Chi Square analysis: dissertation research questions using categorical data

One of the most valuable statistics is a non-parametric procedure called Chi Square analysis. It is also called the test of goodness of fit. Its symbol is x squared (x). Unlike the t-test and ANOVA procedures, the Chi Square analysis is not as powerful to reject the null. It does not use the mean or standard deviation for computation; it does not rely on an interval or ratio scaling. Because the Chi Square relies on frequency data, its value lays in the statistics ability to answer questions about data that are nominal. Variables in many settings are measured very often b y their categories - and not exact intervals. Chi Square allows you to answer important questions with variables measured with nominal or ordinal scales. An example of where a Chi Square analysis would be useful is to see if there are differences between male and female college students on choice of major field of study- Engineering or English. The null hypothesis would be: There is no difference between male and female college students on their choice between taking quantitative versus qualitative elective courses. Both variables GENDER and COURSE are categorical. Perfect for a Chi Square.

Anxious about dissertation statistics? You are not alone!

The dissertation statistics - from the initial research design to writing up statistical results create anxiety for many graduate students. Most of us have not had math since high school, and it was not our favorite subject. Plus, professors teach quantitative statistical formulas, and make the research designs complex. You dont have the confidence to ask questions and when you do, the answers add to your confusion. I can help. With expertise and care, I have provided dissertation advice to hundreds of doctoral students so that they complete their degree in less time, with much less stress and without breaking the bank. We can do it all online or by mail but you are welcome to visit my office. Here are some of the areas where most students have asked for my assistance. I have provided each with coaching, tutoring, support, expertise and guidance.

Here are some practical tips on how to pick your dissertation topic and write a proposal.

1. Select a general dissertation topic before you dive into the library or the Internet and drown in the resources. There are a few questions you should answer before you begin to pick your topic. 2. There are several ways that you can determine if your topic is a good one.Here are some strategies that you can use to assess the value of your dissertation topic. 3. Plan on how you will write the dissertation proposal to get it completed. Allocate days of the week, and hours of the day, when you are alert and fresh. Set a schedule and stick to it.

* Use time management strategies. * Get a daily calendar and carry it around with you. * Use the same backpack / briefcase to carry everything related to your dissertation(Laptop, books, notepads, pens, journal articles, etc.) 4. Use multiple library and online resources to establish keywords to get the ball rolling; add keywords as you move along. Research the research in the literature review process. Here are several library and online resources that you can use. 5. Take your time in the library and online when reviewing the literature. Avoid costly and embarrassing mistakes because you were in a hurry. These are the most common errors students make when doing dissertation literature reviews. 6. Use index cards to take notes and to guide your actual proposal writing for the dissertation. It seems antiquated but you can shuffle the cards. They are physical and can be moved in different order. 7. When writing your proposal use an inverted pyramid format (from a broad to a narrow focus). Have a peer read your proposal to see if it makes sense and to evaluate its worth. Here are some tips that you can use to write your proposal properly. 8. Market your proposal (i.e., get it approved) by making it appealing to the reader. (Grammar, spelling, appearance) Have someone read what you wrote and use their feedback as consultation.

How to state your dissertation research questions and null hypotheses

Dissertation research begins with your hunches, guesses and questions you want to test out. The information below will help you to state your dissertation research questions and null hypothesis in a testable manner. The research hypothesis states your expectations in a positive sense. The null hypothesis is always stated in the negative. This is because you have to be able to prove something is indeed true. Technically speaking, the word hypothesis is a Greek word that means an assumption subject to verification. The null hypothesis is what we test with statistics. This is how we decide whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis. *You ACCEPT the null or you fail to reject it. This means that no differences or no relationships were found.

*You REJECT the null as false. This means that differences or relationships do exist. Furthermore, your research hypothesis is upheld. There are two types of null hypotheses - directional or non-directional. Attached to this are one or two tailed tests of statistical significance. The probability level that we choose influences how liberal or conservative we want to be in testing our hypothesis. Based on the probability level we choose, there is a chance that either a Type I or Type II error can be committed. Here is some additional information on probability levels and errors. Finally, there are ways to enhance the ability to reject the null. This is called Power Analysis. From start to finish there is a method to the madness. These are the simple steps for hypothesis testing that you will become familiar with as your

Samples and Sample Size

How many times do you wish that you could have a few more hours in the day, even a few more minutes? This is another advantage of using statistics. Statistics allow you to build a foundation for data driven decisions without spending many, many extra hours. Why is this so? Statistics are based on samples and sample size. We have often heard these terms batted around in the context of random samples or scientific samples and the value of a large sample. Yet, few of us really know or understand how valuable these concepts are. Sample is a smaller version of the entire population that your dissertation research is about. Sample size is the number of subjects in your study. Although these two terms can be simply and easily defined, there are many important sampling questions that you will have to consider as you plan your dissertation research.

