CHAPTER -4 CONTROL CONFIGURATION 4.

1 PID CONTROLLER A proportional-integral-derivative controller (PID controller) is a generic control loop feedback mechanism (controller) widely used in industrial control systems. A PID controller calculates an "error" value as the difference between a measured process variable and a desired set point. The controller attempts to minimize the error by adjusting the process control inputs. The PID controller calculation algorithm involves three separate constant parameters, and is accordingly sometimes called threeterm control: the proportional, the integral and derivative values, denoted P, I, and D. Simply put, these values can be interpreted in terms of time P depends on the present error, I on the accumulation of past errors, and D is a prediction of future errors, based on current rate of change. The weighted sum of these three actions is used to adjust the process via a control element such as the position of a control valve, a damper, or the power supplied to a heating element. In the absence of knowledge of the underlying process, a PID controller has been considered to be the best controller. By tuning the three parameters in the PID controller algorithm, the controller can provide control action designed for specific process requirements. The response of the controller can be described in terms of the responsiveness of the controller to an error, the degree to which the controller overshoots the set point, and the degree of system oscillation. Note that the use of the PID algorithm for control does not guarantee optimal control of the system or system stability. Some applications may require

using only one or two actions to provide the appropriate system control. This is achieved by setting the other parameters to zero. A PID controller will be called a PI, PD, P or I controller in the absence of the respective control actions. PI controllers are fairly common, since derivative action is sensitive to measurement noise, whereas the absence of an integral term may prevent the system from reaching its target value due to the control action.

Plant/Process

( )

( )

( )

The PID control scheme is named after its three correcting terms, whose sum constitutes the manipulated variable (MV). The proportional, integral, and derivative terms are summed to calculate the output of the PID controller. Defining U(t) as the controller output, the final form of the PID algorithm is:

( )

( )

( )

( )

( )

where Proportional gain, a tuning parameter Integral gain, a tuning parameter Derivative gain, a tuning parameter E Error =SP-PV t Time or instantaneous time (the present)

T Variable of integration takes on values from time 0 to the present t. Proportional term The proportional term produces an output value that is proportional to the current error value. The proportional response can be adjusted by multiplying the error by a constant Kp, called the proportional gain constant.

The proportional term is given by ( ) A high proportional gain results in a large change in the output for a given change in the error. If the proportional gain is too high, the system can become unstable (see the section on loop tuning). In contrast, a small gain results in a small output response to a large input error, and a less responsive or less sensitive controller. If the proportional gain is too low, the control action may be too small when responding to system disturbances. Tuning theory and industrial practice indicate that the proportional term should contribute the bulk of the output change.

Droop Because a non-zero error is required to drive it, a proportional controller generally operates with a steady-state error, referred to as droop. Droop is proportional to the process gain and inversely proportional to proportional gain. Droop may be mitigated by adding a compensating bias term to the set point or output, or corrected dynamically by adding an integral term. Integral term The contribution from the integral term is proportional to both the magnitude of the error and the duration of the error. The integral in a PID controller is the sum of the instantaneous error over time and gives the accumulated offset that should have been corrected previously. The accumulated error is then multiplied by the integral gain ( ) and added to the controller output. The integral term is given by ( )

The integral term accelerates the movement of the process towards set point and eliminates the residual steady-state error that occurs with a pure proportional controller. However, since the integral term responds to accumulated errors from the past, it can cause the present value to overshoot the set point value (see the section on loop tuning). Derivative term The derivative of the process error is calculated by determining the slope of the error over time and multiplying this rate of change by the

derivative gain Kd. The magnitude of the contribution of the derivative term to the overall control action is termed the derivative gain, Kd. The derivative term is given by ( ) Derivative action predicts system behavior and thus improves settling time and stability of the system. Derivative action, however, is seldom used in practice because of its inherent sensitivity to measurement noise. If this noise is severe enough, the derivative action will be erratic and actually degrade control performance. Large, sudden changes in the measured error (which typically occur when the set point is changed) cause a sudden, large control action stemming from the derivative term, which goes under the name of derivative kick. This problem can be ameliorated to a degree if the measured error is passed through a linear low-pass filter or a nonlinear but simple median filter.

VOLTAGE CONTROLLER A voltage controller, also called an AC voltage controller or AC regulator is an electronic module based on either thyristors, TRIACs, SCRs or IGBTs, which converts a fixed voltage, fixed frequency alternating current (AC) electrical input supply to obtain variable voltage in output delivered to a resistive load. This varied voltage output is used for dimming street lights, varying heating temperatures in homes or industry, speed control of fans and winding machines and many other applications, in a similar fashion to an autotransformer.[1][2] Voltage controller modules come under the purview of power electronics. Because they are low-maintenance

and very efficient, voltage controllers have largely replaced such modules as magnetic amplifiers and saturable reactors in industrial use. Modes Of Operation Voltage controllers work in two different ways; either through "on-and-off control" or through "phase control". On-and-off control In an on-and-off controller, thyristors are used to switch on the circuits for a few cycles of voltage and off for certain cycles, thus altering the total RMS voltage value of the output and acting as a high speed AC switch. The rapid switching results in high frequency distortion artifacts which can cause a rise in temperature, and may lead to interference in nearby electronics. Such designs are not practical except in low power applications. Phase angle control In phase angle control, thyristors are used to halve the voltage cycle during input. By controlling the phase angle or trigger angle, the output RMS voltage of the load can be varied. The thyristor is turned on for every halfcycle and switched off for each remaining half-cycle. The phase angle is the position at which the thyristor is switched on. TRIACs are often used instead of thyristors to perform the same function for better efficiency. If the load is a combination of resistance and inductance, the current cycle lags the voltage cycle, decreasing overall power output

LIMITER In electronics, a limiter is a circuit that allows signals below a specified input power to pass unaffected while attenuating the peaks of stronger signals that exceed this input power.