Annals of Combinatorics 8 (2004) 1-

0218-0006/04/040001-10
DOI **********************
c _ Birkh auser Verlag, Basel, 2004
Annals of Combinatorics
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs

Andreas W.M. Dress

1
and Dragan Stevanovi c
2
1
Max Planck Institute for Mathematics in the Sciences, Inselstrasse 22-26, 04103 Leipzig
Germany
dress@mis.mpi.de
2
Faculty of Science and Mathematics, University of Ni s, Vi segradska 33, 18000 Ni s, Serbia and
Montenegro
2
Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, Kameni cka 6, 11000 Belgrade, Serbia and
Montenegro
dragance106@yahoo.com
Received December 8, 2003
AMS Subject Classication: 05C50
Abstract. In this note, we present an apparently new and rather short proof of a celebrated
theorem of Horst Sachs characterizing bipartite nite graphs in term of their eigenvalue spectrum.
Moreover, the simplicity of the proof allows us to establish this theorem and related results as
a special instance of much more general assertions regarding the spectral theory of compact
graphs. Finally, some intriguing possible generalizations to locally nite, yet not compact
graphs suggested by Horst Sachs are discussed in the last section.
Keywords: bipartite graphs, eigenvalues of graphs, compact graphs, locally nite graphs, har-
monic graphs, semiharmonic graphs
1. Introduction
Consider a nite simple graph G = (V, E) without isolated vertices and with vertex set
V =V
G
, edge set E =E
G

V
2

, and adjacency matrix A=A

G
(indexed by the elements
of V). For each R, let
U

=U

(A) :=u R
V
[Au = u
denote the space of eigenvectors of A with eigenvalue , and let

1
=
G
1
>
2
=
G
2
> >
m
=
G
m

The authors would like to thank the DFG for support; the second author would also like to acknowledge
support from Grant 1227 of the Serbian Ministry of Science, Technology and Development.
1
2 A.M.W. Dress and D. Stevanovi c
denote the distinct eigenvalues of A, i.e. the real numbers R with U

,=0. Recall
that
1
+
m
0 always holds, that every positive eigenvector of A, i.e., every eigenvec-
tor u = (u
v
)
vV
with u
v
> 0 for all v V is contained in U

1
, and that G is connected if
and only if U

1
has dimension 1 and is generated by a positive eigenvector of A. Recall
also that dimU

= dimU

holds for all R for any bipartite graph G. So, we must

also have
i
+
m+1i
= 0 for all i = 1, 2, . . . , m in this case. Conversely (see [3]), one
has:
Theorem 1.1. If G is a connected (nite simple) graph and

G
1
+
G
m
= 0
holds, then G must be bipartite.
Thus, a connected graph is bipartite if and only if
G
1
+
G
m
= 0 holds. This charac-
terization of bipartite graphs was rst established by Horst Sachs in [12]. It is one of the
earliest and best-known results in spectral graph theory. It was generalized, e.g. to di-
rected non-negatively weighted graphs, and rediscovered several times (see [2, Sections
3.1, 3.2] for detailed references).
In this note, we will present another, apparently new and rather short proof of The-
orem 1.1 (or, rather, of the equivalent assertion that a connected graph G is bipartite
whenever there exists a positive vector u R
V
with A
G
u ,=
1
u and A
2
G
u =
2
1
u, viz. the
last few lines of the proof of Lemma 2.1). Our proof is based on a simple inequality that
was discovered rst in the context of harmonic and semiharmonic graphs (cf. [1,410]).
More importantly, the simplicity of our proof allows us to establish the above result as
a special instance of a much more general assertion regarding the spectral theory of
compact graphs:
Theorem 1.2. Let X ,= / 0 be a compact space, let C
0
(X) denote the space of all real-
valued continuous maps f : XR dened on X, let A: X XR
0
be a continuous
map from X X into the set R
0
of non-negative real numbers, let denote a positive
nite measure on X and, by abuse of notation, denote the associated operator from
C
0
(X) into itself dened by
C
0
(X)C
0
(X): f (Af : XR: x

