Power System Protection

Chapter 2
Dr. Ibrahim El-Amin

RELAY OPERATING PRINCIPLES

Induction Type Relay

z

2.1 RELAY INPUTS

z z

Two source of alternating fluxes are required. Two fluxes must have a phase difference.

Voltage, Current at terminals of Apparatus. Contact states: open or closes The challenge is how to differentiate between normal and abnormal conditions. What is the definition of normal and abnormal?

z z

Shed poles may be used Permanent magnets may be used.

z

1. LEVEL DETECTION

Fault current are always greater than normal current Any current above a chosen value indicates abnormality. The level above which a relay works is called the PICKUP SETTING. The Relay may trip a breaker, sound an alarm. Relay can also operate for a chosen value which is smaller i.e voltage, frequency.

2.2 DETECTION OF FAULTS

As a result of faults: z Current Magnitude increases. z Voltage Magnitude decreases z Changes in phase angles of current, z Harmonic components of Voltage & Currents z Changes in active and/or reactive power z Changes in frequency. z Detection of changes in these quantities and whether inside assigned zones

Relay Operating Characteristics

z z z

2. Magnitude Comparison
z

It is a plot of operating time versus relay current. Current is normalized as a ratio of actual current to pickup or setting. Operating time is infinite for a ratio of less than 1.0.

z z

The operating principle is based upon the comparison of the magnitude of operating quantities . A current balance relay may compare the current in two circuits . It initiates operation if there is a difference in ratio or magnitude from a set value.

Relay Operating Characteristics

Magnitude Comparison

Magnitude Comparison
z

3. Differential Comparison

Magnitude Comparison IIAI > IIBI + small margin If B is not open , the A is faulty. Both lines must be identical

3. Differential Comparison
z z z z z

4. Phase Angle comparison

z z z z

For healthy winding I1 & I2 equal Use Magnitude Comparison & level detection (I1-I2) relays. For faulty zone currents not equal Used for generates, transformers, motors Busbars Reactors. It requires current from both zone ends.

Relative Phase angle between two quantities Healthy Direction power flow the relative angle between V & I is approximately 30 Reverse power flow = angle between V&I (18030) For faults phase angle of current w.r.t voltage for forward/reverse will be or (180-) where = impedance angle is close to 90.

4. Phase Angle comparison

6. Pilot Relaying
z

It depends on information from remote ends.

It involves mostly contact status

Transmitted via communication channels

5. Distance Measurements
z z z z

7. Harmonic Content
z z

Differential protection is not suitable for long transmission lines Distance protection compares local voltage with local current. It is in effect an impedance measurement. Length of line( its distance) for a given conductor determines the impedance.

V & I are usually sinusoidal. There are some deviations due to load nature or sometimes sources. Harmonic contents may be detected by fiters for abnormal conditions e.g. odd harmonics transformer saturation.

8. Frequency Sensing
Frequency

Relay Construction & Design

z

measurements is

Electromechanical elements Solid State Elements Digital elements microprocessors

essential
z

Measurements

through filters by counting zero crossing sampling/digital computers

Special

Relays respond to physical quantities

z

Relay Design : Fuses

z Level

Temperature Pressure Fluid level

detection

It senses & interrupts.

Melts fusible element due to current flow. - Melting time inversely proportional to current - Interrupts current up to their mix. Short circuit rating

2.3 Relay Design : Fuses

z

a. Plunger Type

Disadvantages: 1. Fuses have to be replaced 2. Service delay 3. Replacement in stock 4. Maintenance personnel. 5. A 1-phase fuse blow could result in motors operating on 2-phase i.e excessive heating & vibrations.

2.4 Electromechanical Relays

z

Electromechanical Relays : actuating force is resultant from interaction between currents and flux : a. Plunger type : Single actuating quantity b. Induction type: Single/multiple inputs

Plunger type
z z

K : Constant I : rms current of ac quantity

m =

d 1 K I2 (w (i, x )) = dx ( x + gd / 4a )2

Plunger type
z

Plunger type
The force is proportional to

When coil is not energized the plunger is held by spring force. s When energized, the energy stored is L=

4( x + gd / 4a )

0 d 2 N 2

1 Li 2

a = height of pole piece

Plunger type
z

Plunger type
z

Plunger moves when

The pickup current is given as:

m >s

I p = { s / k}( x0 + gd / 4a )

Plunger type

Plunger type
z

Plunger travels xo x1 before it stops. Current must drop below Dropout Current for plunger to return Drop out current is always < pick-up current.

