Ip Fundamentals PDF

0229 IP Fundamentals Readme, Issue 1.
0
Important InformationRead Me First
Welcome
Welcome to Self Paced eLearning course 0229TW IP Fundamentals. Course
0229TW is designed to provide you with an introduction to the basic concepts of IP
networking, the IP Suite, and the basics of routing.
Regardless of your current level of knowledge, you will gain from this course a
solid understanding of how a packet moves from the source workstation to the
destination workstation and the major steps performed along the way, including
how data is segmented, how headers are added or stripped off, and how a file travels
through the IP stack.
Use the enclosed student guide to follow along in the presentation. The end-of-
course assessment test for this course (0229A) is based on the most current
courseware and Nortel technical publications.
Check to make sure you have received, or have access to, the following materials.
Checklist of Course Materials
Enjoy your training and good luck!
Item
Access the Self Paced eLearning course 0229TW - IP Fundamentals presentation using
either:
Your My Training page to view 0229W, or
The CD that was sent to you if you ordered 0229T
One student guide titled: 0229T - IP Fundamentals
2 of 2 Important InformationRead Me First
0229IP Fundamentals Readme, Issue 1.0
IP FUNDAMENTALS
COURSE 0229T - VOLUME 2.0
Information in this courseware is provided for training. This courseware may not be reproduced without written
permission.
Nortel, the Nortel logo, and the Globemark are trademarks of Nortel Networks Limited. All other trademarks
are the property of their respective holders.Printed in North America.
Copyright 2006 Nortel Networks, All Rights Reserved
Publication date: September 2006
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Issue 02 0229T - IP Fundamentals
Contents
Important InformationRead Me First 1
Course Introduction 1
1.0 A Global IP Network 1
Understanding the Internet 2
What does the Internet look like? 4
Network Access Points 5
Growth of the Internet 9
Evolution of the Internet 9
Milestones of the 1970s 10
Introduction to IP Networking 13
Components of an IP Network 14
Network Types 15
Moving Information Across the Network 17
How a Message Travels Across the Network 17
File Transfer Protocol 18
IP Network Addressing 19
Follow the Message Path 20
TCP/IP Protocol Suite 26
Summary 27
2.0 Protocols and Protocol Stacks 1
Differing Perspectives of Users and Network Managers 2
Issues in Daily Life 2
What is a Protocol? 3
Purpose of Reference Models 6
Communicating 6
Data Communications Tasks 8
Layering Protocols 10
OSI Reference Model 14
OSI Reference Model Layers 14
Application Layer 15
Presentation Layer 15
Session Layer 16
Transport Layer 16
Network Layer 17
Data Link Layer 18
Physical Layer 18
IP Suite Layers 19
Application Layer 19
Transport Layer 20
Internet Layer 20
Network Interface Layer 21
Comparing the OSI and IP Suite 22
Protocols of the IP Suite Layers 23
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Application Layer Protocols 23
Transport Layer Protocols 25
Internet Layer Protocols 26
Network Interface Layer Protocols 28
Packaging a Message 29
Summary 37
3.0 Network Addressing 1
IP Responsibilities, Functions and Process 2
IP Rules 3
IP Addressing 4
IP Address Format 5
Separate Parts of Addresses 6
Binary to Decimal 7
Decimal to Binary 10
Practice - Binary to Decimal 11
Answers - Binary to Decimal 12
Practice - Decimal to Binary 13
Answers - Decimal to Binary 14
IP Address Classes 15
Class C Networks 18
Network Numbers 21
Obtaining an IP Number 21
Network Plan 21
Routers 26
IPv6 Addressing 27
Subnet Addressing 28
How Subnets are Used 30
Subnet Addressing Format 31
Address Mask 34
Natural Mask 35
Natural and Subnet Masks 36
Implementing Subnet Addresses 38
Principles of the Mask and Subnet 44
How It Works 44
Apply Subnet Addressing 45
Address Resolution Protocol 47
How Does the IP Address Stay With a Message 48
ARP Functionality 48
How ARP Works 49
Message Formats 51
ARP Request Dialog 52
ARP Features 53
Function of DHCP 54
Static IP Address 54
DHCP Server 55
Fixed Address and DHCP Assigned 56
How DHCP Works 57
Dynamic Address Assignment 58
Advantages of Temporary Address Assignment 59
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Disadvantages of Temporary Address Assignment 60
Summary 62
4.0 Routing Overview 1
Need for Routing 2
Routers 4
Default Router 6
Delivery Methods 8
Direct Routing 10
Indirect Routing 11
Direct or Indirect Routing 12
Role of Routers in Indirect Routing 14
Routing Tables 15
What Do Routing Tables Contain? 16
Minimum Requirements 18
An Intranet 21
Path Direction 24
Transmission Headers 25
Transmission Headers in Detail 27
Making Routing Happen 36
Autonomous System 37
Interior Gateway Protocols 40
Exterior Gateway Protocols 41
Static vs. Dynamic Routing 41
Static Routing 42
Dynamic Routing 44
Default Routes 46
Wild Card 48
Summary 52
5.0 Routing Information Protocol 1
Fundamentals of RIP 3
RIP Update Messages 3
RIP Characteristics 5
Routing Tables - A Closer Look 6
The RIP Routing Table 8
Building the Routing Table 9
Example Company Network 9
Network Changes 34
Link Failure 35
Convergence 39
Routing Decisions and Issues 42
Routing Decisions 42
Routing Decisions and Parallel Links 43
Routing Loops 44
Loop Between Routers 45
Split-Horizon 46
Poison Reverse 47
RIP Version 1 and RIP Version 2 48
RIP and OSPF Compared 49
OSPF Protocol 49
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0229T - IP Fundamentals Issue 02
Protocols Compared 50
Summary 52
6.0 Transport Layer Overview 1
Transport Layer Protocols 2
TCP: Reliable Transport Service 3
UDP: Best Effort Transport Service 4
Determining Where Data is Sent 5
Reliable and Unreliable Transport Services 6
TCP 7
TCP Services 8
Error Correction 9
Cost Associated With TCP 10
TCP Operations 11
Flow Control and Reliability 18
Applications Using TCP 19
UDP 20
UDP Services 21
Summary 22
7.0 Application Layer 1
Network Applications 2
Client/Server Configuration 3
Application Programs 4
Message From Source Computer to Destination Computer 5
Application Functions 5
Telnet 7
Why and How Telnet is Used 8
Telnet Host Advantages 9
Using Telnet 10
Examples of Telnet Usage 11
File Transfer Protocol 12
FTP Transfer 13
Examples of FTP Usage 15
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol 16
How SMTP is Used 17
Internet Mail Message Addresses 20
Email Use 21
HyperText Transfer Protocol 22
How HTTP is Used 23
URL vs. FTP and Telnet 23
Examples of HTTP Usage 24
Domain Name Service 25
IP Numeric Scheme 25
Naming Structure 25
DNS Hierarchy 26
Fully Qualified Domain Name 29
DNS in Action 30
Name Servers 30
Example of DNS 31
Summary 37
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8.0 Life of a Packet 1
The Scenario 2
TCP or UDP 3
From Source to Destination 3
Our Network Environment 4
Our Networks Class 5
IP and Hardware MAC Addresses 7
Network Specifications 8
Workstation and Router Addresses 10
Network and Router Topology 13
RIP Update Messages 13
The FTP Message 20
Destination IP Address 21
Our Packets Journey 22
Stage 1: FTP Application to Router 1 24
Stage 2: Packet Journey 35
Summary 54
IP Networking Summary 62
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Course Introduction
Welcome to Nortels self-study course 0229 IP Fundamentals. This guided course
introduces you to the Internet Protocol (IP) Suite, its basic architecture, and the
major protocols involved.
In this course, you will learn the basic concepts of IP networking and routing. These
fundamentals will give you a background understanding of terminology and
concepts for later courses.
Course Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:
Describe the Internet as an IP network.
Describe the two major networking software stack models:
OSI 7-Layer model
TCP/IP 4-Layer model
Describe the major networking protocols.
Explain the role of IP addressing in Message Delivery.
Describe the principle of routing.
Explain how RIP concepts are embodied in routing tables.
Describe the journey of a packet.
2 of 12 Course Introduction
Notes
Course Overview
Regardless of your current level of knowledge, you will gain from this course a
solid understanding of how a packet moves from a source workstation to a
destination workstation and the major steps along the way, including how data is
segmented, how headers are added or stripped off, and how a file travels through
the IP stack.
In this course, we discuss the following topics
What is the Internet and what is IP networking
How the OSI Model and IP Suite help us understand how networks work
Network Addressing, including subnetting and Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP) and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Routing services, network routing, and routing tables
Router Information Protocol (RIP) and Open Shortest Path First (OSPF),
including routing loops, split-horizon, and poison reverse
Transport Protocols, including Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and User
Datagram Protocol (UDP), and port and socket numbers
Application Protocols, including Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP), Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and
Domain Name Service (DNS)
Using These Course Materials
During your Self Paced eLearning session, you might find that you need to pause
the viewer and read your student guide more carefully, or if you have questions,
refer to an earlier lesson.
You might also want to pause your session to work the exercises in this student
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and your Self Paced eLearning courseware however you feel is best for you.
Course Introduction 3 of 12
Notes
If you have a suggestion or want to comment on this course, please fill out the end-
of-course survey found under the Resources List link or on your My Training page
on the Global Knowledge website.
Note: If you have problems getting to this site, call Global Knowledge Technical
Support at 1.866.456.2085 (or from outside the U.S. and Canada, call
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Prerequisites, Skills, and Assessment Testing
Intended Audience and Prerequisite Skills
Course 0229T Self Paced eLearning course, IP Fundamentals, introduces you to the
basic concepts of IP addressing, IP networking, the OSI Reference model, IP Suite,
and the basics of routing. Before taking 0229, students must demonstrate an
elementary understanding of networks.
Assessment Testing
Upon completing your training, return to your My Training page. You should see
this course listed and a link titled Post-Training Survey & Exam. After you select
this link, you will be presented with a short survey about the training you took. After
you finish the survey and return to your My Training page, you will see the link
Take Your Exam. If you have questions, please contact Self Paced eLearning
Support by sending an email to cbtsupp.nest@globalknowledge.com or by calling
1.866.456.2085 and pressing button 4, then button 3.
Course 0229 provides self-paced instruction and knowledge checks. Test your
knowledge of the material discussed in this course by taking the assessment test
0229A.
Notes
Self Paced eLearning Equipment Requirements
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Before beginning this course, make sure your computer and your Internet
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eLearning Equipment Requirements
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Prerequisite Description
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Disable all pop-up blockers
Notes
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Question Answer
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Question Answer
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Question Answer
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Question Answer
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Question Answer
Notes
1.0 A Global IP Network
Introduction
From small companies to global conglomerates, Internet Protocol (IP) networks
form the backbone of data transmission worldwide. The software on which these
networks run has developed with the growth of the Internet, and the Internet is the
largest IP network in the world. The Internet has become a standard
communications tool in thousands of companies, and reaches millions of people
around the globe.
References to the Internet are everywhere. From business reports to magazines, on
television and radio, the terminology and jargon of the Internet is now
commonplace.
An understanding of the Internet is useful to the study of Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Since the Internet is the largest IP network in
the world, we will use it to become familiar with the details of IP networking. We
will develop a detailed understanding of how a message is transmitted between
distant points of the Internet by being passed along local and regional networks to
its destination.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
Define the term Internet.
List the reasons for the continuing increase in IP networks.
Understand and list the access levels that make up the structure of the Internet as
an IP network.
Articulate how the Internet, internets, and intranets are used.
List the milestones that contributed to Internet growth.
Describe the attributes of an IP network.
Understand and describe how a message is sent through IP networks.
2 of 32 1.0 A Global IP Network
Notes
Understanding the Internet
We have stated that the Internet is the largest IP data network in the world. But why
is it called an IP network? Because it is based on IP. In this lesson, we also refer to
the IP Suite, which is another name for TCP/IP.
So, how do we define the Internet? References to the Internet and addresses such as
www.nortel.com are part of our culture. But what do these addresses define? And
how do we answer the question: What is the Internet?
Well, the answer depends on who you ask. It is a reflection of how deeply the
Internet has become part of our lives that we have come up with so many diverse
answers. For most people, the answer reflects their experience and viewpoint. The
most common perceptions involve personal experience, and include the following.
Entertainment or amusement
Retail destinations and the ability to purchase goods or services
Computer hardware; not only as a source or reference, but as an awareness of the
hardware that comprises the Internet itself
Computer software; again, both as a source or reference, as well as a collection of
software itself
A resource for information or exploration that is both responsive and plentiful
A community of people, acquainted through chat and forum groups, usually
because they share a common interest or hobby
A grouping of services, such as email, news groups, File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
or the popular World Wide Web (WWW)
From a technical point of view, the Internet is a collection of interconnected
computer networks that span the globe. These networks are cooperatively
administered; this enormous group of computers has agreed to communicate with
one another, and so, out of necessity, must speak the same language.
1.0 A Global IP Network 3 of 32
Notes
The foundation of this interconnection is the IP Suite. It is similar to a universal
language that practically every computer understands without needing a special
translator. The IP Suite enables cooperation among countless networks that use a
variety of equipment from diverse manufacturing vendors.
The IP Suite is made up of communication protocols that allow computers to
share and exchange resources across networks, plus application protocols that
support various services, such as the World Wide Web (WWW), email, and File
Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Defining an IP Network
Email
Web Browsing
File Transfer
Notes
What does the Internet look like?
Again, a technical answer is that the Internet is a network of connected data
channels. A good analogy is our highway system. The big U.S. interstate highways
handle huge amounts of traffic, and usually connect major cities or hubs to one
another.
State routes and thoroughfares also handle a lot of traffic, but serve more regional
travel. Roads typically have less traffic capacity, and connect areas within a region.
Finally, town streets and lanes bring you to a specific building or address.
Similarly, the Internet is a network of data pipes with varying capacities. High-
bandwidth backbones connect to a series of networks with decreasing capacity, each
becoming more specific until reaching the single end user.
And just as different vehicles can travel on roadways, from trailer trucks, vans, and
passenger vehicles to motorcycles, so can different data information, such as text,
graphics, voice, and video, travel the Internet.
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Text
Voice
Video
Graphics
End User
Notes
Network Access Points
In the U.S., there are five levels of access that comprise the Internet.
1. Network Access Points (NAPs) are physical points across the country that
connect the national backbone, and provide international connection points.
2. The national backbone providers, or Network Service Providers (NSPs),
connect to this series of NAPs.
3. Next in the hierarchy are Regional Network Providers (RNPs) that provide
access in a state or among adjoining states.
4. The RNPs lease connections to Internet Service Providers (ISPs) or Internet
Access Providers (IAPs) that offer dial-up and leased-line access to individuals
or businesses.
5. The consumers, or end users, are the individuals and businesses that purchase
access, usually based on bandwidth, time spent connected, or traffic.
Notes
These five levels of Internet can also overlap. Some companies, such as Sprint,
provide service at several levels. And, in each region, there can be many ISPs of
different sizes that connect to a regional provider, or RNP, and supply access to
businesses and consumers, the end-user level.
Overlapping Levels of Network Access
Overlapping Levels of Network Access (Continued)
All networks at each of the five levels are running IP. The entire global system is
made up of a patchwork of interconnected computers in which all systems use IP.
Notes
Who Controls the Internet?
No single governing body controls what happens on the Internet. While several
companies help manage various parts of the networks that tie services together, and
organizations that coordinate administrative functions, no one owns the Internet.
The Internet grows as people build computer networks and link their networks
to others around the world. Outside of the U.S., these networks can be funded,
and therefore managed, according to local policies.
Two organizations coordinate the administrative functions of the Internet. The
number of coordinating organizations is expected to increase as the Internet
expands.
The Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) is responsible for technical matters,
such as protocols.
The Internet Network Information Center (InterNIC) keeps track of domain and
host names.
IETF and InterNIC
Notes
Getting Connected
Information is delivered based on addresses, similar in principle to the postal
mailing system. For example, letters can successfully be sent around the world
based on the recipient address on the envelope, because everyone has agreed on
the format of the name, street address, city, state or region, postal code, and country.
Internet messages also have associated addresses, which steer them from one
computer to another through a maze of networks, guiding them finally to the
recipient. Similar to our letter analogy, without the address or with an address that
is vague or meaningless, our message might become lost.
Connecting to the Internet requires you to meet similar conditions.
Your computer must communicate using IP.
Your computer must have an IP addressa unique number assigned by your ISP.
The ISP gets blocks of IP addresses from the U.S. InterNIC.
Outside of the U.S., a similar world registry organization grants the blocks of
addresses to local ISPs.
Connecting to the Internet
Your computer must be connected to another system running IP, that system must
be connected to other systems, and those systems to yet other systems, all of them
running IP.
Internet
Your Computer
IP Address
Your Computer
Uses IP
Notes
Growth of the Internet
The Internet feels like a recent development, especially because of its continuing
growth at a truly astonishing speed. While it is certainly vast and contains immense
amounts of information, new users and new networks come online every day. Yet,
it has been around since the late 1960s.
As new technologies enabled people to discover new ways to use and enhance the
network, the network grew and evolved. The Internet is a work in progress and will
continue to grow and evolve into the future.
Evolution of the Internet
Key developments made a huge impact and paved the way for the recent dynamic
growth of the Internet. Perhaps we can get a sense of where it is headed in the future.
We begin by discussing the ARPANET, which is the network that preceded todays
Internet.
ARPANET
In the late 1960s a need arose. The cold war was at a peak in the U.S. and the
government realized it needed a fail-safe means of communication in the event
of a nuclear war. The Department of Defense funded the Advanced Research
Projects Agency Network (ARPANET) to deliver messages in an unreliable
environment. ARPANET needed to meet two strict mandates:
Communication must not depend on a centralized command center, which would
make it vulnerable to attack.
Communication must not shut down, even if a switch or path failed.
In December of 1969, the first decentralized packet-switching network came
online. This network was composed of four interconnected supercomputers that re-
routed messages around any points of failure, and was called the Advanced
Research Projects Agency Network (ARPANET).
Notes
Milestones of the 1970s
In the early 1970s, the use of email became widespread. The initial ability of
networking to share research information and computer facilities across great
distances soon evolved into a form of communication among scientists, who
exchanged news and personal messages. Two major developments took place:
Email emerged on the ARPANET.
Researchers defined TCP/IP, the protocols that work together to allow computer
communications across multiple networks. Throughout the 1970s, scientists
enhanced TCP/IP, and it became the communications protocol suite that continues
to be used today.
TCP/IP allowed the network to accommodate many different kinds of
machines. This, coupled with the decentralized structure, meant that it was
relatively easy to connect to the network. As long as computers could speak TCP/IP,
the language of the network, any issues about brand, type, ownership, or content
became irrelevant.
Growth throughout the 1970s was significant. In 1969, there were only
four original hosts that brought the ARPANET online. In 1971, the number of
hosts grew to 15. By 1972, in just one year, the number of hosts doubled to 32.
Notes
In the 1980s, TCP/IP was adopted as a standard protocol. IP, which enables
messages to travel across multiple types of networks, including Ethernet, Token
Ring, Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), and X.25, was installed on the
ARPANET in 1983, and officially adopted as a standard. Other networks could link
up, as long as they used IP.
The ability to communicate across different networks became such a clear
advantage that system builders and software developers widely accepted and
conformed to the IP Suite.
Support from the computer manufacturing sector resulted in stunning growth:
In 1981, there were 157 hosts on the Internet.
In 1985, that number grew to 1,761 hosts.
In 1989, there were 143,000 hosts, all using IP.
Notes
In the 1990s, Mosaic and the emergence of the WWW brought explosive growth of
the Internet.
In November 1993, a program called Mosaic was released from the University of
Michigan. It was a user-friendly graphical interface for PCs and Macintoshes,
which allowed people to browse through visually pleasing information using a
mouse-click. This was revolutionary because prior to Mosaic, users could only
access information using a command line interface, and they had to know exactly
where information was located; information gathering required expertise in both IP
networks and applications.
Mosaic was so easy to use it became the primary application running over IP.
It also ushered in the presence of the WWW. Use began to double each year. Easy-
to-use Internet applications and the emergence of the WWW meant that now
average computer users could easily access networked resources and information.
Corporations quickly realized how cost-effective it was to adopt the same basic
applications, protocols, and architecture to distribute their own information within
the company. Internal IP networks proliferated and were named intranets.
Similarly, extranets, or virtual private networks (VPNs), emerged as secure
extensions of an organizations intranet. These gave confidential access to partners,
collaborators, or suppliers outside the bounds of the company.
Internet growth during the 1990s was spectacular:
In 1993, there were 1.2 million hosts on the Internet.
In 1995, the number of hosts was 4.9 million.
By the end of year 2005, there were 150 million hosts on the Internet.
At the beginning of 2006, there were over 394 million.
So, what began as a government research project grew into a global network in just
over 30 years. At the heart of this network is the IP Suite, making it possible for
people all over the world to share information, regardless of the types of computers
or the kinds of networks they use. This multitude of smaller networks collaborates
to form the Internet, the largest IP network in the world.
Notes
Introduction to IP Networking
Protocols are at the heart of IP networking. Many are accepted as standards by
all vendors. The best-known protocol is TCP/IP, but there are more than
200 protocols associated with IP networking. So far, we have focused on protocols
that deal with how to send information. Other protocols are associated with network
management, applications, and computer name-to-address translation, just to name
a few.
IP is flexible in its ability to work across any network infrastructure, and IP
networks offer a wide variety of services. These services include:
Flexibility: IP is vendor-independent, and is sold by a wide variety of vendors.
Administration: IP handles the details of message delivery, including provisions
to manage problems.
Connectivity: IP networks work with any physical media, or cabling, which can
include copper wire, satellite, microwave, coax cable, and cellular media, in
situations from short distances within a single building to great spans across
countries.
Compatibility: IP allows any pair of connected computers to communicate,
regardless of size, location, or manufacturer.
Hosting: IP supports client-server computing, where user devices share
information or applications located on a server or host.
Collaboration: IP supports a variety of networks, such as Ethernet, token ring,
Frame Relay, FDDI, Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), and others.
Scalability: IP works with computers of all sizes, including PCs, workstations,
minicomputers, mainframes, and supercomputers.
Delivery: IP networks provide applications such as FTP, Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP), or HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) that enable users to
send files to another computer, send or receive messages, or access information
using a graphical interface.
Notes
Components of an IP Network
In the figure below is a typical IP enterprise network topology. The network at the
corporate headquarters is comprised of several interconnected LANs. The LANs, in
turn, connect to the Internet. The convention for this image is that each cloud
depicts many interconnected networks, but for simplicity they are not shown. Think
of them as being there, but just not in focus.
You also see a branch office, which has one or more LANs that also connect to the
Internet. And finally, you see a remote user that can dial back into the company
network through the Internet.
The physical elements of an IP network generally fall into two basic categories:
network types and hardware components. The IP Suite software is also present
as an additional network component within the devices, enabling all of the elements
to work together.
Example of IP Enterprise Network and Typical Network Topology
Notes
Network Types
A network type is the category that defines the part of a network that connects
hardware components, and is generally defined by its function and size.
A wide variety of network types can be connected to and part of the Internet. For
example, a LAN can be a network connecting computer equipment on a campus or
within a building, in a defined area. Token Ring, Ethernet, and FDDI are all network
types within the LAN classification.
In contrast, a WAN is a network spanning a large geographic area, such as a state or
a country. Frame Relay, X.25, and ATM are examples of network types within the
WAN classification.
Network Types
Notes
Hardware Components
Hardware components are easier to define. User devices include PCs, workstations,
and printers, all connected to LANs. Servers are the computers on a network that
run the programs that are accessed by user devices.
Routers join, or connect, networks together and direct messages between
networks by sending them on appropriate paths. The networks connected to routers
can be of different types, such as Frame Relay, ATM, Token Ring, or Ethernet.
Software Components
IP is the networking software protocol suite that enables the various networks and
their components to work together. The IP Suite is also used by applications, most
of which are client-server style. The client is the software running on a workstation
or PC, that can request information from a remote computer that is running the
server software program.
Client-server applications allow users to share the information held on a server.
Examples of client-server applications that use IP are email, FTP, and Telnet.
Notes
Moving Information Across the Network
You now know that a lot of actions take place in order to send information from one
computer on a local network, through the Internet, to a distant recipient computer
on its own local network. Hardware, network, and software components are all
involved.
How a Message Travels Across the Network
In this next section, we will follow a single message from one edge of the Internet
to the other, to examine what events take place and which of the components
previously discussed are involved at each step of the way.
How a Message Travels
Notes
File Transfer Protocol
If you want to send a graphics file to a friend, use an application for sending files
between computers called File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
As shown in the figure below, you create a message at computer 1, which is
connected to Branch Office network 1. The message is sent across several LANs
and through the Internet to the Corporate Network, network 2, where it is delivered
to computer 4, your friends computer
Message Across the Network
Before we go further, we need to define some terms. A source computer is the
computer where the message is created. A destination computer is connected to a
destination network, and is the recipient of a message.
Notes
IP Network Addressing
Message routing and delivery is designated with IP network addressing, which we
cover in greater detail later in this course. For now, we will use a simplified
networking address format, which is not correct addressing structure, but will
demonstrate the general addressing principles.
Addresses in an IP network (IP addresses) are unique, and are a combination of a
network ID and a computer ID. In our example, you will send a message to your
friends computer, which has the simplified ID of 4. It is connected to network 2, so
the address is designated as network2,computer4 and is the destination address.
The source computer, your computer, is designated as network1,computer1.
Addresses in our example are similar to true IP addresses only in that they follow
the two-part representation of an IP address: network and host.
IP Network Addressing
Notes
Follow the Message Path
We will follow the path the message will travel from computer 1 to computer 4 in
several stages. In this example, we start by creating a message in the Branch Office.
Action 1: From PC Across the Branch Network
First, create the message:
1. Start the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) application on your computer.
2. Indicate you want to send a graphics file. When the program prompts you for an
address, enter network2,computer4.
3. The IP software on your computer breaks up your graphics file into smaller
pieces or packets, and attaches addresses to each one.
4. Then, the message is sent on the LAN. If the destination computer is on the same
network with the source computer, the IP software sends it locally. If the
destination computer is on a different network, the IP software sends the
message to a router (Action 2).
From PC Across the Branch Office
Notes
Action 2: Beyond the Local Network
The router on network 1 with your computer receives the packets bound for your
friends computer on network 2. The IP software, also running on the router, must
find a route for the messages. It does this by using the destination network ID
address attached to your message.
Routers use tables to look up addresses and determine the best route. The steps are
listed below.
1. The router notes the destination network address on the message.
2. The router accesses a table that lists the destination network addresses.
3. When the router software finds the destination network address, it retrieves the
instructions for sending the message.
4. The message is then sent along the way, and travels one step closer to its
destination. In our case, it goes out to the Internet.
Beyond the Local Network
Notes
Which Path to Choose?
Routers use a variety of methods to determine what path to choose to send messages
across networks. Examples include Routing Information Protocol (RIP) and Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF). We revisit these in detail in a later lesson. The Internet
is made up of a multitude of independent networks that communicate with one
another. Routers connect these networks.
Messages often pass through dozens of different networks, and get shuffled from
router to router on the path toward their final destination. Yet when you send a
message, all of this is invisible to you.
Choosing a Path
Notes
Action 3: Router-to-Router Across the Network
The next leg of the trip is across the Internet. Between each pair of networks are
routers. The processing at this intermediary router happens repeatedly at each
network as it steps closer and closer to the destination network:
1. A router receives the message and hands it to the IP software responsible for
sending packets over the Internet toward their destination computer.
2. The software examines the destination addresses on the message, and determines
if the destination computer resides on the same local network as the router. If it
does, it sends the message directly to the computer on the local network.
3. If the software determines that the message is addressed to a distant network, the
routing table software and IP work together to forward the message to the next
router along its path.
Router-to-Router Across the Network
Notes
Action 4: Final Router Path
The final router on the path of the message is on the same network as the destination
computer.
Action 5: Message Arrives at Destination
Finally, the message arrives at network 2, on which your friends computer is
located.
The router receives the message and checks the destination address. When the
router determines the destination network address matches the address of the
network it is attached to, it sends it directly to your friends computer, computer4.
Message Arrives at Destination
Notes
Last Step: Message Received at Destination Computer
One last step remains before your friend can see the graphics file you are sending.
The message needs to be received. IP software is on all devices in an IP network,
including the destination computer:
1. At the destination computer, the IP software checks for any errors in each of the
smaller message fragments, or packets. If an error is detected, it is likely that the
software requests retransmission.
2. If all of the packets arrive error-free, the IP software reconstructs the original
message from the packets.
3. The reconstructed graphics file is then sent to the FTP application and can be
viewed by your friend.
From Source to Final Destination
Notes
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
IP is the protocol suite that all computers connected to the Internet agree to use.
Dissimilar products from different vendors can all communicate successfully if they
agree to conform to IP standards.
One reason for the huge expansion of the Internet is that the communication relies
on the TCP/IP Suite, rather than the brand, operating system, or access provider you
use. Those personal preferences are irrelevant when distilled down to the
standardization of IP networking protocol.
TCP/IP Suite and IP Standards
Notes
Summary
The ability of IP technology to work on a variety of platforms, with any brand of
equipment, and using different network types, is directly responsible for the
continued growth and increasing popularity of IP networks.
The Internet is technically a cooperatively run collection of interconnected
computer networks that all use IP, but the Internet can mean different things to
different people, depending on their personal experiences.
The Internet consists of the following five levels of access: the NAPs at the level of
interconnect; the NSPs, which make up the national backbone; the RNPs, which
provide the backbone at a state or regional level; and the ISPs that receive lease
connections from one of the backbone network levels and offer access to the fifth
level, the end user or individual consumers.
IP networks enable users to share information across platforms, across networks,
and across the globe.
Internet growth and popularity increased dramatically because of significant
milestones, including the development of email, the adoption of TCP/IP standards,
and the user-friendly graphical interface Mosaic.
IP network technologies enable dissimilar physical networks and computers to
connect with a common data communication language and function as a
coordinated system.
Messages sent through IP networks might be passed along multiple networks to
reach their destination network address, and all of the equipment that performs
these tasks is running IP software protocols, which are the foundation of IP
networking.
Notes
Practice Questions
To test your knowledge of the materials introduced in this lesson, answer the
following questions.
1. What is ARPANET?
a) A protocol
b) The network that preceded the Internet
c) A router
d) A new planet found in the solar system
2. In 1993, which application was released for PCs and Macintoshes that provided
the first interface for viewing graphical content over the Internet?
a) Email
b) File transfer
c) Netscape
d) Mosaic
3. Define the term Internet.
a) Any set of networks interconnected with routers and running IP protocol
b) An extended corporate network that allows customers controlled access to
company data
c) A collection of interconnected IP networks, spanning the globe
d) The World Wide Web
4. What significant benefit does an IP network offer?
a) It works with any physical network media
b) It is secure
c) It supports only Ethernet
d) It ignores any errors
e) All of the above
Notes
5. What is the primary task of a router?
a) To host applications
b) To connect networks together
c) To manage FTP file transfers
d) To host files
6. An IP address consists of which pairs of components?
a) Hardware and software addresses
b) Source and destination addresses
c) TCP and IP headers
d) Network and host address portions
Notes
Answers to Practice
Check your answers to the practice.
