9.

ACTUATOR
9.2. ELECTROMAGNETIC PRINCIPLES
Electromagnetic Force Lorentzs Force Law: when a current in a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, a force is produced in a direction perpendicular to the current direction and magnetic field direction. r r r F = IB r r r where F is the force vector, I is the current vector, and B is the magnetic field vector. To find the force direction, use the right-hand-rule as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Permeability The permeability of a material characterizes how easily magnetic flux will penetrate the material. Most electromagnetic devices use iron cores to enhance the magnetic flux, because iron has a permeability a few hundred times that of air; therefore, a coil wound around an iron core will support a magnetic flux a few hundred times that of the same coil with no core. Iron cores are usually laminated (made up of insulated layers of iron stacked parallel to the coil-axis direction) to reduce eddy currents that are induced when the cores experience changing magnetic fields.

9.3. SOLENOIDS AND RELAYS

Solenoid It consists of a coil and a movable iron core called the armature. When the coil is energized with current, the core moves to increase the flux linkage by closing the air gap between cores. -1-

The movable core is usually spring-loaded to allow the core to retract when the current is switched off.

The use is primarily limited to on-off applications such as latching, locking, and triggering. For example, a relay is a solenoid used to make or break mechanical contact between electrical leads. A small voltage input to the solenoid controls a potentially large current through the relay contacts (usually for enable/disable circuits). Voice coil It consists of a coil that moves in a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet and intensified by an iron core. The coil (bi-directional capability) is usually attached a movable load such as the diaphragm of an audio speaker and the read-write head of a computer disk drive.

9.4. ELECTRICAL MOTORS

Construction and Components The stationary outer housing, called the stator, provides radial magnetic fields. The magnetic poles consist of either permanent magnets or wire coils. The rotating inner part is called the rotor consisting a rotating shaft supported by bearings. The rotor and its windings are sometimes referred to as the armature. -2-

For dc motors, brushes (solid graphite) provide stationary electrical contact to the rotating commutator conducting segments. The commutator delivers current to the rotor windings. There is a small air gap between the rotor and the stator where the magnetic fields interact.

[Stator with permanent magnets]

[Rotor with coils] [DC motor Components]

[Brushes]

[Stepper motor with a permanent magnet rotor] -3-

Operation Theory of a dc motor

The torque is produced by the fact that like poles repel and unlike poles attract. The stator poles generate fixed magnetic fields with permanent magnets. The winding in the rotor is commutated to cause changes in direction of its magnetic field. The interaction of the changing rotor field and fixed stator fields produce a torque on the shaft, causing rotation.

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Classification of Electrical Motors (1) ac motor It doesnt require the commutation with commutator and brushes, because the magnetic field rotates around the stator as a result of the ac voltages. It has coils at the stator and (or) rotor.

[ac motor with rotor windings]

[ac motor with stator windings] (a) Asynchronous (or induction) ac motor the rotor windings have no external voltage applied; rather, voltages are induced in the rotor windings due to the rotating fields around the stator. The rotor rotate at slower speeds than the rotating stator fields (called slip), making the induction possible, hence the term asynchronous. (b) Synchronous ac motor the rotor windings are energized, but through slip rings instead of a commutator. Brushes provide constant uninterrupted contact with the slip rings, causing fields to rotate around the rotor windings at the same rate as the fields rotate around the stator. (2) dc motor (a) Brushed dc motor It contains a commutator and brushes. It has permanent magnets on the stator coil windings on the rotor.

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(b) Brushless dc motor It has permanent magnets on the rotor and a rotating field in the stator. - The permanent magnets on the rotor eliminate the need for the commutator. Instead, transistors switch the dc current between the coils in response to proximity sensors that are triggered as the shaft rotates. - Also, since there are no rotor windings or iron core, the rotor inertia is much smaller, sometimes making control easier, and there are no rotor heat dissipation problems since there is no winding current, and hence no I2R heating.

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9.5. DC MOTORS
Torque-speed curve It displays the torques that the motor can provide at different speeds at rated voltage. Stall (or starting) torque, Ts : the maximum torque that motor can produce at zero speed. No-load speed, max : the maximum speed the motor can attain when there is no load or torque applied to the motor.

In Figures 9.11 through 9.14, V is the dc voltage supply, I A is the current in the rotor (armature) windings, I F is the current in the stator (field) windings, and I L is the total load current delivered by the dc supply. Permanent Magnet (PM) Motors

The stator fields are provided by permanent magnets. PM motors are easily reversed by switching the direction of the applied voltage since the current and field change direction only in the rotor. The PM motor is ideal in computer control application because of the linearity of its torque-speed relation.