The current at which the mechanical force is equal to the spring force is called the Pickup value .

Plunger type
z

Fig 2.8

Drop out current is always < pick-up current.

I d = { s / K }( x1 + gd / 4a)

Plunger type
z

Plunger type
Relay characteristics is expressed as multiples of pickup values z Most relays have several taps for pickup e.g. 1.0, 2.0 etc
z z

EX 2.1

Relays can operate on both AC and DC systems.

Induction Type Relay

z

Based on induction or interaction of two currents (fluxes): a) b) Induction Disc relay Moving cup induction relay

z z z z

Single phase concepts Iron is stationary

Induction Type Relay

i1 (t ) = I m1 cos( wt ) i2 (t ) = I m 2 cos( wt + )

1 = Lm I m1 cos( wt ) 2 = Lm I m 2 cos( wt + )

Induction Type Relay

z

Induction Type Relay

z

Each of the fluxes induces a voltage in rotor Rotor current flows

The net force is

= KI I {cos wt sin( wt + ) cos( wt + ) sin wt}
m1 m2

ir1 =

wL I 1 d1 = m m1 sin( wt ) Rr dt Rr

= KI I sin
m1 m2

ir 2 =

1 d2 wL I = m m 2 sin( wt + ) Rr dt Rr

Induction Type Relay

z

Induction Type Relay

z z z

Each current interacts with flux to produce force The Two forces are in opposite directions The net force or torque

Force from coil with leading current The net torque is constant If the phase angle is zero , no torque It can work as a level detector, directional relay, etc.

=[1ir2 2ir1]

Induction Type Relay

z

Induction Type Relay

z

Level Detector: Phase shift between original current and another coil current. Place a parallel shunt with one of the coils.

Current in first coil is I Current in second coil is proportional to I. The torque can be :

A torque is produced which is function of the currents in both coils.

=KI
1

Induction Type Relay Fig 2.11

Induction Type Relay

z z z z

A spring keeps the disc from rotating When the torque produced exceeds the spring force, disc rotates It rotates a certain angle to close its contacts. The value of the current at which this happens is called the pickup value or setting.

Induction Type Relay

Example 2.2

Fig 2.12

Induction Type Relay

z z z

Relay can be energized from voltage sources It can act as an under-voltage or overvoltage relay. Also one coil can be energized from current while the other from voltage source. Response to the product Current lags voltage by an angle

Induction Type Relay

z

Induction Type Relay

z

The general torque equation is

=m s =K1 I 2 +K2 V2 +K3 IVsin( +) s

Assume at the point of operation

0 0

Induction Type Relay

Example 2.3

Induction Type Relay

z z

Set K3 = 0 Replace K2= - K2

V I K K

1 2

Induction Type Relay

z

Induction Type Relay

z z

The locus of this is a circle in an X-R plane. It is called the Impedance relay. Torque greater than pickup value, ratio of voltage to current lies inside circle

By adding a current carrying coil proportional to the voltage, the torque 2 = K1 I 2 K 2 (V + K 4 I )

Z + K4 = K1 K2

Center offset by constant.

Induction Type Relay

z

Set

K1 = K 2 = s = 0

VI ( + ) = 0

Z sin ( + ) = 0

This is an equation of a Straight line in X-R plane . Line passes through origin with an angle

Induction Type Relay

Induction Type Relay

z

Assume

K1 = s = 0

This is called a Directional Relay.

Reverse sign of VI term

0 = K 2 V 2 K 3 VI Sin ( + )

Z=

K3 Sin ( + ) K2

Induction Type Relay

z

equation of circle passing this origin, diameter Diameter making an angle with R-plane

Admittance relay