holder on the top edge of the cup. Make sure that the bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the oil and should not touch the metallic part. 3. Heat the sample of fuel / oil by means of an electric heater . 4. When the oil gives out vapours, start to introducing the flame ( the flame should not touch the oil ) and watch for any flash with flickering sound. 5. Continue the process of heating and placing the flame at every degree of rise in temperature from the first flash till you hear the peak flickering sound and note the corresponding temperature as the flash point.

6. Continue the heating further after retaining the flash point and watch the fire point, which is noted when the body of the oil vapour ignites and continue to burn at least for five seconds. 7. Repeat the test twice or thrice with fresh sample of the same oil until the results are equal. 8. Tabulate the observations.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl.No.

Temperature ( C )

Observations

RESULT: The flash and fire point test is carried out and the following oil / fuel properties are found.

The flash point of the given sample fuel / oil is The fire point of the given sample fuel / oil is

= =

9. FLASH AND FIRE POINT TEST BY CLEAVE LAND CLOSED CUP APPARATUS
AIM: To find the flash and fire point of the given fuel / oil by pensky marton closed cup apparatus.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: 4. Closed cup tester 5. Thermometer (0 300C) 6. Sample of fuel / oil

DESCRIPTION OF THE EQUIPMENT: This apparatus consists of a cylindrical cup of standard size. It is held in place in position in the metallic holder that is placed on a wire gauge and is heated by means of an electric heater housed inside the metallic holder. A provision is made on the top edge of the cup to hold the thermometer in position. A standard filling mark has been scribed on the inner side of the cup and the sample oil is filled up to this mark.

PROCEDURE: 9. Fill the cleaned open cup with the given sample of oil up to the standard filling mark of the cup. 10. Insert the thermometer in the holder on the top edge of the cup. Make sure that the bulb of the thermometer is immersed in the oil and should not touch the metallic part. 11. Heat the sample of fuel / oil by means of an electric heater . 12. When the oil gives out vapours, start to introducing the flame ( the flame should not touch the oil ) and watch for any flash with flickering sound. 13. Continue the process of heating and placing the flame at every degree of rise in temperature from the first flash till you hear the peak flickering sound and note the corresponding temperature as the flash point.

14. Continue the heating further after retaining the flash point and watch the fire point, which is noted when the body of the oil vapour ignites and continue to burn at least for five seconds. 15. Repeat the test twice or thrice with fresh sample of the same oil until the results are equal. 16. Tabulate the observations.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Sl.No.

Temperature ( C )

Observations

RESULT: The flash and fire point test is carried out and the following oil / fuel properties are found.

The flash point of the given sample fuel / oil is The fire point of the given sample fuel / oil is

= =

10. STUDY OF STEAM GENERATOR AND TURBINE

Aim:
To study the different parts and functions of the steam generator and Boiler.

Steam Generators:
Boilers also know as steam generator, in a closed vessel in which is converted into steam above atmospheric pressure by the application of heat. The steam is used for driving prime movers like steam Engines for power generation. It is also used for producing process steam as in the case of textile industries for sizing, bleaching etc. The capacity of boiler is used for power generation is considered by large compared with other boiler. Simple Vertical Boiler: a) Cylindrical Shell: The shell is vertical & is attached to the bottom of the furnace. Greater portion of the shell is full of water, which surrounds the furnace also, removing portion in steam space. The shell may be about of 1.25 m dia & 2 m height b) Cross tubes: One or more cross tubes are either leveled or flanged to the furnace to above the heating surface and to improve the water circulation. c) Furnace: Combustion & Coal takes place inside the surface. d) Grate: It is placed at the bottom of the fire box and coal is fed on it for burning. e) Fire Door: Coal is fed to the grate through the fire door. f) Chimney: It panes from the top of the fire box through the top of the shell. g) Man hole: It is provided on the top of the shell, to enable a man to enter into it and inspect and repair the boiler from inside it. It is also meant for cleaning the interior of the boiler shell and exterior of the combustion chamber & stock. h) Hard holes: These are provided for collecting the ash deposits at each cross tube for cleaning the cross tube. i) Ash pit: It is provided for collecting the ash deposits which can be removed away of the intervals:

