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Ancient Indonesia
Co mprising o v er sev enteen tho usand islands, I ndo nesia has been a strategic c enter o f trade sinc e anc ient times, and is ho me to the anc ient c ultures o f Bali, Jav a and Sumatra
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The earliest known book to map world geography was written by the Greek astronomer Claudius Ptolemy toward the end of the first century AD. In the "Geographia, Ptolemy wrote about an intriguing
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island located to the east of the Indian subcontinent called Labadius. The island "... is said to be a most fruitful one, and to produce much gold," wrote Ptolemy. "It has a metropolis on the north side toward the west called Argentea...." The name Labadius probably was derived from the Indian Sanskrit word Y avadvipa, the name that the natives of the Indian subcontinent first used to refer to the island of Java in religious texts that were written in the third century BCE. Archaeological digs in western Java have produced Chinese ceramics that date from the period of the Han dynasty that once ruled China during the opening centuries of the Common Era. These important discoveries demonstrate that western Java had indeed once been a stop-over point along the maritime trade route that connected China with India and Persia. In addition, a Chinese text has been found that describes a mission to China from an undisclosed port that was ruled by King Devavarman. Some scholars believe that this port city may have been located on the coast of western Java.
Head of Bodhisattva Avalokiteshvara, Central Java; Volcanic stone, 9th century
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The Early Indonesian Archipelago

The earliest Indonesians in the anthropological sense probably arriv ed in the islands of Southeast Asia between three and four thousand y ears ago, at which time they largely superseded earlier populations. The linguistic and archaeological ev idence suggests that these nativ es may hav e crossed ov er from the Chinese mainland v ia Taiwan and the Philippines. Indonesia's history , has been profoundly affected by the sea. Major wav es of human immigration to the islands occurred as long ago as 3000 BCE, and continued piecemeal for the best part of 3000 y ears. It is not known, though ex actly where these people came from southern China or the Pacific islands. Certainly they brought with them their language, the Buddha Vairochana, from Java 9th century
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Austronesian, Howev er, because they arriv ed in small groups and established independently settlements all around the coast, sometimes coex isting with the distant descendants of Jav a Man, this language rapidly div ersified, so that now there are something like 200 different languages, all deriv ed from Austronesian, spoken within Indonesia. At the same time that people were immigrating to Indonesia, earlier settlement were sailing to other parts of the world in order to trade. The first records of this are probably in the works fo Pliny Elder, whose "Historia Naturalis" seems to refer to trade between people from Indonesia and the cultures of eastern Africa. It was about this time that Hinduism first came to Indonesia, with the arriv al of Indian traders. Howev er, the real impact of Hinduism was to come to Indonesia much later, as a deliberate missionary act by Brahmans, probably in the 5th century , by luck of coincidence some of the basic ideas of Hindusim accorded well with ex isting Indonesian mountain worship, and a strange hy brid of the two religions emerged. Indonesia's major trading partner by this time was southern China, thus Buddhist influences also began to play a part.
Buddhist and Hindu Kingdoms reaches Sumatra