1. What is ARPANET?
a) A protocol
b) The network that preceded the Internet
c) A router
d) A new planet found in the solar system
2. In 1993, which application was released for PCs and Macintoshes that provided
the first interface for viewing graphical content over the Internet?
a) Email
b) File transfer
c) Netscape
d) Mosaic
3. Define the term Internet.
a) Any set of networks interconnected with routers and running IP protocol
(The internet consists of many sets of interconnected IP networks, not just
one.)
b) An extended corporate network that allows customers controlled access to
company data
(An extended corporate network is known as an extranet.)
c) A collection of interconnected IP networks, spanning the globe
d) The World Wide Web
(The WWW is the part of the internet that uses HTTP protocol.)
Notes
4. What significant benefit does an IP network offer?
a) It works with any physical network media
(An IP network is not necessarily secure. It supports various physical
topologies, not just Ethernet. And, it can allow for error checking if TCP is
used.)
b) It is secure
c) It supports only Ethernet
d) It ignores any errors
e) All of the above
5. What is the primary task of a router?
a) To host applications
b) To connect networks together
c) To manage FTP file transfers
d) To host files
6. An IP address consists of which pairs of components?
a) Hardware and software addresses
b) Source and destination addresses
c) TCP and IP headers
d) Network and host address portions
(An IP address does not include a hardware address. If one IP address is a
source, another, separate IP address must be the destination. Finally, a header
may contain IP addresses, but an IP address does not contain a header.)
Notes
2.0 Protocols and Protocol Stacks
Introduction
The previous lesson covered how the IP Suite enables networks of different types
and with various components to communicate effectively, and how the adoption of
IP standards has been a key factor in the growth of the Internet.
This lesson examines IP more closely and explores layered protocol structures,
starting with the Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) Reference Model and examining
the advantages and implementations of subdividing tasks across layers.
You will learn about the four IP Suite layers, and compare the OSI Reference and
IP Suite models. Software and hardware addressing play a vital role in layered
protocol structures and how those structures break large assignments down into
smaller tasks, with protocols at each layer handling a specific duty while working
in cooperation with one another across layers.
Objectives
Explain the advantages of protocol stack layering.
List the seven layers of the OSI Reference model and the functions of each layer.
Discuss the four IP Suite layers and their comparable functions.
Compare the OSI Reference model and the IP Suite models.
Identify major IP Suite protocols with their associated layers.
Define software and hardware IP addresses.
Describe the purpose of message headers.
2 of 44 2.0 Protocols and Protocol Stacks
Notes
Differing Perspectives of Users and Network Managers
Before we discuss the advantages of the IP Suite, we will look at the different
perspectives of users and network managers.
Issues in Daily Life
Your need to understand how the IP Suite directly relates to the way you use IP
networking in your daily work.
Movement of Information
The IP Suite, or TCP/IP Suite, is a collection of protocols that handles the
movement of information through computer networks.
If you send messages using email over the Internet or intranet, you use
applications that handle this data for you. You probably do not think much about
the IP network.
If your responsibilities include sending large files, you need to know more to
make sure the recipient gets those files successfully.
If you are on a team that is responsible for configuring and troubleshooting
equipment on your companys IP network, your understanding needs to be
much deeper.
If your work supports or maintains an IP network, you want to understand the
most common underlying protocols and standards that direct your company's
communication network.
IP is the foundation of the IP Suite.
2.0 Protocols and Protocol Stacks 3 of 44
Notes
What is a Protocol?
The word protocol originated in government and diplomacy, and describes a set of
rules that all participants must follow in order to communicate.
Computer networking protocols are a set of rules that coordinate the way
information is exchanged between computers. Even if the computers are of different
types, with different operating systems, they can exchange information as long as
they follow the same protocols. They can even run different software, as long as
that software can manage the same protocols.
By following these protocols, or rules, communications between computers is
sent and received properly. These protocols direct a wide range of processes, from
the simple to the remarkably complex, all by working together in a well-defined
way.
Computer Networking Protocols
The IP Suite, or TCP/IP Suite, is a grouping of these protocols that controls and
directs complex tasks like sending email across the country, or even to another
continent.
Notes
User Perspective
From a typical users point of view, protocols run applications that allow them to
complete their daily tasks, and those programs can use the Internet or an IP network
to function.
The users are not concerned about the underlying technology or protocols that
govern the details. They just want their programs to work, and their data to be sent
easily.
Network Managers Perspective
The technical personnel who install, maintain, control, and monitor IP networks
must understand more than just the application protocols. Multiple protocols must
function together to get the job done for the user. Technical personnel need to
understand the protocol services in the protocol suite and the interrelationships of
those rules, in order to perform troubleshooting and support tasks.
For example, when a user working at his or her PC launches a file transfer
application, that application uses a protocol that defines the rules for the program,
including the rules that direct how to specify which file or files to send.
File Transfer
Notes
Troubleshooting and Support
However, the file needs a lot more direction in order to get to its destination. Other
protocols govern the many details of actually transporting that message
electronically through the network. And still more protocols are involved in
accepting that information and delivering it to the recipient.
Many Protocols Used
If the message does not get to its destination properly, an understanding of the steps
or protocols involved in the task, as well as their functions and interrelationships, is
necessary for troubleshooting and support. A different level of knowledge is needed
by users and by network managers.
Send
Receive
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Protocols
Notes
Purpose of Reference Models
Advances in data communications developed simultaneously, with different
companies investigating and establishing different ways of accomplishing similar
tasks, and defining those task protocols according to their own equipment or
networks.
Communicating
Because these individual protocols were vendor-specific, it hindered the growth of
data communications. Each vendor approached the communication solutions in a
different way, and created proprietary protocols that ran under very specific
conditions or with particular equipment.
Vendor-Specific Protocols
Proprietary
Systems
Brand X
Proprietary
Systems
Brand Y
Proprietary
Systems
Brand Z
Brand-specific protocols wont connect
to different-vendor systems
Brand-specific protocols wont connect
to different-vendor systems
Notes
For consumers, this meant that in order to communicate with others, both parties
had to use the same solutions, and often the products of one particular vendor.
Brand-Specific Protocols
Imagine each networking connection and each pair of different devices requiring a
separate program written specifically for that connection in order to allow data
communication. It is overwhelming.
Proprietary
Systems
Brand Y
Proprietary
Systems
Brand Y
Proprietary
Systems
Brand Y
Brand-specific protocols only connect
to same-vendor systems
Brand-specific protocols only connect
to same-vendor systems
Notes
Data Communications Tasks
By dividing all the tasks necessary to communicate into groups, the job can be
broken into modules that deal with a limited function. These functions are:
Transporting data
Packaging messages
Supervising user applications
Linking media interfaces
Managing communications
In order to carry out a specific function or service, these general functions can be
broken down into component tasks that have a specific set of rules or protocols.
Notes
Protocols that deal with similar services or outcomes are grouped together, or
classified. Services or outcomes from a protocol in one group feed protocols in
other groups.
In networking, this structure of grouping protocols, with outcomes from one group
defining the starting point of another group is often used to label the purpose,
function, or interrelationship of the different protocols.
Grouping Protocols
These complicated procedures are broken down into smaller units based on
purpose and function, which makes problem identification or execution of
changes easier.
Media Media
Interface Interface
Media Media
Interface Interface
Protocols
Data Data
Transport Transport
Data Data
Transport Transport
Communications Communications
Management Management
Communications Communications
Management Management
User User
Applications Applications
User User
Applications Applications
Message Message
Packaging Packaging
Message Message
Packaging Packaging
Data
Data
Data
Data Data
Notes
Layering Protocols
In data communications, tasks must be performed in a specific order. It is
impossible to send a message before you have created it. In the same way, data
messaging must be carried out in a specific sequence. We will use the mail
protocol as an example.
In addition to the rules that govern the format of a message, the mail protocol also
defines a set of rules that deal with how to specify the message recipient. That
specific protocol deals only with the recipient. It is not involved with determining
how the message is delivered, because it assumes other protocols are in place at the
recipient's end that will handle that task.
Protocol Stack
The structuring of protocols into groups and the arrangement into a specific
order is called a protocol stack, or layered protocols. Each layer describes
different and specific tasks in computer communication. And each layer generally
receives input from a preceding layer, and gives its output to a subsequent layer.
Protocol Stack - Layered Protocols
Notes
Assembly Line Layering
The data communications concept of layering is similar to the way a product is
manufactured on an assembly line. At each station of the line, a different task is
performed. When the specific task is finished, the product moves forward to the
next station in the assembly line.
The important idea with this scheme is that it isolates each of the tasks in the process
from one another. This isolation of specific tasks makes it much easier to isolate and
fix any problem or breakdown. But an assembly line process happens in one
direction, and data travels in a bi-directional flow. So how does this affect the
isolation of tasks with layered protocols?
Sequence of Tasks
A good example of a bi-directional flow through layers of functions is what happens
when you send a letter.
Notes
Postal Mail Goes Through Layers
The sequence of steps in sending a letter is similar to the layering structures in data
communications, in that they both share the following characteristics:
Steps or tasks must occur in a particular order.
There is a sender and a receiver.
The order of task execution for the sender is reversed for the receiver.
At each step, or layer, in the example, a well-defined task is performed. The
accomplished task, or the result, is used in the next layer in the sequence. You can
easily imagine how a change to the procedure or action used to complete a
specific task in one layer would NOT affect the next layer, as long as the result
given to that next layer is equivalent.
The mail example also shows the bi-directionality of task execution. The sender
must put the letter into an envelope in order to mail it, but the recipient must remove
the letter from the envelope in order to read it. The arrangement of the tasks does
not change, but the sequence for the sender and receiver are reversed.
Bi-directionality of Task Execution
Notes
Review
In dealing with protocols in data communications, we found that even if the
protocols accomplish different tasks, they are used and structured similarly. To
review:
Protocols are associated with layers and layers are arranged in a particular order.
The outcome at one layer is used in the next layer.
The arrangement of protocol tasks, or layers, remains the same, but the order of
protocol processing is reversed for sender and receiver.
The data communications industry recognized that vendors had developed
individual vendor-specific protocols and stacks. The inability of vendor solutions to
work together hindered the growth of data communications worldwide.
Hindered Growth of Data Communications
In 1978, the International Standards Organization (ISO), which is made up of
a group of industry representatives, introduced the OSI Reference model. The
OSI model describes data communications processes in terms of layers or modules.
The OSI Reference model is now accepted as a standard, or an agreed-upon set of
rules and guidelines used and shared by vendors, users, and other interested parties
to allow their communications solutions to work together.
Notes
OSI Reference Model
The OSI Reference model describes how data communication takes place in terms
of layers. The OSI Reference model rules and structure have served as a framework
and guide for vendors to use when designing their products. As an outline for
protocols and stacks, the OSI Reference model has played an important role in
advancing communication compatibility across all platforms.
OSI Reference Model Layers
The OSI Reference model has seven layers. Each layer receives services from an
adjacent layer, performs its own specific task, and then delivers its output to a
neighboring layer.
OSI Model
The top three layers are application-oriented. These upper layers, as they are also
called, handle different aspects of presenting the application to the user. These
layers are unaffected by how the data gets to the application.
Data Link
Data Link
Physical
Physical
Network
Network
Transport
Transport
Data Link
Data Link
Physical
Physical
Network
Network
Transport
Transport
Application
Application
Session
Session
Presentation
Presentation
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6
7
7
Seven Layers
Notes
In contrast, the four lower layers deal with the delivery of data. The lower layers
handle all aspects of how data is transmitted, how it is packaged, and how it is
routed. These four layers only take responsibility for the tasks involved with
delivering the data. They are unaware of what application the data came from,
which application it will go to, or what type of data they are sending and receiving.
Application Layer
The Application layer uses application protocols to provide services to the user.
This layer displays received information and sends any new information to the
layers below it.
Types of protocols in the Application layer include:
Network management
Email
File transfer
In our postal mail analogy, the application layer is the formatted letter.
Presentation Layer
The Presentation layer is responsible for translating data from applications into a
machine-independent form. This isolates the lower layers from the wide variety of
formats that applications use. This layer removes file formats when sending data to
the network, and restores them when receiving data from the network, in
preparation for sending it up to the Application layer.
Some of the functions associated with the Presentation layer include:
Data encoding, or how the data is represented to the machine
Data compression, which reduces the amount of data sent
Data encryption, which provides privacy and authentication
If we use our postal mail analogy again, the Presentation layer functions like an
interpreter who translates a letter written in German for an English speaker.
Notes
Session Layer
The Session layer initiates contact between applications and governs the exchange
of data between the programs. The Session layer performs this task whether the
programs are on the same machine or across the country.
The functions of protocols in the Session layer include:
Control of an exchange: opening, using, and ending the contact between
applications
Management of the exchange: who speaks when and for how long
Review of the exchange: reporting on the status of the interchange
Because postal mail never has a simultaneous end-to-end connection, our letter
analogy does not apply here.
Transport Layer
The Transport layer is assigned to establish, maintain, and terminate the
communication between networked machines, and verifies that the sent data and the
received data match.
Protocol responsibilities in the Transport layer include:
Ensuring reliable end-to-end delivery of data, with no lost or duplicated
messages
Error checking
Request and management of re-transmission, if necessary
Repackaging of large messages into smaller manageable units that the end
stations can support, and the reverse task of reassembling units back into the
original message
Supervising message priority
Our postal mail analogy can be used here if we sent a certified or registered letter,
because it is tracked through the system and you receive confirmation that the
delivery was successful and reliable with a return receipt.
Notes
Network Layer
The Network layer determines the path a message travels between machines. Like
a traffic controller, it handles the physical routing of data based on network
conditions and the destination of the message.
Protocol functions associated with the Network layer include:
Address management of two types:
The first allocates and employs specifically formatted software addresses.
The second groups computer devices by function or logic based on the allocated
software addressing.
Routing of the messages among networks.
Additional repackaging of messages through fragmentation, if necessary. This
is a consequence of the path chosen for the message. Different network types can
carry different-sized messages, so if the path chosen requires additional
repackaging, the Network layer performs this duty.
Note: Any fragmenting done by the Network layer is also reassembled at the
Network layer when the sequence is reversed as the message approaches its
destination.
Messages are routed based on their IP address. The function of message routing
performed by the Network layer can be compared to our postal mail analogy at the
stage where letters are sorted into boxes bound for particular cities based on the
address and ZIP code on the envelope.
Notes
Data Link Layer
The Data Link layer supervises the actual data transmission over the physical
medium. These protocols package the data and label it with the encoded hardware
address of the destination computer. They then put the data out onto the wire for
delivery.
Here, our postal mail analogy might be crating the letters going to a specific region,
and labeling it with the number of the delivery truck to which it has been assigned.
Physical Layer
The Physical layer deals with the procedural, electrical, and mechanical details of
the wire, or conduit. Here, protocols direct the signal to conform to the different
specifications for various media types, such as copper wire, fiber optic cable, and
microwave.
Notes
IP Suite Layers
The IP Suite protocol stack is made up of four layers: the Application layer, the
Transport layer, the Internet layer, and the Network Interface layer. The IP Suite
standard does not conflict with the OSI Reference model; in fact, they were
developed simultaneously and share the same overall objectives.
Both accepted standards aim to ensure that communication is successful between
computers that are networks apart.
IP stack defines corresponding functions as outlined in the OSI Reference model,
but some operations are combined within the IP layers.
OSI model is more explicit in the number of layers and their specifications.
The four layers (Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface) that make
up the IP Suite do not conflict with the OSI model. Developed in parallel, they share
the same overall objectives; however, the IP Suite merges some corresponding OSI
layer functions within the defined IP Suite layers.