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

When we think of the term population, we usually think of people in our town, region, state or country and their respective characteristics such as gender, age, marital status, ethnic membership, religion and so forth. In statistics the term population takes on a slightly different meaning. The population in statistics includes all members of a defined group that we are studying or collecting information on for data driven decisions.

A part of the population is called a sample. It is a proportion of the population, a slice of it, a part of it and all its characteristics. A sample is a scientifically drawn group that actually possesses the same characteristicsas the population if it is drawn randomly.(This may be hard for you to believe, but it is true!) Randomly drawn samples must have two characteristics:

*Every person has an equal opportunity to be selected for your sample; and, *Selection of one person is independent of the selection of another person. What is great about random samples is that you can generalize to the population that you are interested in. So if you sample 500 households in your community, you can generalize to the 50,000 households that live there. If you match some of the demographic characteristics of the 500 with the 50,000, you will see that they are surprisingly similar.

Sampling question #1: Why should I sample instead of using the entire population?

Why not use the entire population to draw our conclusions? This is a very good question that a smart researcher would ask. But when dollars are tight, human resources are limited, and time is of the essence, sampling is a wonderful option. And the reason is that for most purposes we can obtain suitable accuracy quickly and inexpensively on information gained from a sample. The bottom line is it would be wasteful and foolish to use the entire population when a sample, drawn scientifically, provides accuracy in representing your population of interest. Assessing all individuals may be impossible, impractical, expensive or even inaccurate. Here are some reasons why doctoral students should not even try to use the entire population in their dissertation research. *We hardly ever know who makes up the entire population. *It is too costly in terms of human resources and other expenses. *It is time consuming and costly. *There is alot of error to control and monitor. *Lists are rarely up to date.

Sampling question #2: How do I determine sample size?

Many students wonder about their sample size. How large should it be? Some of the decision is based on practical aspects. What population do you have access to? How much time and money are you willing or able to spend on sample acquisition. Here are some real world sampling suggestions to help you out! *Ask experts what they would suggest for sample size. *See what the literature recommends. *Must have at least 10 per cell for statistical analysis. *Rule of thumb- larger is better. If you would like to get a feeling for the size of samples that represent entire populations, please refer to Krejcie (1970). The chart below suggests the great benefit that randomlyselected samples afford. (Population size is noted by uppercase N and sample size by lower case n.)

Random Sample Sizes (n) Required for Population (N) Representation Population Size (N) ------ Sample Size(n) 50 ------------------ 44 100 ----------------- 80 500 ----------------- 217 1,000 ---------------- 278 1,500 ---------------- 306 3,000 ---------------- 341 5,000 ---------------- 357 10,000 --------------- 375 50,000 --------------- 381 100,000 -------------- 384

Source: Krejcie, R.V. & Morgan, D.W. (1970) Determining sample size for research activities. Educational and Psychological Measurements, 30, 607-610.

Sampling question #4: Are there other useful sampling strategies?

Yes!

Systematic sampling is an often-used sampling strategy and cost effective. Again, you must have a population sampling frame list that is in random order and non-overlapping. Determine both the size of the population and the size of the sample you want to work with. Then, divide the sample size (n) into the population (N) size to get your key number, symbolized as k. Cluster sampling is exactly what its title implies. You randomly select clusters or groups in a population instead of individuals. Quota sampling is used if a stratum is small in the population but important to the research questions being presented. So we may over sample, or establish a quota, so that we get the subjects needed to address our research. Stratified sampling is used when the population is heterogeneous and it is important to represent the different strata or sub-populations. There is a proportional representation of strata in the sample - proportional to the population strata. We divide the entire population into strata (groups) to obtain groups of people that are more or less equal in some respect. Then, select a random sample from each stratum. Convenience samples, exactly what the name suggests, are oftentimes what we have to use because of reality. We cannot draw a sample, but we have a group that is accessible, is representative of our target population and just available to us. Instead of becoming purists and throwing out the chance for collecting data for decisions, use what you have with the honest acknowledgement that there are limitations.