The first Buddhists arriv ed
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The first Buddhists arriv ed in Indonesia from around 1 00 to 200 AD from India. One of the most famous Buddhist kingdoms in Indonesian history is Sailendra (7 50-850 AD). During this period, the famous Buddhist temple at Borobudur was built. Records from these day s in Indonesia are scarce, but we do know that sophisticated cultures already ex isted. The kings and cities of Sumatra and Jav a are mentioned in records from China, because ambassadors were sent there. Arabs and Persians knew about the area from traders, and ev en the Greeks and Romans had v ery distant reports.Records from inside Indonesia are v ery few, though, since writing was done on palm leav es The Buddha Srivijaya, from an exceptionally naturalistic fragm ent of a once com plete statue
L A T ES T C O MMEN T S
Under founding of denmark the picture of a statue is not gorm the old, but holger danske/ ogier the dane. Holger Danske is normally regarded as a Danish national symbol. He is first mentioned in literature as one of the French king Charlemagnes
and other materials that did not surv iv e well. Much of our knowledge comes from stone buildings and inscriptions. By the time we start to get a clear history of Jav a and Sumatra, there are already great buildings in stone, fine sculptures, classical music and dance, much as we know them today .
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warriors in La
Srivijaya empire
The Sriv ijay a empire was a maritime and commercial kingdom that flourished between the 7 th and the 1 3th century in the Malay Archipelago. The kingdom, which originated in Palembang on Sumatra, soon ex tended its influence and controlled the Strait of Malacca. The kingdom's power was based on its control of international sea trade. It established trade relations not only with the states in the archipelago but also with China and India. Until perhaps as late as the 7 th century the peoples of Indonesia still retained their multiplicity of comparativ ely small communities, trading and sometimes fighting with each other. By then, howev er, a major Buddhist kingdom, Sriv ijay a, had established itself with its center probably just to the west of modern Palembang, in Sumatra. It seems the rulers of Sriv ijay a had considerable wealth as a result of both an ex tensiv e trade network and great industry in the region. At the end of the 7 th century Sriv ijay a mov ed to conquer all the smaller communities along the northern coast of Sumatra and thereby snatched a monopoly of the lucrativ e trade with China. The Maharajahs made v arious treaties with the nativ es of smaller islands in the region so that merchant The kris or keris is a distinctive, asym m etrical dagger indigenous to Indonesia, and are often considered to have an spiritual presence
Chanson de Roland from around 1060. In this Chanson he is called Oger le Danois, his name being the only link to Denmark. In the later epos La Chevalerie dOgier de Danemarche (12001215) he is portrayed as the main character and is described as a son of the Danish king Gudfred (d. 810), an enemy of Charlemagne. His first appearance in Nordic literature is in the saga Karlemagnssaga from the latter part of the 1200s, which in the main consists of passages translated from French texts. His name here is given as Oddgeir danski. This saga was translated into Danish during the 1400s and thereafter
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ships could pass unmolested. In this way , the kingdom surv iv ed until the1 0th century , it being conv enient for the Chinese to deal with only one center. Howev er, the Chinese then began trading with local production centers elsewhere in the region, and there was little Sriv ijay a could do to stop them. The kingdom may hav e dragged on until sometime in the 1 4th century , but by then its power was a mere husk. Sriv ijay a was also a religious center in the region. It adhered to Mahay ana Buddhism and soon became the stopping point for Chinese Buddhist pilgrims on their way to India. The kings of Sriv ijay a ev en founded monasteries at Negapatam in India. Sriv ijay a continued to grow; by the y ear 1 000 it controlled most of Jav a but soon lost it to Co?a, an Indian maritime and commercial kingdom, which found Sriv ijay a an obstacle on the sea route between South and East Asia. In 1 025 Co?a seized Palembang, captured the King, and carried off his treasures and also attacked other parts of the kingdom. By the end of the 1 2th century , Sriv ijay a had been reduced to a small kingdom and its dominant role in Sumatra was taken by Malay u (based in Jambi), a v assal of Jav a. political scene. The Hindu God Shiva, from a Javanese tem ple
1400s and thereafter Holger Danske became part of Danish folklore with several accounts in the Danish Chronicle first published around 1509. The Danish national writer Hans Christian Andersen in 1845 wrote the fairytale Holger Danske, where he is described as sitting fast asleep in the casemates of the Castle of Kronborg, with his beard having grown into the table in front of him and his sword in his lap, prepared to wake up to action in case of Denmark being threatened from outside forces. Today his statue can be seen
A Jav anese kingdom, Majapahit, soon began to dominate the Indonesian
Central Javanese Kingdoms