IP Suite Layers
Application Layer
The Application layer is the highest level of the IP model. It combines the
operations from all three of the upper layers from the OSI Reference model to
support user applications (user-requested services). The most popular application
services are Email and File Transfer. We return to these particular Application
layer protocols later in this unit.
Notes
Transport Layer
Like the OSI model, the Transport layer of the IP Suite functions to initiate,
maintain, and terminate communication between applications on networked
machines. This layer is also responsible for verifying that the sent data matches the
received data. However, with the IP Transport layer, information delivery can be
either guaranteed or on a best-effort basis. The requirements of the application
determine which delivery method is used. When that reliability is not provided at
the Transport layer, it is the Application layer that must provide it.
Functions in the IP Suite Transport layer include:
End-to-end delivery supervision
Monitoring the delivery status of messages
Delivery of information to adjacent layers
Error checking, retransmission requests, and message acknowledgments to ensure
reliability
Repackaging of large messages into smaller units that the end stations can
support, and the reverse task of reassembling units back into the original message,
which is often called segmentation.
Internet Layer
The Internet layer of the IP Suite corresponds to the Network layer of the OSI
Reference model. It determines the physical routing of data across networks based
on the destination IP address of the message. Functions in the Internet layer include:
Address management
Logical computer device groupings using software addressing
Directing messages through routers and across networks
Best-effort information delivery
Additional message fragmentation and reassembly if network hardware on the
selected path requires smaller data units
Notes
Network Interface Layer
The Network Interface layer is the lowest level of the IP stack, and corresponds to
two layers of the OSI Reference model: the Data Link layer and the Physical
layer. The responsibilities of the Network Interface layer include transmitting
information onto the physical medium, or wire, and managing the interface with
the different medium types.
A large number of protocols are needed at this layer because of the wide diversity
of hardware solutions. Examples include Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, and ATM.
In fact, many vendors have implemented this layer in network interface cards
(NICs), which can be ordered with a computer or added later as an upgrade.
Notes
Comparing the OSI and IP Suite
Look at the differences and similarities of the OSI Reference model and the Internet
models. We know that the seven-layer OSI Reference model stipulates many more
details for data communication than the four layers of the IP Suite.
Here is an overview of the IP Suite layers and the equivalent OSI Reference model
layers. We have also described the main functions of the layers, and named some
example protocols associated with IP.
OSI Model vs. IP Suite
The key differences are found in the upper layers, above the transport level, and
at the lowest layers, at the network level. The IP model incorporates the OSI
Application, Presentation, and Session layers into a single layer: the Application
layer.
Similarly, the IP model combines the OSI Data Link layer and Physical layer
together in the Network Interface layer. The functionality that the OSI Reference
model defines is not lost by this consolidation; the IP grouping just contains a
greater number of operations in the layers it forms.
Notes
Protocols of the IP Suite Layers
The diagram below represents the IP Suite grouped into the four layers:
Application, Transport, Internet, and Network Interface. Notice that multiple
protocols that operate in one layer can all interact with a single protocol of another
layer. And remember that all of these interactions are bi-directional.
IP Suite
Application Layer Protocols
The Application layer displays received information to the user and provides a way
to send data to lower levels and onto the network. It translates information into
machine-readable data, sends that new information to the layers, and manages any
data exchange between applications.
Note: Because of the word application, some people confuse application programs
loaded on PCs with Application layer protocols. PC applications, with a small a,
are the programs you use like Windows Sockets FTP Client Application or PC
Anywhere remote access program, which collaborate with the Application layer
protocols.
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
(Computer to Computer)
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
Notes
Application layer protocols provide the functionality most visible to the user. The
advantage of having these protocols on top of the transmission protocols is that they
provide universal connectivity while remaining as background information to the
user.
Examples of Application layer protocols include several names that are probably
familiar to the average user, though users do not identify them as part of the
uppermost layer in the IP Suite. Names like File Transfer Protocol (FTP),
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP), and Domain Name System (DNS) are
terms most users associate with the Internet, but what are their functions as
Application layer protocols?
Telnet manages remote terminal access. It allows a user on one computer to log
on to another computer, and to run programs on that distant computer. Most
universities allow Telnet connections so that students can log in to library card
catalogs or register for classes.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) enables users to retrieve files from a remote
computer. While they can gain access and copy files from that computer, they
cannot run programs. When you download software from the Internet, you use
FTP.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) makes it possible to deliver files from a
WWW server to a Web browser in the form of a document. This protocol is
employed when you navigate through a website, by pointing and clicking over
highlighted text onscreen.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) transfers email messages. Just as FTP
transfers files, SMTP connects to remote machines and transfers messages. It is
transparent to the user.
Domain Name System (DNS) is also transparent to the user because its function
is to convert a user-friendly singular name into a network address that IP
networking software can understand. DNS allows you to enter a meaningful name
like www.nortel.com instead of a string of numbers in order to access a Web page.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is probably the least likely to
be familiar to the casual Internet user. It provides status messages and reports
problems to help manage devices on an IP network. A typical SNMP task is to
investigate the situation of a problem network server.
Notes
Transport Layer Protocols
The Transport layer oversees the transfer of information between sending and
receiving computers. It checks for errors and submits requests for re-
transmission. It is often described as the end-to-end communication between
hosts because it might or might not be responsible for reliability. When it is not,
then reliability becomes the responsibility of the Application layer.
Many different Application protocols send information to the Transport layer.
Only two protocols are used at the Transport layer, and they must be able to
accept output from all of the Application layer protocols. The Transport layer keeps
track of which application sent the data by attaching identifying codes to the
messages. The Transport layer is similar to identifying a post office box inside a
post office.
The two Transport layer protocols are TCP and User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
The important difference between the two is the reliability with which each delivers
messages.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) maintains an open connection between
sender and receiver, which is why it is so reliable. TCP tracks the message status
and monitors what gets through and what needs to be resent. However, TCP is
described as chatty because of this constant feedback, and it requires a lot of
overhead to keep such close watch over data integrity. TCP is the dominant
protocol, and is used by Telnet, FTP, HTTP, SMTP, DNS, and others. It handles
the more complex data delivery.
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) sends data using a best-effort approach. It
does not keep track of message status or provide constant feedback, so it has very
little overhead. It is a lean and mean protocol, but is effective for short messages
that are not critical. Reliability checks fall to the Application protocols to ensure
that the arriving data is intact. UDP is used by DNS, SNMP, and others.
Notes
Internet Layer Protocols
The Internet layer coordinates the path a message takes from one machine to
another, until it finds the destination. Its comprehensive address management
ability enables you to send messages across different networks, regardless of type.
Internet Layer Protocols
One responsibility of the Internet layer is to send messages across networks using
routing algorithms. These algorithms determine the best path to take across the
networks based on IP addresses. Every device connected to an IP network has a
unique address assigned using both network and host portions. Routing protocols
use the network part of the IP address to direct messages to the destination network.
The IP address is assigned during PC configuration, and is sometimes called a
software address because it changes if the PC is moved to a different network.
Each device on a network also has a unique physical address, which is often called
the hardware address. The hardware address is usually encoded into a network
interface card (NIC) and does not change. The IP address, or software address, is
used to transfer data across networks, but the hardware layer, or Network Interface
layer, actually transmits the data across the wire by using the physical address.
Notes
Protocols at the Internet layer bind the device hardware address with the software
address. This creates a virtual network view to higher-layer protocols. The network
type, like Ethernet, FDDI, or ATM, is not visible to upper layers.
Here is another postal system analogy: Think of a post office box address as
equivalent to an IP, or software address. It is determined by which post office you
have rented your box from, or where you connect to the postal system. And, it can
easily be changed. Where you live, though, is physical, and has a unique street
address. The post office can also find your street address by looking in their records,
and deliver mail to your home.
Some typical protocols of the Internet layer and their functions include:
Internet Protocol (IP) uses IP addressing to provide data routing through a
network or internetwork. Transparent to the user, IP issues the commands to send
information to another computer.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) binds the physical address to the software,
or IP, address. Also transparent to the user, it obtains the hardware address, or
media access control (MAC) address, required to deliver the message.
Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) responds when data cannot be
delivered. ICMP transmits error messages to the sending machine. This layer is
transparent to the user; it provides notification that allows the application to
resolve problems.
The dominant component in this layer is IP. ARP and ICMP provide support
services to IP, which attempts to send information across networks and advance the
data to its final destination.
Notes
Network Interface Layer Protocols
The lowest layer of the IP stack is responsible for receiving messages from IP. It
then uses the hardware address, or MAC address, to transmit these messages over
a specific network.
The Network Interface layer protocols perform many duties to prepare the signal for
transmission using the physical media, and then gather it back off the wire in the
receiving direction. The Network Interface layer must:
Define the mechanical and electrical specifications of the network media (for
example, cables), as well as the network interface hardware (for example, NICs).
Define the connections of network media and network hardware.
Define how data is placed on and received from the wire.
Operate the hardware used for data transmission.
Perform basic transmission monitoring.
The translations the Network Interface layer must resolve and the specifications it
must fulfill include:
How ones and zeros are sent over the network medium
Transmission techniques
Media transmission types and methods
Differing types of cables
Number, functions, and arrangement of connector pins
Note: The Network Interface layer is concerned with the hardware address, or
MAC address, of the destination device, which identifies the recipient.
Notes
Packaging a Message
Now we must tie all of these layers into a coherent sequence of steps. We know that
in the IP Suite, messages are passed through modules or layers of processing in
order to send data from one computer to another across networks.
We also know that each layer performs a specific set of tasks, and then hands the
output to an adjacent layer. However, before passing the data to the next layer down
in the sequence, the layer adds its own specific processing information to the
beginning of the messages. That added information block is called a header.
Header Information
Headers define the following types of information:
Protocol processing the message, if there are several in the layer
Size of the message
Addresses of the source and destination computers having the conversation
Message count to keep track of what is being sent and received
Designation of the message segment, or its place in line, if the original data was
broken into smaller packages
Notes
Headers transfer information between adjacent layers. When a layer adds a
header to a message and sends it to the layer below, that layer treats the incoming
data as a completely new message.
It does not distinguish between the header from the previous layer and the original
message component. Like a letter in an envelope, it is seen as a single item. The
receiving layer adds its own header information, creating a new message envelope
with instructions of its own on the front.
Then, as the data unit gets passed down through the protocol stack, headers are
added and the message increases slightly in size at each layer. In the reverse
direction, as it comes up through the stack, envelopes are opened, the headers are
stripped off, and the message decreases in size.
Network Interface Layer Protocols
Note: A message starting in the Application layer gains several sets of protocol
headers, or envelopes, by the time it reaches the Network Interface or Physical
layer.
Notes
An Example
We will follow an example from the Application layer to the Network layer. In this
example, use a file transfer application to send a business report to a server on an
internet. Track the process from the desktop PC across the network. Focus on the
message types and examine the headers added at each layer.
From Application to Network
Before we begin, we need to clarify a few terms. At each layer, the data unit is given
a name such as a segment or datagram. We also use the terms packet and message
in a generic way to describe a data unit.
Notes
Application Layer
We begin in the uppermost Application layer. FTP, the Application layer protocol
for file transfer, defines a set of commands that one machine sends to another. These
commands specify the sender and the recipient of the message, the file format of the
message, and other Application layer characteristics.
Application Layer
The Application layer transforms data into a machine-format stream of
information with no header. Information that is passing between the Application
layer and the Transport layer is called a message.
Notes
Transport Layer
In the Transport layer, our file transfer message is sent to the TCP software module.
TCP performs error checking and monitoring of the exchange to ensure that the
message gets through reliably. TCP also breaks large files into manageable portions
that the end stations can accommodate.
Transport Layer
TCP places each piece into its own envelope, and adds a header at the front. The
header information specifies the source application protocol that sent the data, the
receiving destination protocols, in our case FTP, and other task details specific to
this layer.
Information passing between the Transport layer and the Internet layer is called a
segment. The segment is given to the Internet layer with its intended destination
included in the header information.
Notes
Internet Layer
The IP software of the Internet layer receives the segment from Transport. Each
segment is a discrete unit. The IP has no indication that this packet relates to any
other segment before or after it. The task of the IP software is to get the segment
to its final destination by finding an appropriate route.
IP software has nothing to do with any reassembly required. The destination station
recreates the complete FTP file.
IP attaches its own header to the new information envelope. The new header
information includes source and destination IP addresses, source and destination
transport protocol (TCP or UDP), and layer-specific information. Data units passing
between the Internet and Network Interface layers are called datagrams.
Internet Layer
Notes
The Network Interface layer receives the datagram from the Internet layer, creates
a new envelope of information and places its own header on the datagram. The new
header information includes the source and destination hardware, or MAC
addresses, and more layer-specific data.
This layer also creates a frame to be sent on to the physical network by attaching a
checksum to the end of the datagram.
Notes
Our frames finally arrive at the destination station.
1. Frames are processed by the Network Interface layer, which removes the
header and checksum. The datagram is given to the Internet layer.
2. At the Internet layer, IP removes its header, looks at the protocol field, and
understands to pass the packets to the TCP in the Transport layer.
3. In the Transport layer, TCP removes its header and reassembles the packets into
the original file.
4. This file is then handed to the Application protocols, which restore the file
formats and other attributes of the original file.
Of course, there is more detail and processing involved at each layer, but we do not
need to go in-depth right now. The important concept is that the information is
broken into smaller pieces, with headers attached in order as it passes through
the IP Suite layers, and then restored as it transits the layers in reverse.
Progression of the Data as it Arrives at Destination
Notes
Summary
You have taken a close look at the advantages of layering protocols, and seen how
the adoption of standards, such as the OSI Reference model and the IP Suite, were
crucial in the advancement of data communications networking.
The main highlights of this unit include:
A key advantage to protocol stack layering is that it modularizes the tasks that
comprise a job. Isolating individual tasks makes it easier to troubleshoot or
modify a specific function without having to change the operations in other layers.
The OSI Reference model consists of seven layers. The uppermost layer is the
Application layer, and the lowest is the Physical layer.
The IP Suite consists of four layers. Each of the layers, Application, Transport,
Internet, and Network Interface, performs a specific data communications
function. The cooperation of all four layers enables transmission of information
across networks regardless of platform or equipment used.
The IP model consolidates layers that are detailed in the OSI Reference model,
but the functions remain the same. The IP Suite requires a common set of
applications, dynamic routing, and universal connectivity.
Each layer in the IP Suite has a set of associated protocols. The tasks these
protocols perform are necessary for successful data communication.
Two key address types are used in the IP Suite. Hardware addresses, also called
MAC addresses, are used at the Network Interface layer to deliver data on the
physical wire. Software addresses, also called IP addresses, are used at the
Internet layer to route data across networks.
Message headers are added to data as it passes down through the IP layers, and
removed as the data passes back through to the uppermost layer at the destination
station. Message headers transfer layer-processing information between layers.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. A data communications protocol consists of
a. a data bit error correction process.
b. a problem resolution process.
c. all the rules governing a process of data communications.
d. the IP Suite.
2. IP is:
a. The protocol at the Internet Layer of the TCP/IP Suite
b. The foundation of the IP Suite
c. A best-effort information delivery protocol
d. Tasked with routing information across networks
e. All of the above
3. HTTP works at which layer of the Internet Protocol Suite?
a. Application
b. Transport
c. Internet
d. Network Interface
4. TCP reliably delivers data, and UDP uses best-effort delivery methods.
a. True
b. False
Notes
5. At which IP Suite layer is the hardware, or MAC, address used?
a. Application
b. Transport
c. Session
6. At which IP Suite layer is the software, or IP, address used?
a. Application
b. Transport
c. Internet
d. Physical
7. What is NOT a characteristic of a layered protocol suite?
a. Required communication tasks can be grouped into similar functions.
b. Changes to one protocol affect other protocols.
c. Well-defined tasks are accomplished at each layer.
d. The output of one layer is the input of another layer.