Sampling question #3: How do I draw a simple random sample?

There is a method to the madness of drawing a random sample. You must abide by the rules of the game in sampling in order for your sample to be representative of the population.

1. The first step is to identify all of the members in your population. You must be able to list them in what is called a sampling frame. The frame should have the names without order to them and non-overlapping (no duplicates). Alphabetizing the list by surname is a way to insure a random order in the sampling frame. 2. Second, you must give each name an identification number. Start with 1 and continue. 3. Third, you must decide what the size will be for your sample. You can use the table suggested in the Krejcie (1970) article, or whatever feels right for you to believe in the results you obtain. As a rule of thumb, use as large a sample size as possible. 4. Fourth, you need to get a Table of Random Numbers. Many are located at the end of statistical or mathematical textbooks. The Table of Random Numbers consists of rows and columns of numbers arranged at random so that they can be used as any point by reading in any direction left or right, up or down. We are now ready to draw our random sample. A Really Simple Example

Sampling Frame ID Name 1. Alex 2. Allen 3. Allison 4. Amelia 5. Brett 6. Deanna 7. Ellen 8. Emily 9. Felice 10. Juan 11. Julia 12. Kara 13. Krista 14. Mark

15. Miguel 16. Maura 17. Olivia 18. Rachael 19. Rebecca 20. Seth

Fifth, we know that our largest ID number has two digits (20). So we are going to need a two-digit column in the Table of Random Numbers. We close our eyes and put our finger down anyplace in the Table of Random numbers. This is our starting point. We have decided in advance whether we would use two digits going up, down, left or right. So we begin. Sixth, Number #6 is the first ID number that is within our band of between 1 and 20. This is the first member of our random sample and it is Deanna. We continue 82, 56, 96, 66, 46 until we and come up with the next is ID #13Krista. Our three last members of the sample are ID #8 (Emily), ID #5 (Brett) and ID #4 (Amelia). We have five randomly selected members: Deanna, Krista, Emily, Brett and Amelia.

Choices for your research design and dissertation methodology

"The best statistics cannot save an inferior design! This is the foundation of a good dissertation. " Research design and dissertation methodology are plans that promote systematic management of data collection. Design and methodology dictate what you need to answer your research questions. There are many types of research designs for dissertation research. Here are the most common with a simple example to illustrate. Historical Research Design -The Evolution of the Laptop Computer Case and Field Research Design -Observations of Autistic Children in the American Classroom

Descriptive or Survey Research Design - The Public View of American and European Leaders Correlational or Prospective Research - Breastfeeding's Impact on Newborn Development Causal Comparative or Ex Post Facto Research Design - Maternity Satisfaction with their Hospital Stay Developmental or Time Series Research Design - Monthly Peer Counseling and the Juvenile Delinquency Experimental Research Quasi Experimental Research Design - Water with Fluoride and Dental Health

Types of research designs you can use for your dissertation

Listed below is the whole range of research designs that you could use for your dissertation. Historical Research Design - The purpose is to collect, verify, synthesize evidence to establish facts that defend or refute your hypothesis. It uses primary sources, secondary sources, and lots of qualitative data sources such as logs, diaries, official records, reports, etc. The limitation is that the sources must be both authentic and valid. Case and Field Research Design - Also called ethnographic research, it uses direct observation to give a complete snapshot of a case that is being studied. It is useful when not much is known about a phenomenon. Uses few subjects. Descriptive or Survey Research Design - It attempts to describe and explain conditions of the present by using many subjects and questionnaires to fully describe a phenomenon. Survey research design /survey methodology is one of the most popular for dissertation research.There are many advantages. Correlational or Prospective Research Design - It attempts to explore relationships to make predictions. It uses one set of subjects with two or more variables for each. Causal Comparative or Ex Post Facto Research Design - This research design attempts to explore cause and affect relationships where causes already exist and cannot be manipulated. It uses what already exists and looks backward to explain why. Developmental or Time Series Research Design - Data are collected at certain points in time going forward. There is an emphasis on time patterns and longitudinal growth or change.

Experimental Research Design - This design is most appropriate in controlled settings such as laboratories. The design assumes random assignment of subjects and random assignment to groups (E and C). It attempts to explore cause and affect relationships where causes can be manipulated to produce different kinds of effects. Because of the requirement of random assignment, this design can be difficult to execute in the real world (non laboratory) setting. Quasi Experimental Research Design - This research design approximates the experimental design but does not have a control group. There is more error possible in the results.