MATH 117

The Development of Complex Numbers

In the real number system, a square root of a negative number is undefined. The real line has an ordering so that for any two distinct real numbers a and b , we can determine 2 if a < b or if a > b . In particular for any a 0, we know that a > 0. Thus if we were 2 to define a = 1 , then a = 1 < 0, which is a contradiction in the real number system. We most often encounter square roots of negative numbers when using the 2 quadratic formula. For example if 6 x + 7 x + 8 = 0 , then

x=

7 7 2 4 6 8 7 143 . = 26 12

Usually, we simply ignore the square roots of negative numbers in these cases and state that there are no real solutions. The First Encounter Gerolamo Cardano (1501 1576) was the first to observe that square roots of negative numbers could be studied as a new entity. However he made this observation not in the study of quadratic equations, but with the study of cubic equations. In 1545, Cardano published Ars Magna which was the first work to describe the algebraic solutions of cubic and quartic equations. He initially gave a solution to the 3 depressed cubic equation of the form x + m x = n . Every such equation has at least one real solution given by

n + = 3 2

n2 m3 + 4 27

3n +

n2 m3 + . 4 27

For example if x + 6 x = 20 , then m = 6, n = 20, and

x = 3 10 +

400 216 + 4 27

3 10 +

400 216 + = 3 10 + 108 3 10 + 108 . 4 27

Although not easily simplified, the result actually reduces to x = 2 as shown via calculator. In any case, 108 is defined and can be approximated without a calculator, and then the two cube roots also can be estimated to give a difference of 2.

When creating such depressed cubic equations, one often determines the solution in 3 advance. For example, begin with x 15 x . Then suppose we want x = 4 to be a 3 solution. Substitute x = 4 and we obtain 4 15 4 = 4 ; thus, the equation must be x 3 15 x = 4 . To recover the solution, we apply Cardanos formula with m = 15 and n = 4 to obtain

16 3375 x = 3 2+ + 4 27

3 2 +

16 3375 + = 3 2 + 121 3 2 + 121 . 4 27

However we now have 121 in the expression for the solution. Cardano realized that this square root, and then the difference of the cube roots, should be able to be manipulated algebraically to obtain the real number x = 4. He was not able to go any further though. Imaginary Numbers In 1572, Rafael Bombelli (1526 1573) wrote the treatise Algebra which contained the first mathematical treatment of the square root of a negative number. He called such values imaginary numbers, which is a typical deragatory name like negative numbers or irrational numbers. Bombelli was the first to define the arithmetic operations for these numbers. In particular,

1) = 1

and

1) =

1) 1 = 1 .

Also for a positive real number a , we let a2 = a 1 . For instance 121 = 11 1 . These imaginary numbers then could be treated like real numbers. For example using the formula (a + b) 3 = a 3 + 3 a 2 b + 3 a b2 + b3 , we have

(2 +

1) = 8 + 12 1 + 6 ( 1 ) + ( 1 ) = 8 + 12 1 6 1 = 2 + 11 1 .

Similarly
3

( 2 +

1 ) = 2 + 11 1 .

Thus by taking cube roots, 2 + 1 =

2 + 11 1 and 2 + 1 = 3 2 + 11 1 . So now the solution to the above equation 3 x 15 x = 4 becomes

x = 3 2 + 121 3 2 + 121 = 3 2 + 11 1 3 2 + 11 1 = 2 + 1 (2 + 1 ) = 4 .

Unfortunately, the algebra most often does not work out so nicely so as to give the desired solution. In fact, how did we know in advance to choose 2 + 1 so that

(2 +

1) = 2 + 11 1 ? What we normally would have to do to solve for x in this cubic

equation would be to compute the cube roots 3 2 + 11 1 and 3 2 + 11 1 without knowing in advance what they are. To do so, we will need further development of the imaginary numbers. The Formal Arithmetic In 1777 Euler provided the symbol i for expression of the form

1 . A complex number is then defined to be an

z = a + bi ,

where a and b are real numbers. The number a is called the real part of z denoted by Re( z ), and the number b is called the imaginary part of z denoted by Im( z ). It was Carl Friedrich Gauss who introduced the name complex number in 1831. Addition: We add two complex numbers by adding the respective real parts and imaginary parts: ( a + bi ) + ( c + d i ) = ( a + c ) + ( b + d ) i .