8. What is the task of the Application layer of the IP Suite?
a. It provides user-requested services.
b. It transmits data across a physical data link.
c. It delivers information end-to-end between hosts.
d. It routes data across networks according to software addresses.
Notes
9. What is the task of the Transport layer of the IP Suite?
10. What is the task of the Internet layer of the IP Suite?
11. What is the task of the Network Interface layer of the IP Suite?
Notes
Answers to Practice
1. A data communications protocol consists of
a. a data bit error correction process.
b. a problem resolution process.
c. all the rules governing a process of data communications.
(The protocol might include a process to correct bit errors or resolve other
problems, but not necessarily. And data communication is only one part of
the IP Suite.)
d. the IP Suite.
2. IP is:
a. The protocol at the Internet Layer of the TCP/IP Suite
b. The foundation of the IP Suite
c. A best-effort information delivery protocol
d. Tasked with routing information across networks
e. All of the above
3. HTTP works at which layer of the Internet Protocol Suite?
a. Application
(HTTP is one of the protocols that work at the Application layer.)
b. Transport
c. Internet
Notes
4. TCP reliably delivers data, and UDP uses best-effort delivery methods.
a. True
b. False
5. At which IP Suite layer is the hardware, or MAC, address used?
a. Application
b. Transport
c. Session
(The hardware, or MAC, address is used at the Network Interface layer to
identify a specific hardware unit, such as a network interface card.)
6. At which IP Suite layer is the software, or IP, address used?
a. Application
b. Transport
c. Internet
(The software, or IP, address is used by Internet Protocol at the Internet
layer.)
d. Physical
7. What is NOT a characteristic of a layered protocol suite?
a. Required communication tasks can be grouped into similar functions.
b. Changes to one protocol affect other protocols.
(One of the primary benefits of a layered protocol suite is that changes to
one protocol in the suite DO NOT affect protocols at the other layers.)
c. Well-defined tasks are accomplished at each layer.
d. The output of one layer is the input of another layer.
Notes
8. What is the task of the Application layer of the IP Suite?
(The Application Layer provides user-requested services. It interacts with
the applications that people use to manage their data.)
9. What is the task of the Transport layer of the IP Suite?
10. What is the task of the Internet layer of the IP Suite?
11. What is the task of the Network Interface layer of the IP Suite?
(The Network Interface Layer of the IP Suite is tasked with transmitting
data across a physical media.)
Notes
3.0 Network Addressing
Introduction
The primary function of IP is addressing and address management. Now that we
have a general understanding of the IP Suite and layered protocols, we can explore
the role of IP address systems.
IP addresses, or software addresses, represent a location on an IP network. We will
investigate the format of IP addresses, how they are used, and how they are
augmented to meet specific IP network zoning needs.
Objectives
Identify the services IP provides.
Identify the network and host portions of an IP address.
Convert binary numbers to decimal, and decimal numbers to binary.
Identify and describe Class A, B, and C IP addresses.
Explain the purpose and method of assigning a subnet address.
Define a subnet mask.
Describe the purpose of the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP).
Explain the use of Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
2 of 70 3.0 Network Addressing
Notes
IP Responsibilities, Functions and Process
IP is the dominant protocol of the Internet layer. It is at the core of network
functionality. The main task of IP is to move information across networks, and
addressing is the tool it uses to accomplish this. Addressing is a vital part of IP,
just as it is in the postal delivery system. IP performs all functions related to the task
of sending data across networks. Here are a few of the services it carries out:
IP transmits chunks of data through interconnected networks. These blocks
of data are called datagrams. IP transforms the data packets it receives from the
Transport layer protocols, TCP or UDP, into datagram envelopes with their own
IP headers, and sends them along to the network.
Every datagram contains a source and destination address. IP routes each
datagram through the network according to its destination address, independent
of any other datagrams. IP does not maintain connections or logical circuits.
IP fragments or breaks up and reassembles datagrams if the path chosen for
that datagram includes networks that require a smaller size data block. Each
network typefor example, Frame Relay, Ethernet, ATM or Token Ringhas a
different maximum size restriction for the datagrams it can carry.
IP accepts incoming datagrams and decides whether it needs to process them
locally or send them on to a router. The method used to determine this involves
a routing algorithm.
Datagrams: Source and Destination
3.0 Network Addressing 3 of 70
Notes
IP Rules
The IP rules that deal with interpreting addresses are consistent on all systems. The
rules governing how IP fragments and then reassembles datagrams and how it
makes routing decisions are also universal. IP is found on all computers, clients,
and servers, as well as on all routers in an internet system.
The actual communication is provided by passing datagrams from Internet
layer protocols on one machine to Internet layer protocols on another machine,
until the datagram reaches its destination.
Each machine reads information about the destination of the datagram by
examining and processing the destination IP address in the IP header. Ordinarily,
the datagram passes through multiple networks in order to reach its
destination.
IP Rules on Interpreting Addresses
Notes
IP Addressing
Every computer connection, or interface, to an IP network has an IP address that is
unique to that particular link.
Just as mailing addresses and telephone numbers are unique and are used to
designate where to deliver items or calls, IP addresses are also unique and are used
to deliver blocks of information.
Many hosts have one network connection and therefore one associated IP address.
But systems that have connections to multiple networks, such as routers, have
multiple addresses; each connection has its own unique IP address.
One Network or Multiple Networks
Notes
IP Address Format
An IP address is made up of 32 bits. These 32 bits are divided into four equal units
of 8 bits each, called an octet. Each of these four octets is converted into a decimal
number, 0 to 255, and separated from each other by a dot. Not surprisingly, this is
called dotted-decimal notation.
What Does an IP Address Look Like?
An example of this notation is 140.147.248.7, which is the IP address of the WWW
server for the Library of Congress. Here we see how the Library of Congress
address is represented in both the 32-bit binary format, which computer programs
use, and the dotted-decimal notation.
IP Address Format
Notes
Separate Parts of Addresses
The binary bit address is actually made up of separate parts. We just stated that the
32 bits, numbered 0 to 31, are separated into four octets. These are further arranged
into two primary parts.
The first part identifies the network the computer is connected to.
The second part identifies the host number, or computer interface.
These address parts can vary in length, but always add up to 32 bits, or four octets,
in length, and the network component always precedes the host component.
IP Address - Network and Host
Similar to your mailing address, your name and house number correlates with the
host number. The remainder of the address can be equated to the network number.
Notes
Binary to Decimal
If we look at the 32-bit IP address and the dotted-decimal address as being two
formats of the same information, how is 10001100 binary, equal to 140 decimal?
Well, the binary information is computed on a base of 2, and the decimal
information is computed on a base of 10, which means we are using exponents.
Decimal information is computed on a base of 10. For example, understanding the
value of the number 324 is second nature to us. But if we look at it as computed on
a base of 10, we would say that it has a value of 3 in the hundreds position, 2 in the
tens position, and 4 in the ones position.
Although it seems redundant, we could add up those values for a total of 324. But
what about these positions? The position of each digit in our number is 2, 1, and 0,
respectively. We now recall that 10 to the 2nd is 100, hence the hundreds position,
10 to the 1st becomes the tens position, and 10 to the 0 equals 1.
How is Binary Equal to Decimal?
Notes
Binary is a system computed on a base of 2. For example, each digit in the number
10001100 carries a different value, and we use the positions of each digit to
compute the numeric value with the power of 2.
Positional Binary Values
In the octet of our IP address, the bit positions are: 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, and 0. The
position of each digit carries a potential value based on the power of 2. In bit-
position 7, the numeric value as a power of 2, is 2 to the 7th, which is a mathematical
value of 128.
In bit-position 6, the numeric value as a power of 2, is 2 to the 6th, which is a
mathematical value of 64. In bit-position 5, the numeric value is 2 to the 5th, and
the mathematical value is 32. And so on. Recall that any number to the power of 0
is 1, so in bit-position 0, the value of 2 to the 0 power equals 1.
For any binary octet using a base of 2, the mathematical values will be: 128, 64, 32,
16, 8, 4, 2, and 1. Now, we use those bit values, either 1 or 0, to get our decimal
conversion of an IP address.
Notes
When the bit value is 1, apply the mathematical value of that position. When the bit
value is 0, the mathematical value becomes null or remains unapplied. You can see
it as a computation, multiplying the mathematical value by the bit value. Those
whose bit value is 1 contribute their mathematical value to the sum. All those with
a bit value of 0 yield 0 and do not become part of the sum total.
Lets walk through an example and convert the binary number 10001100 to a
decimal value.
Binary to Decimal Example
1. First, list the bit positions 7 through 0.
2. Enter the binary value found at each position. And, to make it convenient, list the
mathematical values at each position.
3. Compute the binary values multiplied by the mathematical values.
4. Add up each computed value:128 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 0 = 140. This shows
you that the binary number 10001100 is equal to the decimal value of 140.
Bit Position 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Bits Value 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
Mathematical 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Value
Computation 1x128 0x64 0x32 0x16 1x8 1x4 0x2 0x1
Totals 128 0 0 0 8 4 0 0
Grand Total 128 + 8 + 4 = 140
Notes
Decimal to Binary
For converting a decimal number to a binary number, we use a convention in which
we repetitively divide the decimal number by 2, and accept only integers, or
whole numbers as the result. Even numbers will be divided by 2 without leaving any
remainder, and odd numbers will have a remainder of 1. We record the remainders
and divide the integer result by 2 again, until we reach 0.
The remainders fill the bit positions, and because those positions are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3,
2, 1, and 0, the first remainder generated is at the 0 position, and the last remainder
generated is at the 7 position. In other words, record the remainders in the reverse
order of the calculations.
Converting Decimal to Binary
1. Start with a decimal number of 140 and divide it by 2; it divides into 70 without
any remainder. Record 0.
2. Divide 70 by 2, and the result is 35 without any remainder, so again record 0.
3. Divide 35 by 2, and the integer that comes up is 17, with 1 remaining, so you
record a remainder of 1.
4. Continue to divide the integer results until you cannot divide 1 by 2 and still get
an integer, so the final remainder is 1.
5. Now list the remainders, in the reverse order of their calculation, position 7 to
0, and see that the decimal number 140 converted to binary is 10001100. And
verify the binary value with the mathematical value: 128 + 8 + 4 = 140.
Notes
Practice - Binary to Decimal
Convert Binary Number 11001100 to Decimal
Convert Binary Number 10101010 to Decimal
11001100
Bit Position 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Bits Value
Mathematical 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Value
Computation
Totals
Grand Total
10101010
Bit Position 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Bits Value
Mathematical 128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Value
Computation
Totals
Grand Total
Notes
Answers - Binary to Decimal
Answers - Convert Binary Number 11001100 to Decimal
Answers - Convert Binary Number 10101010 to Decimal
Notes
Practice - Decimal to Binary
Convert the Decimal Number 119 to Binary
Convert the Decimal Number 222 to Binary
Decimal Number of 119
Decimal 119
Number
Divided by (/) /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2
Result
Remainder
Read Answer from Right to Left
Decimal Number of 222
Decimal 222
Number
Divided by (/) /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2 /2
Result
Remainder
Read Answer from Right to Left
Notes
Answers - Decimal to Binary
Answers - Convert the Decimal Number 119 to Binary
Answers - Convert the Decimal Number 222 to Binary
Note: Decimal to Binary Conversion Chart is included behind the Reference
Materials tab at the back of this student guide.
Notes
IP Address Classes
IP addressing is divided into different structures, or classes, to serve networks of
different sizes. We will discuss the three most widely used: Class A, Class B, and
Class C. The distinction between the different address classes is the boundary
between the network and host portion of the 32-bit address.
Protocols need to know the class of address they are reading to understand where
the network portion ends and the host portion begins. The pattern of initial bits is
used like a key, to designate to which class an address belongs and where its
boundary point is located.
For example, an address starts with a 0 at the first bit. This indicates that the
boundary is between the seventh and eighth bits. This is a Class A address. Class B
addresses begin with 1-0 in the initial bit sequence. The Class B boundary is
between the 15th and 16th bits. Class C has an initial bit sequence, or key, of 1-1-0,
and the boundary is between the 23rd and 24th bits.
IP Address Classes and Network Number Boundaries
0 7 8 31
0 1 15 16 31
0 1 2 23 24 31
00
10
110
Class A
Network
Number
Host Number
Network Number Host Number
Network Number Host Number
Class B
Class C
Notes
Class A Networks
Class A networks have the following traits in common:
Class A addresses use the first octet as the network portion, and the leading
bit is always set to 0, so that 7 bits remain to define the specific network. 24 bits
are available for the host number.
The maximum number of networks that can be defined is 126; 2 to the power
of 7 minus 2. Two are subtracted from the total. Numbers 0.0.0.0 and 127.0.0.0
are considered special and are not included.
Addresses begin with numbers that range from 1 to 126.
Each network can have 16,777,214 hosts. This is 2 to the power of 24 minus 2.
Two special host numbers are not used; one where all 24 host bits are set to 0s,
and the other where all 24 host bits are set to 1s.
Class A Networks
Notes
Class B Networks
Class B networks have the following traits in common:
Class B addresses use the first two octets as the network portion, and the
leading 2 bits are always set to 1-0, so that 14 bits remain to define the specific
network. 16 bits are available for the host number.
The maximum number of networks that can be defined is 16,384, or 2 to the
power of 14.
Each network can have 65,534 hosts, which is 2 to the power of 16 minus 2. As
in the other classes, the special-case host numbers of all 0s or all 1s are not used.
Class B Networks
Notes
Class C Networks
Class C networks have the following traits in common:
Class C addresses use the first three octets as the network portion, and the
leading 3 bits are always set to 1-1-0 so that 21 bits remain to define the specific
network. The remaining 8 bits are available for the host number.
The maximum number of networks that can be defined is 2,097,152, or 2 to the
power of 21.
Each network can have 254 hosts, which is 2 to the power of 8 minus 2. Again,
the special-case host numbers of all 0s or all 1s are not used.
Class C Networks
Notes
IP Dotted-Decimal Address Ranges
The network value ranges for Class A through Class C. The asterisks represent the
host numbers that are available for a network administrator to assign.
IP Dotted-Decimal Address Ranges
Dotted Decimal Range
Address Class A 1.***.***.***. Through 126.***.***.***
Address Class B 128.0.***.*** Through 191.255.***.***
Address Class C 192.0.0.*** Through 223.255.255.***
Notes
Other Classes
Addresses with numbers above 223 are reserved for special purposes.
Class D addresses start with a class key of the first 4 bits set to 1110. They are used
to support multicasting, a special way of sending information through the
Internet.
Class E addresses are for experimental use. Their class key is also made up of the
first 4 bits, but they are set to 1111.
Additional IP Address Classes
Notes
Network Numbers
Obtaining an IP Number
So, now you know more about IP network numbers and classes, but who decides
which networks and organizations get which network numbers, and how many do
they get?
An ISP can get a supply of available IP network addresses from an organization
authorized by the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA) in California. The
ISP can then distribute these official network numbers, or IP network addresses, to
businesses, organizations, and consumers.
You get your official network number from your ISP. It is a unique number, and
maps to your organization. You cannot modify it.
Network Plan
As a network administrator, it is your responsibility to assign host numbers to
devices attached to the local network. You will have full control of host number
assignment. Good planning is essential.
The best approach is to diagram your networks and use consistent conventions, such
as always assigning certain device types, like routers, from a particular range of
numbers, for example, 1 through 10. Establish and follow consistent conventions to
make a majority of your tasks easier once the network is set up.
Network monitoring, maintenance, and troubleshooting are much easier if the host
number assignments are grouped in a meaningful way. Also, a thorough plan that
includes both an awareness of, and a strategy for, potential growth can eliminate the
need for an additional IP address, or the unsavory task of renumbering at a later
date.