A(x, y)f(y)d(y)) (1.1)

also by A, and let A
2
denote the map from X X into R
0
dened by
A
2
(x, y) :=

A(x, z)A(z, y)d(z)

for all x, y X so that A(Af) =A
2
f holds for all f C
0
(X). Further, assume that we are
given a map f
0
in the convex open cone C
0
(X)
+
C
0
(X) consisting of all continuous
maps f : XR
+
fromX into the set R
+
of positive real numbers, together with some real
number Rsuch that Af
0
=f
0
holds, and that, for any two points x, y X, there exist
points x
0
:= x, x
1
, . . . , x
n1
, x
n
:= y X (for some integer n N
0
) with A(x
i1
, x
i
) > 0
for all i = 1, . . . , n

. Then, is necessarily a positive real number, and the following

ve assertions are equivalent:

Note that compactness of X and continuity of A implies that there must exist a universal nite upper
bound n
0
= n
0
(A) N for the smallest integers n
A
x, y
in N
0
(x, y X) for which this holds.
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs 3
(i) There exists a (necessarily unique) A-bipartition of X, i.e., a bipartition X =
X
1
X
2
of X into two non-empty disjoint subsets X
1
, X
2
such that A(x, y) =0 holds
for all x, y X with either x, y X
1
or x, y X
2
.
(ii) For every map f
1
C
0
(X) and every
1
R with Af
1
=
1
f
1
,= 0, there exists a
map f

1
C
0
(X) with Af

1
=
1
f

1
,= 0.
(iii) There exists a map f
2
C
0
(X) with Af
2
=f
2
,= 0.
(iv) There exists a map f
3
C
0
(X) with Af
3
,= f
3
and A
2
f
3
=
2
f
3
,= 0.
(v) There exists a map f
4
C
0
(X)
+
with Af
4
,= f
4
and A
2
f
4
=
2
f
4
.
Moreover, if all of this holds, the subspace
U

2 (A
2
) =f C
0
(X)[ A
2
f =
2
f
of C
0
(X) consisting of all real-valued eigenfunctions of the operator A
2
with eigenvalue

2
, has dimension exactly 2, it is the direct sum of its two one-dimensional subspaces
U
(1)

2
(A
2
) and U
(2)

2
(A
2
) that are, for i = 1, 2, dened by
U
(i)

2
(A
2
) := f U

2(A
2
)[ f(x) = 0 for all x X X
i
,
the operator A maps U

2(A
2
) onto itself, it maps U
(1)

2
(A
2
) ontoU
(2)

2
(A
2
), andU
(2)

2
(A
2
)
onto U
(1)

2
(A
2
), one has f(x)f(x

) > 0 for every map f in U

2 (A
2
) and all points x, x

X
with f(x) ,= 0 and either x, x

X
1
or x, x

X
2
and, given any f U

2 (A
2
), the two
maps f
(1)
and f
(2)
, dened by
f
(i)
(x) =

f(x), for x X
i
,
0, for x X X
i
,
for i = 1, 2, are contained in U
(1)

2
(A
2
) and U
(2)

2
(A
2
), respectively, and thus form a
basis of these spaces whenever f(x) ,= 0 holds for, at least, one element x X
1
and
one element x X
2
. In particular, the quotients
f

(x)
f(x)
are constant on X
1
(or X
2
) for all
f, f

2(A
2
) with f(x) ,= 0 for, at least, one x in X
1
(or X
2
, respectively).
Correspondingly, U

2(A
2
) is also the direct sum of its two subspaces
U

(A) :=f C
0
(X)[ Af = f
and
U

(A) :=f C
0
(X)[ Af =f
both of which are one-dimensional, and one has f Af U

(A) for every map f

U

2(A
2
).
Remark 1.3. Our results imply in particular that dim(U

(A)) = 1 must hold for any

real number with U

(A) C
0
(X)
+
,= / 0 provided that either one of the assertions (i)
to (v) holds. Thus, it is worth noting that dimU