Meanwhile, from about the 8th century , central Jav a had been ruled by the Sailendra princes. Their small kingdom was argriculturally rich, and they
in the casemates of Kronborg as described by Hans Christian Andersen.
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were able to spend lav ishly on the erection of religious monuments. The v ast sanctuary and burial edifice of Borobudur was built ov er some 50 y ears from the end of the 8th century onwards. The Temple to Siv a at Prambanan began to be constructed at about the same time that Borobudur was completed, although its builder were not the Sailendras. Howev er, something seems to hav e happened at about the start of the 1 0th century , for there was a sudden cessation in the production of monuments, inscriptions and other artifacts from central Jav a.
Andersen. During the German occupation of Denmark in 1940-45 one of the principal partisan organizations was named after Holger Danske.
in Ancient Denmark
A nice article full of facts about the Netherlands, but not very usefull as a realistic representation of the history of this area. Moreover, a disproportionate share of this article is about the history of
A scene for the Ram ayana, a Hindu epic poem In 1 268, the Jav aneses King Kertanagara came to the throne, and within a few y ears he ex tended his kingdom to include southern Sumatra's ancient kingdom of Malay u. He was ov erthrown and killed in 1 292, but not before he stupidly sent the env oy of Kublai Khan home with his nose cut off and 'No' tattoo on his forehead. By the time a punitiv e Mongol ex pedition arriv ed in Jav a, the usurper himself had been despatched by Kertanagara's son-in-law Kertarajasa, who used wile to repel the threat from ov erseas, then set up his new capital at Majaphit. Kertarajasa and his successors gradually established
the ancient Frisians (who are different from the modern Frisians) and the more internationaly political, military and religious developments and not particulary about the Netherlands (Holland
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dominance ov er most of today 's Indonesia as well as parts of Malay sia.
Netherlands (Holland is just a part of the Netherlands, just like Friesland). There is so much more to tell about the ancient history of the Netherlands! I hope you will find this feedback usefull, and if you need/like to have any help, you can contact me. p.s.: Pier Gerlofs Donia is not a national hero of the Dutch, but a regional hero to some Frisians. Hes also not someone who could count as an ancient hero, as he was born in 1480
in Ancient Netherlands
The Hindu Kingdom of Mataram

The dy nasty 's replacement, the Hindu kingdom of Mataram began the era of Hindu kingdoms. The mightiest Hindu kingdom in Indonesia's ancient history was the Majapahit Empire. Under the reign of King Hay am Wuruk (1 331 -1 364 AD), the empire enjoy ed tributary relationships with territories as far away as V ietnam, Cambodia, and the Philippines. Mataram was an Indianized kingdom based in Central Jav a between the 8th and 1 0th centuries AD and was established by king Sanjay a, he was also known as the founder of Sanjay a dy nasty . The Sanjay a dy nasty reign the kingdom, but then in later period the kingdom was ruled by Isy ana Dy nasty . Although initially eclipsed in power by the riv al Sailendra Dy nasty , by 850 it had become the dominant power in Jav a and was a serious riv al to the hegemonic Sriv ijay a Empire. The early account of Mataram kingdom is mentioned in Canggal inscription, dated 7 32, discov ered in Canggal v illage, Southwest from the town of Magelang. This inscription was written in Pallav a letters and in Sanskrit, and tell about the erection of a lingga (sy mbol of Shiv a) on the hill in the Kunjarakunja area. This area is located at a noble island called Y awadwipa (Jav a) which blessed with abundance of One of the dem on guards at
hello, id just like to add the fact that these polynesians belong to the austronesian race. They share similar cultures and languages (Madagascar, Cham
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rice and gold. This inscription tells that Y awadwipa was reigned by
(Madagascar, Cham
the Plaosan Tem ple Mataram
from Vietnam, Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, etc) i like most of the infos though. Very informative.
in Ancient New Zealand
king Sanna, which his long period of reign was marked with wisdom and v irtue. After king Sanna died the kingdom fell into disunity . Confused because lost of ruler and patron, Sanjay a ascend to throne, he was the son of Sannaha (sister of Sanna). He was king that mastered holy scriptures, martial art, and also military prowess. He conquered neighboring area around his kingdom, his wise reign blessed his land with peace and prosperity for all his subjects. King Sanna and Sanjay a also known in Carita Parahy angan, a book from later period which mainly tell the history of Pasundan (Sunda Kingdom). This book mentioned that Sanna was defeated by Purbasora, king of Galuh, then he retreated to mount Merapi. Later Sanna's successor Sanjay a reclaim Sanna's kingdom and ruled West Jav a, East Jav a, and Bali. He also inv olv ed in battle with Malay u and Keling (against their king Sang Sriv ijay a). In main theme of Carita Parahy angan is corresponds to Canggal inscription. From the time of its founding until 928, the kingdom was ruled by the Sanjay a Dy nasty . The first king of Mataram was Sanjay a, who left inscriptions in stone. Although little is known about the kingdom at this time due to the dominance of the Sailendra. The kingdom leav es sev eral temples and monuments. The monumental Hindu temple of Prambanan in the v icinity of Y ogy akarta built during Hindu Mataram era, is the fine ex ample of ancient Mataram art and architecture. The grand temple complex was dedicated to Trimurti (Shiv a, Brahma, V ishnu), the three highest god in Hindu pantheon. It was the largest Hindu temple ev er built in Indonesia, the ev idence of immense wealth and cultural achiev ement of the kingdom. An 18th century lithograph showing Bugis Warriors, from Mataram
nice article and posts!! My only comment is, why is the Philippines in the Oceana continent and not with its southeast asian neighbors?
in Ancient Philippines
You used to have a fantastic interactive map of Mesoamerica. Wheres it gone? The site is not the same without it.
in Ancient Mexico
This is a fascinating subject. Ive been interested in Native American civilization for years. Ive read an
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At certain point of the time, the centre of the kingdom was shifted from Central Jav a to East Jav a by Mpu Sindok, who established the Isy ana Dy nasty . The ex act cause of mov e of location still uncertain. Howev er probably hav e been caused by an eruption of the v olcano Gunung Merapi or a power struggle. The later king Dharmawangsa ordered the translation of the Mahabharata into Old Jav anese in 996. The kingdom collapsed at the end of Dharmawangsa's reign under military pressure from Sriv ijay a. Airlangga, a son of Uday ana of Bali and a relativ e of Dharmawangsa re-established the kingdom (including Bali) under the name of Kahuripan. In 1 045 Airlangga abdicated his throne to resume the life of an ascetic, and div ided the kingdom between his two sons, Jangala and Kediri and from this point on the kingdom is known as Kediri.
account of one tribe of people who came to America about 600 BC from the Israel area and set up a civilization under the Law of Moses. Its called the Book of Mormon and gives some background into the formation of the Native American tribes, ancient military history on the
The Arrival of Islam