Multiplication: We multiply two complex numbers by product distribution or foil 2 method. Using the fact that i = 1, we have
(a + bi ) (c + di ) = ac + a d i + bc i + bd i 2 = ( ac b d ) + (a d + bc ) i .

Conjugate: (Defined by Cauchy in 1821) If z = a + bi , then the conjugate of z is

z = a bi .
2 2

Note: The product z z always gives the real number a + b :

(a + bi ) ( a b i) = a2 a bi + ba i b2 i 2 = a2 b 2 (1) = a2 + b 2 .

Division: If z and w are two complex numbers, then we define

z z w . = w ww

z by w

Example. Let z = 4 + 6 i and w = 8 2 i . Compute z + w and z w and z / w . Solution. Adding componentwise, z + w = 12 + 4 i . Multiplying, we have
z w = ( 4 + 6 i ) ( 8 2 i ) = 32 8 i + 48 i 12 i = 32 12 (1) + 40 i = 44 + 40 i .
2

For division, we multiply numerator and denominator by the conjugate:

z 4 + 6 i 8 + 2 i 32 + 8i + 48i + 12 i 2 = = w 8 2 i 8 + 2i 64 + 4 = 20 + 56 i 20 56 5 14 = + i= + i. 68 68 68 17 17

These calculations are now trivial to do with calculators that allow complex arithmetic. The TI-84 has an i symbol (2nd . ). Use the Frac command when dividing on the TI-84 to obtain the exact form: The Cyclic Powers

i1 = i i =i
5

i 2 = 1 i = 1
6

i3 = i i = i
7

i4 = 1 i =1
8

The pattern continues for higher powers of i . What happens for negative powers of i ? Eulers Formula Euler discovered several key results regarding complex numbers. One of these is now known as Eulers Formula: For any real number x ,
ix

= cos x + i sin x .

To derive Eulers formula, we need the Taylor series expansions for cos x , sin x , and e that are usually derived in second-semester calculus:
x

cos x =

x2 x4 x6 x8 ( 1)n x 2n = 1 + + ... 2 ! 4! 6 ! 8! (2n )! n =0

sin x =

x3 x 5 x7 x 9 ( 1)n x 2n +1 = x + + ... 3! 5! 7! 9! n = 0 (2 n + 1)! x2 x3 x 4 x5 xn = 1+ x + + + + +... 2 ! 3! 4! 5 ! n = 0 n!

ex =

Now replace x by i x in the series for e and simplify the powers i down to i , 1, i , and 1. Then collect the even powers and the odd powers:
ei x = 1 + i x + = 1+ i x (i x ) 2 (i x )3 ( i x )4 (i x )5 (i x )6 (i x )7 + + + + + +... 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7!

x2 x3 x 4 x5 x6 x7 i + +i i + .. . 2! 3! 4! 5! 6! 7! x2 x4 x6 x 3 x5 = 1 + + . . . + ix + . . . 2! 4! 6! 3! 5! = cos x + i sin x .
i

Letting x = , we obtain e famous Euler Identity

= cos + i sin = 1 + 0 i = 1. Thus we obtain the

+1= 0

Note that by replacing x with n x in Eulers Formula, we obtain

cos( nx ) + i sin(n x ) = e i n x = ei x

( )

= (cos x + i sin x )n .

This result is called De Moivres Formula after Abraham de Moivre (1667 - 1754).

Exercises 1. Let z = 4 3 i and w = 6 + 4 i . Compute z + w and z w and z / w .

a2 + b2 .

2. The length of a complex number z = a + bi is defined by z =

(a) For the complex numbers in Exercise 1, compute z , w , and z w . (b) Verify that z w = z w .
1 2 3

3. Display the pattern that occurs for negative powers of i : i , i , i , etc. (That is, 1 1 1 consider these as fractions , 2 , 3 , then simplify with long-division to get a pattern.) i i i 4. Use Eulers Formula to write the following numbers in the form a + bi : (a) e
i ( / 6 )

(b) e

i (2 / 3 )

(c) e

i (3 / 2 )