(A) = 1 must hold for every real

number with U

(A) C
0
(X)
+
,= / 0 whether or not any one of the assertions (i) to
4 A.M.W. Dress and D. Stevanovi c
(v) is satised. Indeed, if f
0
U

(A) C
0
(X)
+
and f

0
U

(A) holds, one can nd

real numbers ,

R with

,= 0 such that f := f
0
+

0
is nowhere negative, but
vanishes at some point x
0
X in which case f = 0 and, hence, f

0
=

f
0
must hold in
view of 0 = f(x
0
) =
n
f(x
0
) = (A
n
f)(x
0
) for all n N
0
and (A
n
g)(x) ,= 0 for n = n
A
x, y
and every map g C
0
(X) with g(y) ,= 0.
In Section 2, we will establish Theorem 1.2. And in Section 3, we will discuss
applications regarding semiharmonic graphs.
2. Proof of the Sachs Theorem for Compact Measurable Graphs
As above, let X be a compact space with a nite positive measure and let A: XXR
be a continuous map from X X into R. Any such triple G := (X, A, ) will also be
called a compact measurable graph, X will be called its vertex space, the map A will
be called its adjacency map and, given any map f C
0
(X) with f(x) ,= 0 for all x X,
the degree deg
f
(x) of a point x in X relative to f is dened by
deg
f
(x) :=
(Af)(x)
f(x)
=

A(x, y)f(y)
f(x)
d(y).
Obviously, our assumptions imply that the resulting degree map
deg
f
=
Af
f
: XR: x deg
f
(x)
is also a map in C
0
(X) and, hence, attains its supremum and its inmum, henceforth
denoted by deg
max
(f) and deg
min
(f), respectively.
These notions generalize the usual notions regarding weighted directed graphs,
where X is taken as a nite set with discrete topology, the measure is the point mea-
sure, the map A represents the edge weights, and the degree deg
j
(x) of a point x in X
relative to the all-one map j : XR: x 1 is the usual out-degree of x.
Further, a map f C
0
(X) 0 with Af = f for some xed R will be called
an eigenfunction of the graph G = (X, A, ), or just of A, and the real number will
be called its eigenvalue. Correspondingly, an arbitrary number R will be called an
eigenvalue of G, or A, if it is the eigenvalue of an eigenfunction of G. Note that a map
f C
0
(X) with f(x) ,= 0 for all x X is an eigenfunction of G with eigenvalue if and
only if the associated degree map is a constant map that maps every x in X onto , i.e.,
if and only if G is an f-regular graph.
Next, given any two compact measurable graphs G
1
:= (X, A
1
,
1
) and G
2
:=
(X, A
2
,
2
) with the same vertex space X, we dene the graph G
1
G
2
of G
1
and G
2
by
G
1
G
2
:= (X, A
1
A
2
,
2
)
with A
1
A
2
denoting the map
X XR: (x, z)

A
1
(x, y)A
2
(y, z)d
1
(y)
which is necessarily also continuous if A
1
and A
2
are continuous.
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs 5
Finally, a compact measurable graph G = (X, A, ) is dened to be connected if the
underlying simple directed graph