In the 1 1 th century , traders brought Islam to the islands of the archipelago. Just as the Indonesian had earlier adapted Buddhism to their own needs and beliefs, so they accepted Islam v ery much on their own terms. Gujarati and Persian merchants who embraced Islam started to v isit Indonesia in the 1 3th century . Along with trade, they introduced Islam to the Indonesian Hindus, particularly in the coastal areas of Jav a. Islam then spread further east to the Bone and Goa Sultanates in Sulawesi, Ternate and Tidore in the northern part of Maluku, and the east part of Lombok. Besides those areas, Islam also ex panded to into Banjarmasin, Palembang, Minangkabau, Pasai, and Perlak. Although Muslim traders first trav eled through South East Asia early in the Islamic era, the earliest ev idence of Islamized populations in Indonesia dates to the 1 3th century in northern Sumatra. Although it is known that the spread of Islam began in the west of the archipelago, the fragmentary ev idence does not suggest a rolling wav e of conv ersion through adjacent areas; rather, it suggests the process was complicated and slow. The spread of Islam was driv en by increasing trade links outside of the archipelago; in general, traders
continent, and some of the ruins found in MesoAmeria. Its quite interesting.
in Ancient America
What a shame! You used to have a fantastic interactive map of Mesoamerica. Wheres it gone? The site is not the same without it. Sadly, R. Nathan (Teacher at Laguna Blanca School
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and the roy alty of major kingdoms were the first to adopt the new religion. Other Indonesian areas gradually adopted Islam, making it the dominant religion in Jav a and Sumatra by the end of the 1 6th century . For the most part, Islam ov erlaid and mix ed with ex isting cultural and religious influences, which shaped the predominant form of Islam in Indonesia, particularly in Jav a. Only Bali retained a Hindu majority . In the eastern archipelago, both Christian and Islamic missionaries were activ e in the 1 6th and 1 7 th centuries, and, currently , there are large communities of both religions on these islands.
Laguna Blanca School in Santa Barbara, CA)