Notes
Building the Network With Addresses
IP addresses, or software addresses, have two principal parts:
Network portion
Host portion
Two Principle Parts to IP Addresses
The IP address must be unique.
While all computers on a specific network have the same network number, each
computer must have a unique host number.
Conversely, two hosts on different networks will have different network numbers,
but they might each have the same host numbers.
A good analogy is street addresses. On a residential street, all homes share the same
street name but each has a unique house number. And the corollary is that in any
given town, many homes might have the same house number, for instance 17, but
because the street names are different, the pairing of street name and house number
creates a unique address.
Notes
When discussing a network, or when a general network address is written without
specified hosts, the host portion of the address is set to 0. In the example below, both
formats have all 0s in the last two octets.
And, if you recall from the discussion about network classes, this is one of those
special cases where all the host bits are set to 0, and it is never assigned to an
actual host.
Binary and Dotted-Decimal Addresses
Notes
PC With Unique Class B Addresses
Below is an example of a Class B network with IP addresses. All of the computers
are connected to the same network. While they all share the same network address,
128.30.0.0, their host addresses, 10, 11, and 12, are unique.
PCs With Unique Class B Addresses
Notes
Another network might also have computers with host addresses 10, 11, and 12, but
because they reside on a different network, the network portion of their IP address
will be different, and therefore the address as a whole will be unique.
In the figure below, there are two hosts with address 11, but the whole address of
one is 128.30.0.11, and the address of the other is 128.40.0.11.
Class B Networks With Unique Device IP Addresses
Notes
Routers
Routers connect different networks together, and each network has a unique
network number. The routers use the network portion of the IP address to send
packets through IP networks.
Routers in a Network
Notes
IPv6 Addressing
Most of the Internet uses IP version 4, which is written as one word: IPv4. IPv4 uses
the 32-bit IP address that we have discussed, and allows for 2 to the power of 32
unique addresses, or 4,294,967,296. Yet, with the explosive growth of the Internet,
we might actually exhaust all of the IP addresses available.
In response, IP version 6, or IPv6, extends the current IPv4 addressing scheme from
32 bits to 128 bits, which quadruples the number of IP addresses available to new
networks and hosts.
In the book Routing in the Internet, author Christian Huitema calculates that IPv6
will yield 1,500 IP addresses for every square meter of dry land on Earth!
But IPv6 brings more than just a larger pool of IP addresses, it also brings ease of
configuration and support for security. IPv6 is becoming standardized, and once it
becomes well defined, gradual implementation on the Internet will follow.
Notes
Subnet Addressing
When multiple networks are given access to the Internet, each network must have
a unique address. An organization or corporation can usually only obtain one IP
network address from its access provider. Yet, most corporation networks consist of
several LANs, which presents a problem: How can an organization use a single IP
network address number for multiple physical networks?
The solution is subnet addressing. By using subnet addressing, a corporation can
use one IP network address and still give each LAN in its system a variation of the
original network address.
Subnet Addressing
Here is how it works: The network portion of an IP address, as assigned in usual
Internet address structure, remains untouched. But the host portion, which a
network administrator can assign to meet their particular needs, can be split into two
groups: a subnet portion and a host portion.
Notes
For instance, in a typical Class B network address, the first two octets are used
strictly for the network address; you cannot change them. But the remaining two
octets, the host portion, are yours to modify to meet the needs of your company.
The first octet can be made into a subnet address, with the remaining octet used to
identify the host. This, in effect, extends the network identity numbers, but leaves
fewer bits for the host number. The result is more networks, but with fewer host
addresses available on each.
Class B Network Addresses
Notes
How Subnets are Used
A subnet is generally a LAN, a portion of a larger network. Often a corporate
network is made up of several smaller LANs connected by routers.
The most common setup is to have the networks mimic the separation of
departments in the organization. A subnet is assigned to each department:
Engineering uses one subnet, Human Resources is on another subnet, and Finance
is on yet another subnet, or local area network (LAN).
Subnetted LANs
Notes
Subnet Addressing Format
Now, return to the task of creating subnet addresses. You have obtained a network
address and know that you cannot change it, so you decide to split the host portion
of the IP address up to identify a subnet portion.
Again, the original network address is not changed, which means that other devices
on the Internet will still recognize the entire organization as residing at that IP
network address.
Subnet Addressing Format
Using a Class B IP address as an example, the decision to use an octet for the subnet
address leaves only the last octet to designate the host. With 256, or 2 to the power
of 8, subnet addresses available, and each of those subnet addresses able to provide
254 host addresses (256 minus the special all 0s and all 1s cases), plenty of options
remain.
Notes
The figure below lists examples of subnet addresses, or subnetting, for a Class B
network. Each address contains the original network portion, 128.30, and is
extended by using the third octet to create more network numbers.
Yet they can all be found by Internet routers that direct messages based on the IP
Network address, which has not changed.
Example Class B Subnet Addresses
Subnet Address Bit Pattern
So, where do these subnet numbers come from? Remember that each bit position in
an octet has a numeric value based on the power of 2, which gives the mathematical
values of 128, 64, 32, 16, 8, 4, 2, and 1.
Subnetwork numbers are created by turning on bits to add their mathematical value
to the total used in the dotted-decimal notation. Here are the binary bit patterns that
correspond to our example subnetted addresses.
Subnet Address Bit Pattern: Class A, Class B, or Class C?
Class B Network Address Class B Subnet Addressing
128.30.32.0
128.30.64.0
128.30.96.0
128.30.0.0
128.30.128.0
128.30.160.0
128.30.192.0
128.30.224.0
Notes
How can you tell the difference between a Class B address and a Class B address
with subnetting? This question is very important, because routers use the network
portion of the IP address to direct messages across networks.
Routers must identify which bits belong to the network address and which belong
to the host address.
Difference Between Class B and Class B With Subnetting
Notes
Address Mask
In addition to the address class key, there is a bit pattern called a mask or subnet
mask. This is a configurable bit pattern associated with every IP address that
identifies which portion of the IP address is interpreted as the network address, and
which portion of the IP address is interpreted as the host address.
An ordinary Class A, B, or C address has a mask that confirms the predicted
boundaries between the network and host portions. If the mask shows that the
network portion is longer than you would predict for that class, you know that the
network address is subnetted.
These masks are more commonly known as address masks. Like an IP address, the
mask is 32 bits long. There is a 1-to-1 correspondence between the mask bits and
the IP address bits, because each mask bit tells us whether the address bit belongs
to the network portion or the host portion.
IP Address Structure
Specifically:
The bits of the mask are set to 1 if the corresponding bit in the IP address must be
treated as part of the network address by any system that inspects the address.
The bits of the mask are set to 0 if the corresponding bit in the IP address must be
treated as part of the host address by any system that inspects the address.
Network or Host?
Internet Address Structure
Network Network Host Host
10000000.00011100.00100000.00000000
Address Mask 32 Bits Long
Notes
Natural Mask
Natural masks are the ordinary or basic bit patterns expected for an address
belonging to a certain class if no subnetting has been implemented. Some
networking equipment requires a natural address mask configuration even when
there are no subnets, so that all incoming address information contains the same
number of bits and is formatted in a consistent way.
Class A Mask in Binary and Dotted-Decimal Notation
Class A addresses use the first 8 bits, or octet, for the network number.
Natural mask is 11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000.
Dotted-decimal notation as 255.0.0.0.
Class B Mask in Binary and Dotted-Decimal Notation
Class B addresses use the first 16 bits, or two octets, for the network number.
Natural mask is 11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000.
Class C Mask in Binary and Dotted-Decimal Notation
Class C addresses use the first 24 bits, or three octets, for the network number.
Natural mask is 11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000.
Notes
Natural and Subnet Masks
A subnet mask is a modification of a natural mask, and indicates the bits that are to
be interpreted as belonging to the extended network number or subnet address. In
the figure below are examples of subnet masks, shown beneath the natural masks
for comparison.
Natural and Subnet Masks
The extended part of the network address is called the subnet. As we discussed
earlier, extending the network portion to include a subnet unavoidably shrinks the
host portion and the bit pool it provides.
Looking at the subnet mask aligned with the natural mask, you see that the subnet
mask extends the bit positions included in the network number, indicated by 1s, and,
in effect, overlays or replaces bit positions that formerly belonged to the host. The
new network address is comprised of the original IP network address plus the
subnet address.
11111111.00000000.00000000.00000000
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
11111111.11111111.11111111.11110000
Mask
Type
Natural
Subnet
Natural
Subnet
Natural
Subnet
255.0.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.0.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.0
255.255.255.240
Bit
Representation
Dotted-Decimal
Notation
Class
A
B
C
Notes
Commonly, a Class A address uses all 8 bits of the second octet to define the subnet.
Similarly, a Class B address uses all 8 bits of the third octet to define its subnet.
However, when it comes to subnetting a Class C address, which already has been
assigned the first three octets as the official IP network address, it must use two or
more consecutive leading bits from the fourth octet to create network numbers for
the subnet. This severely reduces the number of host addresses that can be assigned
to each subnetwork.
Subnet addressing provides the ability to assign addresses to more networks, but
can have a severe affect on the number of hosts each network can accommodate.
Notes
Implementing Subnet Addresses
Earlier, we considered a simple corporate network that used three subnets to expand
their network address of 128.30.0.0 to three departmental LANs. Now, the company
is much larger. They want a system to administer 200 separate physical networks,
with up to 150 hosts on each network.
Each department must also have Internet access. You know that for each department
to have Internet access, each network must have a unique address. Fortunately,
subnetting our Class B address can fill that requirement.
Expanding a Network
Notes
Preparation
First, extend the network address to create a subnet number. The official IP network
number uses the first two octets, which cannot be changed.
Following convention for Class B subnets, use the third octet for the subnet
extension. Alternately, picture that there are16 bits from the third and fourth octet
available for host addressing, and then reassign, or take away, 8 of them to use for
the subnet.
Preparation
Possible subnet numbers for our company range from 0 to 255, providing 255
numbers. By assigning these 8 bits to the network number, this single Class B
network number can accommodate up to 255 smaller networks. This fills the
requirement for 200 networks, and also includes room for growth.
Notes
The remaining 8 bits in the fourth octet are available to assign host numbers; 2 to
the power of 8 unique numbers are available, so you can create up to 254 host
addresses on each network. This more than meets the requirement for up to 150
hosts on each network.
The Last Eight Bits
Note: *Actually, only 254 host addresses are available. From the total possible
number of hosts, 256, 0 refers to the network itself and the host address 255 is
reserved for broadcasts, which leaves 254 possible hosts actually available for a
network.
Notes
Subnet Mask
Now we need to identify that the third octet actually belongs to the subnet address
so that our routers can perceive that group of bits as being part of the network
address.
Routers decide the path a message takes based only on the network portion of the
IP address. Use a subnet mask to extend the network address to include that third
octet.
Change the natural mask of 255.255.0.0 to the subnet mask 255.255.255.0, which
changes the third octet, or subnet fields, to 1s, identifying them as network
address components. Keep the last octet as 0s, and they remain identified as the
host address.
Implementing Subnet Addresses
Notes
Configure the Mask on All Routers
Next, configure the mask on all our routers connected to the department networks.
In the figure below, you see 3 of the 200 department subnets with their subnetted
network addresses and subnet masks. The subnets 128.30.128.0, 128.30.192.0, and
128.30.224.0 are recognized by the routers because of the subnet mask associated
with the networks.
The subnet mask 255.255.255.0 indicates that the network number is found in the
first three octets, or 24 bits, and that the host number is in the last octet, or 8 bits.
Three Subnets of Network 128.30.0.0
Notes
Class B Subnet Masked Address Example
Earlier, you examined the association of the bit pattern in the subnet mask with the
binary address, and noticed the one-to-one correspondence that indicates the
boundary between the network and host portions of the address.
Look at one device on our new company network to see all the notation conventions
in one example.
Class B Subnet Mask Example
First is the IP address expressed in dotted-decimal notation. You recognize 128.30
as the original network portion address obtained for the whole company.
Next is the same number, expressed in binary notation. In the last octet, you see
that the device has a binary host number of 0-0-0-0-0-0-0-1.
Looking at the decimal mask, you see 255.255.255.0, which corresponds to the
binary mask just below it, with all 1s in the first three octets indicating that they
belong to the network address. The number 255 is the mathematical conversion
of the binary number 1-1-1-1-1-1-1-1.
Next is the new network address, which uses the first three octets, and only the
first three octets, as mandated by the subnet mask. Notice that the last octet, the
host octet, is 0, indicating that this address refers to a network, not a device.
And finally, is our host address alone, which in this case is a device with an
address of 1.
128.30.128.1
10000000.00011110.10000000.00000001
Decimal
Binary
Decimal Mask
Binary Mask
Network
Host
255 255 255 0
11111111.11111111.11111111.00000000
128.30.128.0
1
Notes
Principles of the Mask and Subnet
The overall IP mask and subnetting principles are:
Subnet mask bit positions have a one-to-one correlation with the bit positions in
an IP address. For each bit position in an IP address that is part of the network ID,
the subnet mask bits are set to 1.
Every bit position in the IP address that is part of the host ID corresponds to a bit
setting of 0 in the subnet mask.
In configuration, the mask is entered in dotted-decimal notation.
Network addresses of all 0s or all 1s are not allowed.
Host addresses of all 0s or all 1s are not allowed.
How It Works
Subnet addressing is only recognized within an organizations own network. A
company has to configure and deploy routers with the subnet masking information
to make their own internal subnetting system work.
Note: Routers that connect to networks outside of the organizations network, such
as those that link the company to the Internet, do not use subnetted addresses for the
Internet connection, but do use subnetted addresses for all internal network
connections.
Notes
Apply Subnet Addressing
The figure below gives a different view of the corporate network with the subnet
addressing. The router receives all traffic from the Internet addressed to network
128.30.0.0, which is the official IP network address for the entire company. But
based on the third octet, the subnet mask of the router is applied to interpret that
octet as part of the network address.
Rather than looking for a host, the router sends the data along to the smaller
networks contained in the company system, where those routers will take care of
the final delivery.
External routers out on the Internet, not affiliated with our company, only see
the official IP network address, and send the data to the 128.30.0.0 location as
they would to any other network address.
The company-configured router recognizes the subnet information, acts on that
number as a network address, and deploys it to other routers within the
organizational network of the company.
Apply the Subnet Addressing
Notes
Benefits of Subnet Addressing
A network administrator can accommodate company growth and create additional
subnets without having to obtain new network numbers.
Small department-oriented or group-oriented networks can be put together to
streamline administrative tasks like software upgrades, database access, and device
sharing, which keep the traffic flow local and efficient.
Many businesses and organizations use subnets in their LANs and WANs to
increase efficiency and organize their internal systems.
Notes
Address Resolution Protocol
Earlier, you saw that IP is the dominant protocol in the Internet layer, and is assisted
by Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and Internet Control Message Protocol
(ICMP).
The Internet layer is primarily concerned with IP addressing and how to select a
path to transfer data across networks. Yet, the Internet layer communicates with the
Network Interface layer, which is not concerned at all about the IP or software
addresses.
The Network Interface layer focuses on the hardware address to which a message
needs to be sent, and oversees the transmission of a message on the physical media.
But a message still needs its IP address when it comes off the wire and begins the
reverse layer process that puts it back together into the original file.
ARP
Notes
How Does the IP Address Stay With a Message
How does the IP address stay with a message, and where does the information about
the hardware address, or MAC, come from?
On physical networks, there is a mechanism that performs cross-referencing and
binding of hardware and software addresses, called ARP. This protocol functions to
answer the question: How do you get a hardware address, knowing only the IP
address?
ARP Functionality
As an example, we will examine ARP functionality using an Ethernet network.
Other network types function in a similar way. An Ethernet address is a unique
48-bit address. It is expressed in hexadecimal, or base 16. Usually, the address is
encoded into a network interface card (NIC), and does not change. To ensure unique
numbers, the manufacturers of Ethernet controllers must register the hardware
addresses with a central authority.