X, (x, y) X
2
[ A(x, y) ,= 0

is a connected directed graph in the usual sense, i.e. if, for all x, y X, there exist points
x
0
:= x, x
1
, . . . , x
n
:= y in X (for some integer n = n
x, y
N
0
) with A(x
i1
, x
i
) ,= 0 for
all i = 1, . . . , n.
Clearly, if G is connected, there exists at most one A-bipartition X = X
1
X
2
of X,
and there exists such an A-bipartition of X if and only if there exists a non-constant
map : X[a
1
, a
2
] from X into a closed interval [a
1
, a
2
] contained in R satisfying the
following three conditions:
(-1) there exists some x
1
X with (x
1
) = a
1
,
(-2) x, y X, (x) = a
1
and A(x, y) ,= 0 implies (y) = a
2
,
(-3) x, y X, (x) = a
2
and A(x, y) ,= 0 implies (y) = a
1
.
Moreover, all there hold, the required A-bipartition is formed by the two subsets X
1
and
X
2
dened by X
i
:= x X [ (x) = a
i
for i = 1, 2, because (y) = a
2
must hold for
all points y X at odd distance from some x
1
X
1
while (y) = a
1
must hold for all
points y X at even distance from x
1
.
Thus, the single non-trivial implication (v)(i) in Theorem 1.2 is an immediate
consequence of the following observation:
Lemma 2.1. Let (X, A, ) be a compact connected measurable graph with a non-
negative adjacency map A, and suppose that g: XR
+
is an everywhere positive
eigenfunction of the graph G
2
:= GG, but not of G. Then, the associated degree map
:= deg
g
is a non-constant map from X into the intervall [a
1
, a
2
] with a
1
:= deg
min
(g)
and a
2
:= deg
max
(g) that satisfy the conditions (-1) to (-3) above.
Proof. Let

denote the eigenvalue of g relative to A

2
= A A. Clearly,

> 0 must
hold because we have assumed that (i) g has positive values, only, (ii) A
2
is continuous
and non-negative, and (iii) (A
2
)(x, z) > 0 holds for at least one pair (x, z) in X X. It
is also obvious that the map deg
g
must be a non-constant map (as, otherwise, g would
be an eigenfunction of G) and attains its inmum a
1
:= deg
min
(g) and its supremum
a
2
:= deg
max
(g).
Further, for every x X, we have

A(x, y)
g(y)
g(x)

A(y, z)
g(z)
g(y)
d(z)

d(y)
=

A(x, y)
g(y)
g(x)
deg
g
(y)d(y)

A(x, y)
g(y)
g(x)
deg
max
(g)d(y) = a
2
deg
g
(x)
6 A.M.W. Dress and D. Stevanovi c
with equality if and only if deg
g
(y) =deg
max
(g) =a
2
holds for all y X with A(x, y) ,=
0, and therefore also

a
2
inf(deg
g
(x): x X) = a
2
a
1
, and

A(x, y)
g(y)
g(x)
deg
g
(y)d(y)

A(x, y)
g(y)
g(x)
deg
min
(g)d(y) = a
1
deg
g
(x)
with equality if and only if deg
g
(y) =deg
min
(g) =a
1
holds for all y X with A(x, y) ,=
0, and therefore also

a
1
sup(deg
g
(x): x X) = a
1
a
2
.
Together, this implies

= a
1
a
2
which in turn implies that we have

= a
2
deg
g
(x)
and, hence, deg
g
(y) = a
2
for all x, y X with deg
g
(x) = a
1
and A(x, y) ,= 0, and we
have

= a
1
deg
g
(x) and, hence, deg
g
(y) = a
1
for all x, y X with deg
g
(x) = a
2
and
A(x, y) ,= 0, as required.
Remark 2.2. Obviously, the above proof yields that, with the above assumptions and
notations, one has
deg
g
(x) deg
g
(y) =

for all x, y in X with A(x, y) ,= 0. Note that, conversely, whenever a non-constant map
g C
0
(X)
+
with this property exists, there must exist a (unique) bipartition of the space
X into two disjoint proper open subsets X
1
and X
2
with A(x, y) = 0 for all x, y X
1
and
for all x, y X
2
, the map g must be an eigenfunction of G
2
with eigenvalue

, and
the degree map deg
g
associated with g must be constant on X
1
and on X
2
, but not on
X. In other words, the graph G is g-semiregular, but not g-regular for any such map
g C
0
(X)
+
.
Clearly, the implication (v)(i) in Theorem1.2 now follows fromapplying Lemma
2.1, putting g := f
4
. To establish the remaining implications (i)(ii) (iii) (iv)
(v), note that the implication (i) (ii) is obvious: If X = X
1
X
2
is an A-bipartition of
X, and f
1
is any eigenfunction of (X, A, ) with eigenvalue
1
, then the map f