in Ancient Mexico
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History of Bali
Bali has been inhabited for a long time. Sembiran, a v illage in northern Bali, was believ ed to hav e been home to the people of the Ice Age, prov en by the discov ery of stone ax es and adzes. Further discov eries of more sophisticated stone tools, agricultural techniques and basic pottery at Cekik in Bali's far west, point to the people of the Neolithic era. At Cekik, there is ev idence of a settlement together with burial sites of around a hundred people thought to be from the Neolithic through to the Bronze Age. The massiv e drums of the Bronze Age, together with their stone moulds hav e been discov ered throughout the Indonesian archipelago, including the most famous and largest drum in Southeast Asia, the Moon of Pejeng, nearly two meters wide, now housed in a temple in east Ubud. In East Jav a and Bali, there has also been a concentration of carv ed stone sarcophagi, which we can see in the Bali Museum in Denpasar and Purbakala Museum in Pejeng.
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The Ulundanu Water Tem ple in Bali Bali was busy with trade from as early as 200 BC. The prasasti, or metal inscriptions, Bali's earliest written records from the ninth century AD, show a significant Buddhist and Hindu influence; especially in the statues, bronzes and rock-cut cav es around Mount Kawi and Gajah Cav e. Balinese society was pretty sophisticated by about 900 AD. Their marriage portrait of the Balinese King Uday ana to East Jav a's Princess Mahendratta is captured in a stone carv ing in the Pura Korah Tegipan in the Batur area. Their son, Erlangga, born around 991 AD, later succeeded to the throne of the Jav anese kingdom and brought Jav a and Bali together until his death in 1 049. In 1 284, Bali was conquered by Kertanegara, the ruler of the Singasari; until the turn of the century , saw Bali under its own rule under the hands of King Bedaulu of Pejeng, east of Ubud. 1 343 AD, is an important date in Bali's history . It was then that the whole island was conquered by East Jav a under the mighty Hindu Majapahit kingdom. This resulted in massiv e changes in Balinese society , including the introduction of the caste sy stem.
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Balinese who did not embrace the changes fled to the isolated and remote mountainous areas and hill areas. Their descendants are known today as Bali Aga or Bali Mula that means the "original Balinese". They still liv e separately in v illages like Tenganan near Dasa Temple and Truny an on the shores of Batur Lake, and maintain their ancient laws and traditional way s. When Majapahit in East Jav a fell in 1 51 5, the many small Islamic kingdoms in the island merged into the Islamic Mataram empire, Majapahit's most dedicated Hindu priests, craftsmen, soldiers, nobles and artists fled east to Bali, and flooded the island with Jav anese culture and Hindu practices. Considering the huge influence and power of Islam at the time, it is worth pondering why and how Bali still remained strongly Hindu and Buddhist. Batu Renggong, also known as Dewa Agung, means great god, became king in 1 550, and this title became hereditary through the succeeding generations of the kingdom of Gelgel, and later Klungkung, until the twentieth century . Bali reached the pinnacle of its Golden Era under the reign of the Batu Renggong, the great god ruler. Bali's decline started when Batu Renggong's grandson, Di Made Bekung, lost Blambangan, Lombok and Sumbawa. DI Made Bekung's chief minister, Gusti Agung Maruti, ev entually rebelled and reigned from 1 650 till 1 686, when he The Hindu and Balinese Goddess of Rice, Dewi Sri
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in turn was killed by DI Made Bekung's son, Dewa Agung Jambe, who then mov ed the court to Klungkung, and named his new palace the Semarapura, Abode of the God of Lov e.
The Temples of Prambanan