For data to be delivered, the 48-bit Ethernet address must be associated and bound
to the 32-bit IP address of the message. ARP dynamically binds the addresses
together.
ARP Binds Addresses Together
Notes
How ARP Works
We will return to our example company to demonstrate how ARP works.
In one department with a subnet address of 128.30.128.0, consider three
workstations and, for simplicity, assign them host, or software, addresses of 1, 2,
and 3. They all share the same Ethernet network. Each has a unique 48-bit hardware
address on that network. Again, for simplicity, we represent their hardware
addresses as A, B, and C.
Sample LAN
Here are the particulars:
Network type is Ethernet.
Workstation 1 has IP address of 128.30.128.1 and hardware address of A.
Workstation 2 has IP address of 128.30.128.2 and hardware address of B.
Workstation 3 has IP address of 128.30.128.3 and hardware address of C.
The task for Workstation 1, the source, is to send data to Workstation 3, the
destination. Workstation 1 knows the IP, or software address of workstation 3,
but it does not know the destinations Ethernet address.
Because they share the same IP network address, Workstation 1 knows they are both
on the same physical network. If they were not, Workstation 1 would send the data
to its network router, and the router would take over the task of message delivery.
128.30.128.1
Workstation 1
128.30.128.1
Workstation 1
128.30.128.2
Workstation 2
128.30.128.3
Workstation 3
BB
AA CC
Notes
However, here in the local Ethernet network, Workstation 1 needs to find the
hardware address of Workstation 3 to send the data. Because it does not know it
already, Workstation 1 sends out, or broadcasts, ARP requests, which contains the
destination IP address of Workstation 3. The ARP request asks for the associated
hardware address.
A broadcast is a special message, in which all address bits are set to 1s, or, when
expressed in hexadecimal for Ethernet, as Fs (FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF). Every device
on the network receives the broadcast, and they all examine it. An analogy would
be junk mail sent to Resident, which is delivered to everyone in your town.
Like junk mail, most of the workstations recognize the message is not intended for
them and will drop the message. However, in this message, the address for
Workstation 3, 128.30.128.3, is present at the Internet layer. Workstation 3
recognizes its own IP address, and sends an ARP response with its requested
hardware address back to Workstation 1.
ARP Request
Notes
Message Formats
Remember, both the source and destination IP addresses, or software addresses, are
present in the Internet layer header, but the hardware, or MAC address, is in the
Network Interface layer.
The figure below is a depiction of the data units with their associated headers at both
the Internet and the Network Interface layers. The Internet layer datagram, with its
header information, is contained within the Network Interface layer frame for
transmission on the physical wire.
Note: In the figure below, N refers to the Network Interface layer, I refers to the
Internet layer, T refers to the Transport layer, and C refers to the cyclic redundancy
check (CRC).
Message Formats
Notes
ARP Request Dialog
Look at the ARP request again, focusing on the data units and header information.
1. The mail message that Workstation 1 needs to send to Workstation 3 is shown
below. The Internet layer header contains the source IP address and the
destination IP address. In the header from the Network Interface layer, we see
that Workstation 1 has supplied its own hardware address, A, but does not know
the hardware address of Workstation 3. So, the message cannot be sent.
The ARP Message
2. To get the hardware address, Workstation 1 sends out an ARP request. It sets the
destination hardware address as FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF, to broadcast the message
to the entire Ethernet network. The ARP request contains the IP address of
Workstation 3 and the query for the associated hardware address.
128.30.128.2
Workstation 2
BB
128.30.128.3
Workstation 3
CC
128.30.128.1
Workstation 1
N I
Mail Message
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: ?
N I
Mail Message
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: ?
Mail Message
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: ?
ARP Request
IP = 128.30.128.3
HW = ?
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: FF
N I
ARP Request
IP = 128.30.128.3
HW = ?
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: FF
ARP Request
IP = 128.30.128.3
HW = ?
S: 128.30.128.1
D: 128.30.128.3
S: A
D: FF
N I
Message Description
Workstation 1 wants to send a
mail message to workstation 3.
Workstation 1 needs workstation
3s hardware address.
Workstation 1 sends out a
broadcast ARP message.
Legend:
S = Source N = Network Interface Header
D = Destination I = Internet Header
AA
Mail Message
Notes
3. Workstation 3, along with all the other devices, receives the broadcast. But when
it recognizes its own IP address, Workstation 3 responds to Workstation 1 by
sending an ARP reply that identifies its hardware address on the Ethernet
network.
4. Workstation 1 receives the reply and completes the Network Interface header by
parsing the hardware address and placing the destination IP address it received
into the header. With a complete Network Interface header, it now sends the mail
message to Workstation 3 at hardware address C.
5. The message reaches the destination device, where the message headers are
removed, the message is passed up the IP stack, and the mail arrives.
ARP Features
Two special features make ARP a very efficient protocol.
Hosts that use ARP have a special area of memory called a cache, in which they
keep the IP-to-MAC hardware address pairs for a certain period of time. This
means that they do not have to send a request each time they want to send data.
The source device, or host, that broadcasts an ARP request, includes its own IP
and MAC hardware addresses, which allows the destination host to record the
address pair in its cache cutting down on potential network traffic.
Notes
Function of DHCP
This lesson discussed some of the duties involved in configuring company
networks. These include: obtaining an IP network address from an ISP, deciding
whether or not to use subnets, diagramming the subnets, assigning the subnet
addresses, and implementing subnet masks on the company routers to extend the IP
network address. But what about the devices that need complete IP addresses, with
both the network and the host portion? You looked at the number of unique IP
addresses our network can support, but did not actually assign the numbers. Next,
we look at ways to accomplish this.
Static IP Address
One option, used in many organizations, is to assign specific, static, complete IP
addresses to each device when you first configure your internet. It can be a lot of
work to configure every desktop with its own IP address, especially if there are
hundreds of workstations in the company. This option also requires that you keep
excellent records so that you know which addresses are actively in use, and which
addresses are available for new installations.
Static IP Address Assigned to Each Workstation
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP
After an address is assigned it cannot be moved without re-assigning the address.
IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
Notes
DHCP Server
Another option is to assign IP addresses automatically, or, as the protocol name
implies, dynamically, using Dynamic Host Control Protocol (DHCP). When DHCP
is used, the computer does not have a locally configured, static IP address.
Rather, when a host needs a software address, it requests one from the DHCP server,
which assigns an IP address to a host on a temporary basis. DHCP can relieve some
of the network management tasks associated with office moves, changes, and
installations, and provides a much more flexible environment.
Station Requests a Temporary IP Address Through DHCP Server
With DHCP, it doesnt matter if a station is moved.
Temp. IP Temp. IP Temp. IP Temp. IP
Station Moved
DHCP Server
Temp. IP Temp. IP Temp. IP Temp. IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
IP IP IP IP
Notes
Fixed Address and DHCP Assigned
While some organizations deploy the majority of IP addresses using DHCP, very
often a combination of fixed-address assignment and DHCP assignment is
used. When certain computers make and break connections frequently or need
intermittent access, DHCP provides a good solution.
Examples include dial-in laptops or mobile computers that need to connect to
different LANs across the enterprise, and therefore, cannot be assigned a fixed IP
address because the network portion might change.
Fixed Address and DHCP Assigned
Notes
How DHCP Works
DHCP is a client-server utility that deploys IP addresses on an as-needed basis.
DHCP servers are installed on the enterprise network, and control a pool of
available IP addresses.
The DHCP server sends, or assigns, an IP address from its list in response to a
client request. The address might have a usage time limit, and it is the role of the
client to request an IP address when connecting to the network or when its current
address expires
Multiple DHCP Servers
DHCP servers control a pool of available IP addresses.
DHCP Server
DHCP
Server
DHCP
Server
128.30.128.1
128.30.128.2
128.30.128.3
128.30.128.4
128.30.128.5
128.30.128.6
128.30.128.7
128.30.128.8
128.30.128.9
128.30.128.10
128.30.128.11
128.30.128.12
128.30.128.13
128.30.128.14
128.30.128.15
128.30.128.16
128.30.128.17
128.30.128.18
128.30.128.19
128.30.128.20
IP Address Pool
Notes
Dynamic Address Assignment
A DHCP server can assign dynamic addresses in three ways: manual, automatic,
and dynamic. The network administrator determines which method is used, and the
server manages the allocation accordingly.
Sometimes, DHCP is used as a way to simply create the IP address assignments,
rather than configuring each and every device individually at the client end.
It can also provide ongoing flexibility, as when a traveling employee uses his or her
laptop to connect to different networks across the organization; for instance, the
Atlanta LAN one week and the Seattle LAN the next.
Listed below are the configuration options.
Manual Configuration. A database of all possible hardware and software
addresses is created for each potential client on the server. When the client
requests an address, it is supplied from the database.
Automatic Configuration. When a client requests an address, an IP address is
allocated from a pool, but it becomes permanently associated with that client.
Dynamic Configuration. When the client requests an address, the DHCP server
leases an IP address for a limited time. In other words, the address assignment is
temporary.
Notes
Advantages of Temporary Address Assignment
The highly flexible, temporary address assignment available from DHCP has
several advantages as listed below.
Addresses are allocated only for the length of time the dial-in user is connected to
the network. The address becomes available for reuse at the end of the session.
IP addresses do not need to be reconfigured for users who need to connect on
different network segments. The network portion of the IP address remains
flexible for the users who move among buildings or to different locations.
IP address coverage can be extended when there are fewer available addresses on
a LAN than there are potential clients. Addresses are provided only on request,
and are recycled when a session is finished.
Advantage of Temporary Address Assignment
Notes
Disadvantages of Temporary Address Assignment
However, also consider these disadvantages of temporary address assignment with
DHCP. Duplicate addresses can occur on the network, which disables one
computer.
Disadvantage of Temporary Address Assignment
And if a DHCP server fails, workstations are cut off from the network, because they
are unable to obtain an IP address.
Disadvantage of Temporary Address Assignment (Continued)
Notes
DHCP is well suited for assigning IP addresses to network devices that connect for
short or intermittent periods of time. It is often implemented for users who
frequently move away from their offices, because it simplifies their network
connecting procedures.
DHCP Well Suited for Mobile Users
Notes
Summary
In this lesson, you have examined the format of IP addresses, explored how they are
used, and seen how they can be modified to meet specific IP network needs.
The main highlights of this unit include:
Class A IP addresses use the first octet to indicate the network address, and begin
with dotted-decimal numbers from 1 to 126.
Class B IP addresses use the first and second octet to define the network address,
and begin with dotted-decimal numbers ranging from 128 to 191.
Class C IP addresses use the first three octets for the network address, and begin
with dotted-decimal numbers ranging from 192 to 223.
Every IP address consists of 32 bits divided into two portions: the network portion
and the host portion. The different address classes have different boundary points
between the two parts.
Binary numbers can be converted to decimal Use multiplication to convert binary
numbers to decimal and use division to convert decimal to binary.
An organization with a single official IP network address can use subnets to
operate multiple physical networks as part of their company-wide network.
A Subnet Mask is a bit pattern that indicates the network portion and host portion
of an IP address that has been subnetted. Natural masks conform to the boundaries
typical of their IP address class.
ARP binds software (IP addresses) to hardware (MAC addresses) to enable
information delivery.
DHCP is used dynamically to assign IP addresses.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. The main task of IP is to move information across networks.
a. True
b. False
2. If you use DHCP, all of the IP addresses in the network must be dynamically
acquired.
a. True
b. False
3. An IP address with the first two binary digits of 1 0 is in which address
class?
a. Class A
b. Class B
c. Class C
d. Class D
4. Valid Class A IP network addresses fall within which of the following numeric
ranges?
a. 1-126
b. 1-191
c. 191-223
d. 128-223
Notes
5. What is the maximum number of hosts supported by a Class C network?
a. 256
b. 65,534
c. 254
d. 16,777,214
6. What are the two primary portions of an IP address?
a. network and datalink
b. network and host
c. host and MAC (hardware)
d. class and network
7. Which statements are true regarding IP addressing?
a. Two IP hosts may have the same host number if they have different
network numbers.
b. Two IP hosts may have the same network number if they have different
host numbers.
c. Both (a) and (b) are true
d. Neither (a) nor (b) are true.
8. Which statements are true regarding the natural mask?
a. The natural mask reverses the network portion and the host portion of the
IP address
b. The natural mask is determined by the class of the address.
c. For simplicity, the natural mask is always set to 255.255.255.0
d. All of the above
e. None of the above
Notes
9. What is the function of the address mask?
a. It separates the network portion of the IP address from the host portion.
b. It increases the total number of usable host addresses in a network.
c. It dynamically assigns a host address to a station on an IP LAN.
d. All of the above
Notes
10. What is the function of the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) in an Ethernet
IP local area network?
a. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire its own IP address.
b. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire another hosts IP address.
c. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire another IP hosts Ethernet
hardware (MAC) address.
d. It dynamically converts binary addresses to hexadecimal addresses.
Notes
Answers to Practice
1. The main task of IP is to move information across networks.
a. True
b. False
2. If you use DHCP, all of the IP addresses in the network must be dynamically
acquired.
a. True
b. False
(With DHCP, all of the IP addresses COULD be dynamically acquired, but
you may still assign static addresses as needed for important devices such
as servers and printers.)
3. An IP address with the first two binary digits of 1 0 is in which address
class?
a. Class A
b. Class B
(An IP address whose first two binary digits are 1 0 will have a first
octet of between 128 and 191 [10000000 - 10111111]. Class B networks
have addresses in this range.)
c. Class C
d. Class D
Notes
4. Valid Class A IP network addresses fall within which of the following numeric
ranges?
a. 1-126
b. 1-191
c. 191-223
d. 128-223
5. What is the maximum number of hosts supported by a Class C network?
a. 256
b. 65,534
c. 254
(A Class C network can support up to 254 hosts. Class C networks have
8 bits, or 256 addresses, available in the 4th octet. However, since "0" [all
0's in the 4th octet] is assigned to the network itself, and since "255" [all
1's] is the broadcast address, this leaves 254 addresses available for
hosts.)
d. 16,777,214
6. What are the two primary portions of an IP address?
a. network and datalink
b. network and host
c. host and MAC (hardware)
d. class and network
Notes
7. Which statements are true regarding IP addressing?
a. Two IP hosts may have the same host number if they have different
network numbers.
b. Two IP hosts may have the same network number if they have different
host numbers.
c. Both (a) and (b) are true
(Two hosts with the same host address may co-exist as long as they are in
different networks. Two hosts in the same network must have different host
addresses.)
d. Neither (a) nor (b) are true.
8. Which statements are true regarding the natural mask?
a. The natural mask reverses the network portion and the host portion of the
IP address
b. The natural mask is determined by the class of the address.
c. For simplicity, the natural mask is always set to 255.255.255.0
d. All of the above
9. What is the function of the address mask?
a. It separates the network portion of the IP address from the host
portion.
b. It increases the total number of usable host addresses in a network.
(The address mask may DECREASE the number of available host
addresses in a network, in order to create subnets. The address mask does
not assign host addresses [DHCP does this].)
c. It dynamically assigns a host address to a station on an IP LAN.
d. All of the above
Notes
10. What is the function of the Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) in an Ethernet
IP local area network?
a. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire its own IP address.
b. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire another hosts IP address.
c. It enables an IP host to dynamically acquire another IP hosts
Ethernet hardware (MAC) address.
(ARP is not involved with binary to hexadecimal conversion, nor does it
enable a host to acquire an IP address for itself or of another host.)
d. It dynamically converts binary addresses to hexadecimal addresses.
4.0 Routing Overview
Introduction
In general terms, routing is the process by which data units are sent on a specified
path from point-to-point, through the networks, and on to their final destination. We
now look at routing in more detail.