1
: XR
dened by
f

1
(x) =

f
1
(x), for x X
1
,
f
1
(x), for x X
2
,
is an eigenfunction of (X, A, ) with eigenvalue
1
: Indeed, for x X
1
, we have
Af

1
(x) =

X
1
A(x, y)f

1
(y)d(y) +

X
2
A(x, y)f

1
(y)d(y)
=

X
1
0 f
1
(y)d(y) +

X
2
A(x, y)(f
1
(y))d(y)
=

X
1
0 f
1
(y)d(y)

X
2
A(x, y)f
1
(y)d(y)
=

A(x, y)f
1
(y)d(y) =
1
f
1
(x) =
1
f

1
(x),
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs 7
and a similar argument works in case x X
2
. The implications (ii) (iii) (iv) are
trivial. And the implication (iv) (v) follows, using once more the compactness of X
and the continuity of the maps f
0
and f
3
, from considering the map f
4
:= f
0
+f
3
for
some sufciently small > 0.
To establish the remaining assertions of Theorem1.2, it sufces to showthat, for any
two maps f, f

2(A
2
) with f C
0
(X)
+
and Af ,=f, the quotient
f

f
is constant on X
1
and on X
2
. To this end, we apply Lemma 2.1 to g := f, g := f +f

and to g := f +Af

for some sufciently small > 0. This yields positive numbers a

1
:= deg
min
(f) <a
2
:=
deg
max
(f) with a
2
1
<
2
= a
1
a
2
< a
2
2
such that, after perhaps switching the indices of X
1
and on X
2
, one has Af(x) =a
i
f(x) for all x X
i
(i =1, 2) as well as, for each sufciently
small > 0, further positive numbers
a