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Shunt Motors

It has armature and field windings connected in parallel, which are powered by the same supply. Shunt motors exhibit nearly constant speed over a large range of loading and have the lowest starting torque of any of the dc motors. It can be converted to allow adjustable speed by placing a potentiometer in series with the field windings. Series Motors

It has armature and field windings connected in series so the armature and field currents are equal. Series motors exhibit very high starting torques, highly variable speed depending on load, and very high speed when the load is small. Compound Motors It includes both shunt and series field windings, resulting in combined characteristics of both shunt and series motors.

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Note that unlike the permanent magnet motor, when voltage polarity for a shunt, series, or compound dc motor is changed, the direction of rotation would not change. The reason for this is that the polarity of both the stator and rotor changes since the field and armature windings are excited by the same source. (1) dc Motor Electrical Equations

The electrical equation for the motor:

Vin = L dI in + RI in + k e dt

where L is an inductance and R is the resistance of the armature windings. Back emf, Vemf : as the armature begins to rotate in the magnetic field of the stator, the back emf voltage proportional to the rotational speed, is induced in the armature windings.
Vemf = k e

where ke is defined as the electrical (back emf) constant.

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(2)

PM dc Motor Dynamic Equations The torque generated by a PM dc motor is directly proportional to armature current: T = k t I in where kt is defined as the torque constant. The dynamic equation of a dc motor:
T = (Ja + J L ) d + T f + TL dt are the polar moments of inertia of the armature and the attached load,

where J a and J L

T f is the frictional torque opposing armature rotation, and TL is the resisting torque of

the load. At steady state, the electrical equation becomes

R Vin = RI in + k e = T + k e . k t

Solving for the motor torque yields the linear torque-speed relation as follow:

k k k T = t Vin e t R R
The maximum power output can be obtained at the half of the no-load speed. The torque-speed relation can be expressed in terms of the starting torque, Ts and the noload speed, max as
T ( ) = Ts 1 max

The power can be determined by

P ( ) = T = Ts 1 max

The maximum power output of the motor occurs at the speed where
dP 2 1 = Ts d max =0

* = max .
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1 2

If the armature resistance R and the torque constant kt are given, the stall current I s and the stall torque Ts can be determined by
Is = Vin V and Ts = kt in . R R

(3)

Electronic Control of a PM dc Motor Open loop control: one simply sets the drive voltage value and the motor characteristics and load determine the operating speed and torque. Closed loop (or feedback) control: it requires an output speed and/or torque sensor to feed back output values in order to continuously compare the actual output to a desired value called the set point. The controller then actively changes the motor output to move closer to the set point. Type of amplifiers: linear amplifiers (less noise and inefficiency in power dissipation) and pulse width modulation (PWM) amplifiers (efficiency in power dissipation). Operation theory of a PWM amplifier: A dc power supply voltage is rapidly switched at a fixed frequency f between two values (e.g., ON and OFF). This frequency is often in excess of 1 KHz. The duty cycle is defined as the ratio between the ON time and the period of the waveform, usually specified as a percentage:
t 100% T where t is the ON time, and T = 1 / f is the fixed period. duty cycle =

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As the duty cycle is changed by the controller, the average current through the motor will change, causing changes in speed and torque at the output.

Block diagram of a PWM speed feedback control system for a dc motor.

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 DESIGN EXAMPLE 9.1 H-Bridge Drive for a DC Motor In order to control the position of a DC motor, we must be able to change the current direction to the motor. This can be accomplished by using four power transistors arranged in an H configuration around the DC motor as shown in the following figure. If transistors Q1 and Q3 are turned on, and Q2 and Q4 are off, current will flow

through the motor in the direction shown and the motor will rotate in one direction. If Q2 and Q4 are on, and Q1 and Q3 are off, the motor will rotate in the other direction. One of the simple solutions to implement the H-bridge is to use a LMD18200 (3A, 55V Hbridge) by National Semiconductor.

[Schematic of H-bridge]

[Functional diagram of LMD18200]

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9.6. STEPPER MOTORS

Advantages: rotation in both directions, precision angular incremental changes without feedback sensors, a holding torque at zero speed, and capability for digital control. It can move in accurate angular increments known as steps in response to digital input pulses.
Operation Theory A commercial stepper motor has a large number of poles that define a large number of equilibrium positions of the rotor.

In the case of a permanent magnet stepper motor, the stator consists of wound poles, and the rotor poles are permanent magnets.

Construction The four external power transistors are switched on and off to produce the controlled sequence of pole magnetization to cause rotation.

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The following figure illustrates the construction of and stepping sequence for a four-phase unipolar stepper motor. It consists of a two-pole permanent magnet rotor and a four-pole stator with each pole wound by two complementary windings (e.g., 1 and 2 wound in opposite directions on the top left pole).