Prambanan is the largest Hindu temple compound in Central Jav a in Indonesia, located approx imately 1 8 km east of Y ogy akarta. And it is characterised by its tall and pointed architecture, ty pical of Hindu temple architecture, and by the 47 m high central building inside a large complex of indiv idual temples. Prambanan was built around 850 CE by either Rakai Pikatan, king of the second Mataram dy nasty , or Balitung Maha Sambu, during the Sanjay a Dy nasty . Not long after its construction, the temple was abandoned and began to deteriorate. Reconstruction of the compound began in 1 91 8.
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The Pram banan Tem ple Com plex, a m asterwork of Indonesian Architecture The Prambanan temple complex consists of three zones. The outer zone is a large space marked by a rectangular wall (destroy ed). The original function is unknown; possibilities are that it was a sacred park, or priests' boarding school (ashram). The supporting buildings for the temple complex were made from organic material; as a consequence no remains occur. The middle zone consisted of four rows of 224 indiv idual small shrines and these concentric rows of temples were made in identical design. These shrines are called "Candi Perwara" or complementary temples, the additional buildings of the main temple. Some believ ed it was offered to the king as a sign of submission. The Perwara are arranged in four rows around the central temples, some believ ed it has something to do with four castes, made
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according to the rank of the people allowed to enter them; the row nearest to the central compound was accessible to the priests only , the other three were reserv ed for the nobles, the knights, and the simple people respectiv ely . The central compound is the holiest among the three zones. Its the square elev ated platform surrounded by square stone wall with stone gates on each four cardinal points. This holiest compound is assembled of eight main shrines or candi. The three main shrines, called Trimurti ("three forms"), are dedicated to the three gods: Brahma the Creator, V ishnu the Keeper, and Shiv a the Destroy er. The other three shrine in front of three main temples is dedicated to v ahana of each gods.
The Pram banan Tem ple with it's central spires is dedicated to Shiva The Shiv a shrine at the center contains fiv e chambers, four small chamber in ev ery cardinal direction and one bigger main chamber in central part of the temple. The east chamber connect to central chamber that houses a three meter high statue of Shiv a Mahadev a. The statue of Shiv a stands on Y oni
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pedestal that bears the carv ing of Naga serpents on north side of pedestal. The other three smaller chambers contain statues of Hindu Gods related to Shiv a; his consort Durga, the rishi Agasty a, and Ganesha, his son. Statue of Agasty a occupy the south chamber, the west chamber houses the statue of Ganesha, while the north chamber contains the statue of Durga Mahisasuramardini depicting Durga as the slay er of Bull demon. The shrine of Durga is also called the temple of Lara Jonggrang (Jav anese: slender v irgin), after a Jav anese legend of princess Lara Jonggrang. The two other main shrines are that of V ishnu on the north side of Shiv a shrine, and the one of Brahma on the south. In front of each main temple is a smaller temples on the east side, dedicated to the mounts (v ahana)of the respectiv e gods - the bull Nandi for Shiv a, the gander Angsa for Brahma, and V ishnu's Eagle Garuda. Garuda holds important role for Indonesia, which serv es as the national sy mbol of Indonesia till this day . The bas-reliefs along the balustrades on the gallery around Shiv a and Brahma temple depict the Ramay ana legend. They illustrate how Sita, the wife of Rama, is abducted by Rav ana. The monkey king Hanuman brings his army to help Rama and rescue Sita. This story is also shown by the Ramay ana Ballet, regularly performed at full moon at Trimurti open air theater in west side of the illuminated Prambanan complex . On the balsutrades in V ishnu temple there is series of bas-relief depict the story of lord Krishna. The popular legend of Lara Jonggrang is what connects the site of the Ratu Boko Palace, the origin of the Durga statue in northern cell/chamber of the main shrine, and the origin of the Sewu temple complex nearby . The legend tells of the story about Prince Bandung Bondowoso who fell in lov e with Princess Lara Jonggrang, the daughter of King Boko. But the princess rejected his proposal of marriage because Bandung Bondowoso had killed King Boko and ruled her kingdom. Bandung Bondowoso insisted on the union, and finally Lara Jonggrang was forced to agree for a union in marriage, but she posed one impossible condition: Bandung must build her a thousand temples in only one night. The Prince entered into meditation and conjured up a multitude of spirits
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(demons) from the earth. Helped by supernatural beings, he succeeded in building 999 temples. When the prince was about to complete the condition, the princess woke her palace maids and ordered the women of the v illage to begin pounding rice and set a fire in the east of the temple, attempting to make the prince and the spirits believ e that the sun was about to rise. As the cocks began to crow, fooled by the light and the sounds of morning time, the supernatural helpers fled back into the ground. The prince was furious about the trick and in rev enge he cursed Lara Jonggrang to stone. She became the last and the most beautiful of the thousand statues. According to the traditions, the unfinished thousandth temple created by the demons become the Sewu temple compounds nearby (Sewu means "thousands" in Jav anese), and the Princess is the image of Durga in the north cell of the Shiv a temple at Prambanan, which is still known as Lara Jonggrang or Slender V irgin.
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T HE HI S T OR Y OF T HE I N DON ES I A N A R CHI P ELA GO

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T O P C O U N T R IES A n ci en t Mexi co T h e Ci v i l i za t i on s of A n ci en t Mesoa m er i ca

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Buddhist and Hindu Kingdoms reaches Sumatra

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A Jav anese kingdom, Majapahit, soon began to dominate the Indonesian

Central Javanese Kingdoms

in the casemates of Kronborg as described by Hans Christian Andersen.

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dominance ov er most of today 's Indonesia as well as parts of Malay sia.

The Hindu Kingdom of Mataram

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The Arrival of Islam

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Laguna Blanca School in Santa Barbara, CA)

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The Temples of Prambanan

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