1
:= deg
min
(f +f

) < a

2
:= deg
max
(f +f

)
and
a

1
:= deg
min
(f +Af

) < a

2
:= deg
max
(f +Af

)
with
2
= a

1
a

2
= a

1
a

2
such that also a

1
a

1
<
2
< a

2
a

2
as well as
A(f +f

)(x) = a

i
(f +f

)(x) and A(f +Af

)(x) = a

i
(f +Af

)(x)
holds for all x X
i
(i = 1, 2). Consequently, we have
a

i
(Af

)(x) = (a
i
a

i
)f(x) +
2
f

(x) = a

i
(a

i
a
i
)f(x) +a

i
a

i
f

(x)
and therefore f

(x) = af(x), for all x X

i
(i = 1, 2), for
a :=
a

i
a

i
a

i
a
i
a
i
+a

i
(
2
a

i
a

i
)
.
3. Harmonic and Semiharmonic Graphs
According to [6, 7], a nite simple graph G = (V, E) with E ,= / 0 is called a harmonic
graph if the associated degree vector (deg
G
(v))
vV
is an eigenvector of the adjacency
matrix A
G
of G, and it is called a semiharmonic graph if the degree vector is an
eigenvector of the square A
2
G
of this matrix.
This denition extends easily to compact measurable graphs: We dene a compact
measurable graph G = (X, A, ) to be harmonic if the adjacency map A is non-negative
and the degree map deg
j
= Aj associated with the all-one map j is an eigenfunction
of G, and to be semiharmonic if A is non-negative and deg
j
is an eigenfunction of the
square G
2
=GG of G (in which cases deg
j
,=0 must, in particular, hold, so we must
have deg
j
(x) >0 and, hence, A(x, y) >0 for, at least, some x, y X, and the eigenvalues
of deg
j
relative to A or A
2
, respectively, must be positive).
Note that Theorem 1.2 applies to any semiharmonic, yet not harmonic compact
connected measurable graph G = (X, A, ): Indeed, assume that deg
j
is not an eigen-
function of G while A
2
deg
j
=
2
deg
j
holds for some positive real number . Then
8 A.M.W. Dress and D. Stevanovi c
f
0
:= deg
j
+Adeg
j
is an everywhere positive eigenfunction of G with eigenvalue as
required in Theorem 1.2, and Assertion (v) holds for f
4
:= deg
j
implying that
deg
f
(x) deg
f
(y) =
2
holds for f :=deg
j
and all x, y in X with A(x, y) ,=0, that the space X can be partitioned,
in one and only one way, into two disjoint proper open subsets X
1
and X
2
with A(x, y) =
0 for all x, y X
1
, and for all x, y X
2
, and that the degree map deg
f
associated with the
map f := deg
j
is constant on X
1
and on X
2
.
These facts, restricted to nite simple graphs, have found interesting applications in
the classication of simple nite semiharmonic graphs in [9, 10].
Clearly, a compact measurable graph Gwith a non-negative adjacency map Ais har-
monic if and only if j is either itself an eigenfunction of G (in which case G should be
called a regular compact measurable graph) or the sum of a non-negative eigenfunc-
tion f
1
with a positive eigenvalue and an eigenfunction f
2
with eigenvalue 0. Indeed, if
deg
j
is an eigenfunction of G with a (necessarily positive) eigenvalue > 0, we have
either j =
1

deg
j
, or we have j = f
1
+f
2
with f
1
:=
1

deg
j
a scalar multiple of the eigen-
function deg
j
and f
2
:= j
1

deg
j
an eigenfunction of G with eigenvalue 0.
Conversely, if j is itself either an eigenfunction of G with eigenvalue > 0, or the
sum j = f
1
+f
2
of an eigenfunction f
1
of G with a positive eigenvalue and an eigen-
function f
2
of G with eigenvalue 0, then we have either deg
j
= Aj = j or deg
j
= Aj =
Af
1
+Af
2
= f
1
, so, in either case, deg
j
is also an eigenfunction of G with eigenvalue
> 0.
This generalizes the fact established, at least implicitely, already in [6, 7], that a
nite simple graph G = (V, E) is harmonic if and only if it has exactly one non-zero
main eigenvalue (cf. [2] for the denition and the basic properties of main eigenval-
ues of nite simple graphs.)
Similarly, a compact measurable graph G= (X, A, ) with a non-negative adjacency
map is semiharmonic if and only if it is either harmonic or j is a sum j = f
1
+f
2
+f
3
of
a non-negative eigenfunction f
1
with a positive eigenvalue , an eigenfunction f
3
with
eigenvalue and a map f
2
with Af
2
= 0 (however possibly the zero map): Indeed, if
j =f
1
+f
2
+f
3
, Af
1
=f
1
, Af
2
=0, and Af
3
=f
3
hold, we have deg
j
=f
1
f
3
and,
hence, A
2
deg
j
= A
2
f
1
A
2
f
3
=
2
(f
1
f
3
) =
2
deg
j
. Conversely, if A
2
deg
j
=

2
deg
j
holds for some > 0, we have obviously
j = f
1
+f
2
+f
3
for
f
1
:=
1
2
2
(Adeg
j
+deg
j
),
f
3
:=
1
2
2
(Adeg
j
deg
j
),
and
f
2
:= j f
1
f
3
,
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs 9
and one checks easily that Af
1
= f
1
, Af
3
=f
3
, and
Af
2
= Aj
1
2
2
(A
2
deg
j
+A
2
deg
j
) = deg
j
deg
j
= 0
hold.
This generalizes the fact that a nite simple graph G = (V, E) is semiharmonic if
and only if it has at most two non-zero main eigenvalues that differ only by their sign
in which case its largest eigenvalue
G
1
is the unique positive main eigenvalue.
4. Some Observations and Open Problems Regarding Locally Finite Graphs
The concept of eigenvectors, eigenvalues, harmonicity, semiharmonicity etc. may be
extended further to locally nite or even to appropriately dened locally compact
weighted and measurable graphs. This setting is less easily analysed, but exploring
it could be worthwhile. Some results previously obtained for nite graphs will imme-
diately carry over. For example, the above computations yield easily
Lemma 4.1. Let G = (V, E) be a locally nite graph of bounded degree, put
N(v): =w V : v, w E
for every v V, let
d = d
G
: VN
0
: v #N(v)
denote the associated degree map and
d
2
: VN
0
: v