Steam Turbines: The steam turbine is universally used as prime mover in all steam power plans. The steam turbines obtain its more power from the change of momentum of a set of steam flowing over a curved blade. The steam set is moving over the curved surface of the blade, exerts a pressure on the blade owing to its centrifugal force. The centrifugal force is exerted normal to the blade and acts along the whole length of the blade. The resultant of the centrifugal force plus the effects of change of velocity in the motive force on the blade. It should be released that the blade obtains no motive force from any impact of the set, because the blade is so designed that the steam set will glide on and off the blade without any tendency to strike it. Moving Blade & Fixed Blades: In a steam turbines, a no of small blades are fixed, to the ring of a revolving wheel or rotor. Sets of steam of a high velocity are obtained by expansion through nozzle and are directed on the blades. The effective force of these sets, acting on the blades, locates on the wheel. In modern turbines, several of the wheel of moving blades are keyed to the same shaft, having a ring of fixed blades, blades with each wheel of moving blades. These fixed blades are fixed to the turbine casing. Their object is to receive the steam set from the moving blade ring and divert it on the next ring of moving blades by changing its direction as shown. This diversion may continue over several rings of moving and fixed blades until the whole of the Kinetic Energy of the steam set is expanded. Types of Steam turbines: 1. Impulse turbine 2. Reaction turbine The main difference of these types is the manner in which steam is expanded and it passes through the turbines. Description 1. Wheel or Rotor: The wheel is fitted over a shaft from which the useful power is available. It is a rotating element of the turbine on which moving blades are fixed. 2. Nozzle: It is a passage for a flow of steam where pressure energy is converted into Kinetic Energy. Its Main function is to produce a set of steam with a high velocity. 3. Blades:
In the impulse turbine, Only one set of impulse type of blades is rigidly fix to the rim of the rotor It converts kinetic energy of steam into mechanical energy.

4. Casing:
It is the outside cover of the steam turbine fixed over a frame. It is fitted with the nozzle.

Working Principle: It is a set of steam is discharged from a fixed nozzle at a high speed over a flat stationary plate, a steady force will be exerted over work is done on the plate is fixed. But if a no of such plates are fixed on the rim of a wheel, the wheel may be rotated due to the impulse of steam. Curved plates are used instead of flat plates to utilize greater amount of energy. In the impulse turbine, steam is expanded in the fixed nozzle only. The nozzle, which is used to above the velocity of the steam with below the pressure. As the seam passes the blades, the pressure remains constant, with below the velocity. As the high velocity of seam, impinges against the blades, it changes the momentum of set casing impulse force on the blades. The wheel is made to rotate in a definite direction. Reaction Turbines: Description: It consists of a wheel, casing fixed and moving blades, In this type equal no of fixed an moving blades are attached alternatively to the casing and the wheel respectively. The fixed blade is similar to the nozzle, where the velocity is above with below the pressure. Working principle: In a reaction turbine, the steam is not expanded in a nozzle, but expands, when flows over the blades. The steam passes over the fixed blades. The fixed blade changes the direction of steam and at the same time allows to expand to get a higher velocity, with below of pressure. Then the steam passes over the moving blades. The moving blade converts the Kinetic Energy into mechanical work with below of velocity but at the same time, steam expands on it flows over the moving blades and there is a fall of pressure. This produces a reaction on the blade y expanding the steam. Thus in the reaction turbine, the steam expands both in fixed and moving blades continuously as the steam passes over them. Therefore the pressure drop occurs, gradually & continuously over both fixed and moving blades. Ex: Parson turbine;

Result: Thus, we have studied the working principle & parts of the steam generator and turbines.