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The resolution or number of steps of the motor is twice as large in the half-step mode (8 steps/rev at 45 deg.) than in the full-step mode (4 steps/rev at 90 deg.), but holding torque and drive torque in the half-mode change. The following figure shows the practical construction of a four-phase unipolar stepper motor.

9.7. STEPPER MOTOR DRIVE CIRCUITS

A drive circuit for the unipolar stepping motor in the full-step mode is shown in Fig. 9.27. It includes 7414 Schmitt Trigger Buffers, a 74191 up-down counter, and 7486 exclusive OR gates. A similar drive circuit can be purchased as a single monolithic IC (e.g., Signetic SAA1027 or Allegro UCN 5804N).

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Boolean expressions that produce the four desired phased outputs from the two counter bits can be represented in both AND-OR-NOT and XOR forms:

1 = 2 = 2 1 , 2 = ( B0 B1 ) + ( B0 B1 ) = B0 B1 , 3 = B1 , 4 = B1 = B1 1

9.8. SELECTING A MOTOR

The torque-speed curve provides important information. The operating region should be below the curve. For the given motor curve and load line, the operating point is self-regulating; at lower speeds, the motor torque exceeds the load torque, and the system accelerates toward the operating point, but at higher speeds, the system speeds down toward the operating point.

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For the given load torque and operating velocity, select a motor based on the rated torque and velocity. Often loads operate at low speeds and require large torque. Since motors function at high speed and low torque, a speed reducing transmission (gear box or belt drive) is needed to match the motor output to the load requirements. For this case, the output torque and speed can be calculated by
Toutput = Tmotor and output = motor / ( > 1 : reduction ratio)

The acceleration of the motor and load at any instant is given by

= ( Tmotor Tload ) / J eff

where is the angular acceleration in rad/sec2, Tmotor is the torque produced by the motor, Tload is the torque dissipated by the load, and J eff = J motor + J load / 2 is the effective moment of inertia as seen by the motor shaft. The mechanical time constant (the required time for a motor to reach 63.2% of its final velocity): Ra J eff m = ke k t
Table A typical motor specification

Description Rated Power Rated Voltage Rated Torque Rated Current Rated Speed Moment Inertia Damping Coefficient Armature Resistance Armature Inductance Torque Constant Back emf Constant Mechanical Time Constant Electrical Time Constant

Sym. PR ER TR IR N Jm Bm Ra La KT KE
m e

Unit W V kgfcm A Rpm Kgm

H
2

Sanyo R301 11 24 0.36 1.25 3000 1.862x10-6 0 (1.84x10-4) 7.9 0.9x10-3 0.0343 0.0343 12 0.12

Kgm2/s

Nm/A V sec/rad msec msec - 18 -

 Example for motor/gear selection A drive should move cyclically in accordance with the following speed diagram. ( J L = 0.012kgm 2 , friction torque=300 mNm)

Calculation of load data The torque required for acceleration and braking is calculated as (motor and gear inertia are ignored).
Ta = J L = J L

60 2 n = 0.012 = 0.15 Nm = 150mNm 60 t 30 0.5

Together with the friction torque, the following torques result for the different phases of motion. - Acceleration phase (duration 0.5s) 450 mNm - Constant speed (duration 2.0s) 300 mNm - Braking (duration 0.5s) -150 mNm (friction helps braking) - Standstill (duration 0.7s) 0 mNm Peak torque occurs during acceleration. The RMS determined torque of the entire work cycle is
Trms = = 1 ttot (t1T12 + t 2T22 + t3T32 + t 4T42 )

1 (0.5 450 2 + 2.0 300 2 + 0.5 150 2 + 0.7 0 2 ) 280mNm 3.7

The maximum speed (60rpm) occurs at the end of the acceleration phase at maximum torque (450 mNm). Thus, the peak mechanical power is
Pmax = Tmax nmax

30

= 0.45 60

30

2.8W

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Gear selection A gear is required with a maximum continuous torque of at least 0.28Nm and an intermittent torque of at least 0.45Nm. For example, a planetary gear with 22mm diameter is considered. The recommended input speed of 6000 rpm allows a maximum reduction of n 6000 max = max = = 100 : 1 nB 60

We select the gear with the reduction of 84:1 and the efficiency of 59%. Speed and torque are calculated to the motor shaft as nmotor = max nB = 84 60 = 5040 rpm

Tmotor , RMS = Tmotor ,max =

TRMS 280 = 5.7mNm 84 0.59 Tmax 450 = 9.1mNm 84 0.59

From a motor catalog, some PM dc motors are considered as Tcont. Suitability Motor ***, 6W 13 mNm rather too strong ***, 6W 7.5 mNm good ***, 2.5W 4.4 mNm too weak ***, 6W 8 mNm good The following plot shows the selected motors speed-torque curve. The selected motor, 6 W has the sufficient continuous torque (7.5 mNm).

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