wN(v)
d(w)
the associated iterated degree map, and assume that

wN(v)
d
2
(w) = d(v)
holds for some xed real number and all u V. Then,
d(v

)d
2
(v) = d(v)d
2
(v

)
holds for any two vertices v, v

that are both adjacent to a third vertex u.

It is also easily seen that, given a locally nite graph G = (V, E) with d
G
(v) r for
some r R and all v V, some map f : VC, and some C such that
f (v) =

wN(v)
f (w)
holds for all v V, one has necessarily
[[[ f (v)[

wN(v)
[ f (w)[ r max[ f (w)[ : w N(v)
10 A.M.W. Dress and D. Stevanovi c
or, equivalently,
max[ f (w)[ : w N(v)
[[
r
[ f (v)[
for all v V which implies that the map f cannot be bounded in case
||
r
> 1.
Much more specically, a map f : ZCis an eigenfunction of the innite line graph
G:= (Z, n, n+1, n Z) with eigenvalue for some C if and only if it satises
the binary recurrence relation
f(n) = f(n1) +f(n+1).
Thus, the eigenspace
U

:=f C
Z
: f(n) = f(n1) +f(n+1)
of G with eigenvalue is of dimension 2 for every C and consists, given an C

with +1/ = , of all maps f C

Z
of the form f = f

+f
1/
in case ,= 1
where f

denotes, for every C

, the map ZC: n

n
while it is of the form
ZC: n +n in case = 1 (or, equivalently, = 2), and of the formZC: n
(1)
n
+(1)
n
n in case =1 (or, equivalently, =2). In particular, U

contains
real-valued eigenfunctions if and only if is a real number if and only if the associated
numbers with +1/ = are either themselves real numbers or of modulus 1 (in
which case U

is generated by two real-valued eigenfunctions).

Intriguingly, the space
U
b

:=f U

: sup[f(n)[ : n Z <
of bounded eigenfunctions contains a non-vanishing map if and only if is of the form
= +1/ for some C with [[ = 1 (or, equivalently, if R and [[ 2 holds)
in which case U
b

= U

holds in case [[ < 2 and the real-valued eigenfunctions in

U
b

are all of the form ZR: n Ccos(n ) for some real number C and some
number with [0, 2) where is the unique number in the open interval (0, ) with
= 2cos(). In particular, an eigenfunction in U
b

= U

attains nitely many values

only if and only if it is periodic if and only if is an algebraic number if and only
if the eigenfunction is induced by an eigenfunction of a nite graph G

relative to a
covering map from G onto G

. In contrast, we have dim(U

b
2
) = dim(U
b
2
) = 1, U
b
2
is
generated by a positive eigenfunction, viz. the degree function (also induced by the
covering map onto the graph G

consisting of one vertex and one loop, only), and every

bounded and everywhere positive eigenfunction must have eigenvalue 2 and is, thus, a
scalar multiple of the degree function.
We expect similar results to hold for arbitrary locally nite graphs of bounded de-
gree or perhaps even for all locally nite graphs and intend to work out details in
cooperation with Horst Sachs.
Acknowledgments. The authors would like to thank Horst Sachs and Dragan Djordjevi c for
helpful discussions. We are in particular grateful to Horst Sachs for suggesting to study the
bounded eigenfunctions in the case of locally nite graphs.
A Note on a Theorem of Horst Sachs 11
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