This lesson discusses routing services, different strategies used for routing in
networks, routing protocol terminology, and how routing tables are used to deliver
information.
Objectives
Discuss the primary purpose of routing in an IP network.
Describe the differences between direct routing and indirect routing.
Explain what routing tables are, what they contain, and how they are used.
Discuss changes that occur to the software or hardware address of a message as it
is routed across IP networks.
Define routing terms, such as autonomous system, Exterior Gateway Protocols
(EGP), Interior Gateway Protocols (IGP), and default route.
2 of 60 4.0 Routing Overview
Notes
Need for Routing
Local message delivery occurs between two computers on the same network.
Before a computer sends a datagram, it compares its own network address with the
network address of the destination computer.
If the sender and recipient are on the same network, the message is sent directly.
If the hardware address of the destination device is not known by the senders
computer, ARP determines the recipient's hardware address, and that information
enables the message to be sent.
In this way, ARP, IP addressing, and hardware addressing work together to carry out
local network message delivery.
Local Message Delivery
4.0 Routing Overview 3 of 60
Notes
What if the sender and the recipient are on different networks? IP at the Internet
layer is responsible for determining the path a message takes to arrive at its
destination, based on the recipients IP software address.
But how is that path established? What is the procedure to make that decision? The
process is routing. Specialized computers, called routers, choose the path used to
deliver a message from one computer to another beyond the local network.
When Workstations are on Different Networks
Work Station
128.30.0.1
Work Station
128.30.0.2
Work Station
128.30.0.3
Message to
128.40.0.3
AA CC BB
Work Station
128.40.0.1
Work Station
128.40.0.2
Work Station
128.40.0.3
AA CC BB
Router
Notes
Routers
A router is a device that connects a network with one or more other networks.
Networks can be of different sizes and different physical types. Routers must have
network interface ability for each type of physical network connection. Routers can
be PCs configured with multiple NICs and special software to carry out the routing
functions. Usually, they are highly specialized computer devices with hardware
and software created just to carry out routing functions.
All IP network routers use IP, and IP addressing is at the center of the routing
process. Specialized routing software deploys datagrams based on their IP
addresses, and determines which networks to use with the help of IP.
To be part of an intranet, a network must connect to other networks. Those
connections are made with routers. Each network that communicates with other
networks must have at least one local router. When a computer sends a message to
another computer beyond the local network, the sender's local router becomes the
starting point for the path.
Networks Interconnected by Routers
Notes
A message from one workstation to another on the same local network is sent
directly. Workstations take care of local deliveries themselves, requesting hardware
addresses and sending the messages.
Local Delivery Between Stations
How does a workstation get a message destined for another network to its local
router to begin the journey?
Notes
Default Router
Each workstation is given the address of its local network router when its own IP
address is configured. This local network router is also called the default router.
When a workstation has something that needs to be delivered outside the local
network, it passes the information to the local network, or default router, which
assumes the responsibility for delivering the information.
The router forwards the message to another router that is closer to the destination
network. This process repeats, until the datagram reaches the router within the
destination network. The final router delivers the datagram locally, to the
destination device.
Default Router
128.30.0.1
08-00-2B-00-76-10
128.40.0.100
00-00-A2-00-00-B1
128.40.0.3
08-00-2B-00-52-01
Router A Router A
128.50.0.2
00-00-A2-00-45-67
128.50.0.1
00-00-A2-00-00-21
128.30.0.100
00-00-A2-00-80-01
Routing Table Router A
128.30 Local
128.50 port 2
128.40 port 2
Routing Table Router B
128.40 Local
128.50 port 1
128.30 port 1
Router B Router B
Host A Host A
Host B Host B
Default Router
Notes
The delivery of information across a series of networks requires vigorous
cooperation among the internet routers. Each router maintains a series of tables
that contain destination network numbers, paired with information about the best
direction or physical wire on which to embark. These tables are diagrams of all
available network paths that originate from that router.
Each router determines the next hop the message takes along the path toward the
final destination. Step by step, the routers pass the message along to the next router
on the path. Each router knows the next step to take.
An analogy is a signpost at a crossroad with numerous arrows, each pointing in the
direction of a different city, some near, and some far. As long as there are signposts
at each crossroad along the way, you can reach your destination by traveling from
crossroad to crossroad, following the signs that point toward your city.
Signposts, however, are fairly durable. Router tables that represent the possible
network paths are continually updated, and change constantly. Machines are
added or removed from networks, links fail, and the network topology changes. You
will explore the ways routing tables are used, created, and updated in a later lesson.
Notes
Delivery Methods
There are two main types of message delivery.
The first involves local message delivery, in which one computer sends information
to another computer on the same physical network, or wire, that share the same IP
network address. This is called direct routing.
Local Message Delivery
Notes
The other type is message delivery beyond the local network. The message is sent
from a computer on one network and delivered to a computer on a separate network.
The sender and receiver have different IP network addresses. This is called
indirect routing.
Beyond Local Delivery
Consider the first transmission method, direct routing. Notice that no actual routing
occurs. The two devices transfer information, but neither is choosing paths or
sorting network addresses. The transfer takes place between two workstations
directly connected to the same physical network, so no routers become involved,
which is actually more delivery than routing.
Notes
Direct Routing
The steps in the direct routing process are listed below.
1. Data from the higher layers is placed into an Internet layer envelope to form an
IP datagram. The header contains both the source and the destination IP
addresses. The network portion of these IP addresses is the same.
2. The IP datagram is encased in a physical frame at the Network Interface layer,
and ARP matches the IP address to the hardware address.
3. The frame of data is pushed out onto the wire. The hardware makes the delivery
to the destination, and the process is reversed through the IP stack layers.
Diagram of Direct Routing
Notes
Indirect Routing
Indirect routing takes place when the communicating devices have no idea where
the other is physically connected to the internet. The source and destination
computers have different IP network addresses, and are not on the same LAN.
The source device sends the message to a router, and the router takes responsibility
for delivery, determining the path and starting the data on its way to the final
destination.
Indirect Routing
Notes
Direct or Indirect Routing
How do you determine which method to use to deliver a message? Simple delivery
or indirect routing? Another way of asking the same question is: How can I tell if
the destination device is directly connected to my IP network? The message is
transmitted differently, depending on the answer to that query.
We know that an IP address is composed of different portions: network, subnet, and
host. IP compares the source IP address to the destination IP address to determine
whether to send it using direct routing, really direct delivery, or indirect routing.
Indirect Routing
Work Station
128.30.0.1
Work Station
128.30.0.2
Work Station
128.30.0.3
Message to
128.40.0.3
AA CC BB
Work Station
128.40.0.1
Work Station
128.40.0.2
Work Station
128.40.0.3
AA CC BB
Router
IP Address 128.30.0.1
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
Network Address: 128.30
Source
Destination
IP Address 128.40.0.1
Subnet Mask 255.255.255.0
Notes
There are two possible outcomes to this comparison.
If the IP network addresses match, the devices are on the same network and direct
routing is used.
If the IP network addresses do not match, the computers are on different networks.
Indirect routing is used so that the message is sent to the local router to begin the
path through the interconnected networks.
In the same way, if the IP addresses include subnetting, a comparison of the
extended network addresses will be made, with similar outcomes.
Direct or Indirect Routing
Indirect routing happens whenever routers participate in the delivery of a message
to a non-local network.
128.30.0.1
Indirect Routing
Router
Router
Direct Routing
Router
Router
128.30.0.3
Source
Destination
128.30.0.1
128.40.0.3
Source
Destination
Same Network
Different Network
Subnet Mask
255.255.0.0
Subnet Mask
255.255.0.0
Notes
Role of Routers in Indirect Routing
The path of a message across networks is a series of steps, or hops, from router to
router until it reaches the router on the destination network. At each juncture, the
routers perform the same procedure when they receive a datagram, as follows.
1. The router compares the destination network address of the datagram with its
own network address, to decide what to do with it next.
If the destination of the datagram is a computer on one of the networks directly
connected to the router, the router uses direct routing to deliver it.
If the datagram is not destined for a directly connected network, the router
forwards the datagram to the next router in the path toward the destination
network. The chosen path is based on compiled network information kept in
routing tables.
2. IP sends the datagram on its way.
3. The process is repeated until the data successfully reaches the destination, or an
event occurs that prevents delivery.
Role of Routers in Indirect Routing
Router A
128.30.0.1
128.40.0.3
128.30 Local
128.40 port 2
128.50 port 2
Router B
1
2
Notes
Routing Tables
Routers use compiled network information kept in routing tables to make
decisions about the direction, path, and network interface connection to use to
forward a datagram toward its destination. A constant communication takes place
between routers, so each router knows the addresses of other routers and the
related network conditions.
Routing Tables
With the exception of direct routing, when a router knows the location of the
destination device and delivers it directly, routers must work in concert. Routers
work in a coordinated way, sharing information about the physical networks
between them and using the information to decide datagram pathways. Routers
keep track of IP network addresses, router addresses, and information about
networks and routes using routing tables.
128.30.0.1
08-00-2B-00-76-10
128.40.0.100
00-00-A2-00-00-B1
128.40.0.3
08-00-2B-00-52-01
Router A Router A
128.50.0.2
00-00-A2-00-45-67
128.50.0.1
00-00-A2-00-00-21
128.30.0.100
00-00-A2-00-80-01
128.30 Local
128.50 port 2
128.40 port 2
Routing Table Router B
128.40 Local
128.50 port 1
128.30 port 1
Router B Router B
Host A Host A
Host B Host B
Default Router
Notes
What Do Routing Tables Contain?
The basic doctrine of IP routing tables is simplicity. Tables are constructed to
provide capable routing functions for sending data across networks, and yet
require a very small amount of information to get the job done.
Routing Table for Router 2
Notes
Streamlined Routing
Consider the many sources and levels of information that could potentially have an
impact on routing decisions, and how much information there really is available.
An IP internet can consist of many interconnected networks.
Each network within the Internet can support hundreds of devices, and each has a
unique IP address.
The Internet can contain thousands of other routers.
Each router on the internet contains a routing table.
Each routing table contains information to get data to any network device.
The sheer amount of information is monumental. Obviously, any attempt to
construct an enormous routing table with specifics about each and every device on
the company internet is just not possible. Instead, routing tables are made to be
streamlined and efficient, and can only contain essential information.
Streamlined Routing
Notes
Minimum Requirements
IP addresses have a network portion and a host portion. All devices on the same
network share the network portion of their address. The actual local delivery uses
direct routing, performed by the local router.
The routing table information pool can be limited to just network information,
ignoring the device or host portion. Routers that deliver on their local networks can
be equipped with host address tables.
However, because the routers must work together to forward messages across
networks, they need to know something about the next router along the way. The
tables need to include information about each of the neighboring routers, which is
still a lot less data than having to know every device on the network.
Next Hop Router
Notes
Unit of Cost
A router that has several neighbors can have more than one option for transmitting
a message effectively. Some measurement of desirability must be assigned to each
potential route. A unit of cost is part of the table. Cost is proportional with the
distance to the destination network.
Cost
The minimum amount of data a routing table needs includes three pieces of
information:
IP address of a destination network
IP address of a neighboring router that provides a path to a destination network
Measure or cost associated with the distance to the destination network
Notes
Router Hop
A router rarely knows the complete path to the destination network. The more
extended an internet, the more likely it is that the router sees only one small portion
of the journey. But its routing table tells it which of its neighbors can assist in
forwarding the datagram toward its destination.
Table Information
The simplicity principle also applies to hosts. Workstations have routing table
information about the default router as a gateway out of the local network, and
information about other routers also connected to their local network.
But to keep the size small, they have little else in the table.
Router Table Information
Notes
An Intranet
As an example, focus on an intranet made up of three networks connected by two
routers. The IP network numbers are 128.10.0.0, 128.30.0.0, and 128.40.0.0. Each
router has two network connections, and each of the connections has a unique IP
address, which reflects that they are devices on that particular network.
The MAC address, or hardware address, of each connection is represented by a
letter. Use A through F. Remember, the hardware address is required to complete
the delivery of information across the wire. The network devices all use ARP to
obtain the hardware address from the IP address.
An Intranet
Workstation 1
128.10.0.50
Default router: 128.10.0.1
A
128.10.0.0
Router 1
128.10.0.1
128.30.0.1
128.30.0.0
128.40.0.0
Router 2
128.30.0.2
128.40.0.1
F
Workstation 2
128.40.0.50 Default router: 128.40.0.1
Notes
Routing Tables
The figure below lists the routing tables for Router 1 and Router 2. Each row
contains details about one route. The columns represent the following information.
Destination IP network number
IP address for the neighboring router, or Next Hop Router that is next in the path
A cost unit, referred to as hops, based on the distance to the destination network,
if that path is used
Proximity relationship of the neighboring router to the destination network (for
our example, D indicates a directly connected network and I indicates an
indirectly connected network)
Routing Tables for Router 1 and Router 2
Notes
Notice how the tables for each router show the perspective from their location on
the internet.
Routing Tables for All Routers
Notes
Routing tables are used to send information, hop by hop, from router to neighbor
router. They also use the ARP tables for the actual local delivery.
Sending a Message
Path Direction
The process is a large cooperative effort among routers. Routers are decentralized,
and the exact path is determined as it is created. Routers are like our analogy of the
signpost, each determining the next leg of the journey.
Like our signpost, there might be multiple arrows pointing slightly different
directions toward the same destination. A contrast can be drawn to a centralized
system, which is like a travel service, distributing trip maps, directions, and
itineraries.
Workstation
1
Workstation
2
Message
Received
Message
Message
Message
Routing
Table
Routing
Table
Routing
Table
Routing tables are used
to send information
Hop by hop
From router
To router
Message
Sent
Notes
Transmission Headers
Now watch a message as it is passed between routers to its final destination. Use
our previous example of the internet with three networks and two routers.
Workstation 1 on network 128.10.0.0 needs to send a file to Workstation 2 on
network 128.40.0.0. There are two routers and another network between the
sending and receiving networks.
Routing in Action
Workstation 1
128.10.0.50
Default router: 128.10.0.1
A
128.10.0.0
Router 1
128.10.0.1
128.30.0.1
128.30.0.0
128.40.0.0
Router 2
128.30.0.2
128.40.0.1
F
Workstation 2
128.40.0.50 Default router: 128.40.0.1
Notes
Here is how the process is expected to occur.
1. At Workstation 1, the file travels through the IP stack, from layer to layer, and
receives header information. Finally, it is ready for transmission on the wire.
Workstation 1 sends the frame containing the datagram to Router 1, its default
router.
2. Router 1 receives the incoming frame and passes it to IP. IP compares the
destination network address to its own, and determines where to forward the
datagram. IP consults the routing table and sends the datagram to the next router.
3. At Router 2, the same process happens, but this time the network IP addresses
match, and Router 2 delivers the packet to Workstation 2, the destination host.
Workstation 2 receives an incoming frame, and sees that the IP address indicates
it is the recipient. It passes the datagram up through the IP stack and obtains the
file.
Sending a Message Long Distance
Notes
Transmission Headers in Detail
Now for the same process in detail, we will focus on routing operations and header
information. Remember, each router determines the next hop in the message
delivery path by passing the datagram to the Internet layer, which then sends the
message back out onto a network. It is only a the end station that messages go to
higher layers.
Workstation 1 sends a file to Workstation 2 on a distant network. Notice that the
header of the datagram, attached by the IP layer, does not change. The source IP
address and the destination IP address are always the same, through all stages
of transmission.
Transmission Using Headers
What does change is the Network Interface layer header information. The hardware
addresses of the forwarding device and the target device contained in the frame
headers change each time a frame is passed between routers.
Notes
Frame Traveling on the Network
By examining the IP addresses, which reveal different network numbers,
Workstation 1 knows the file must be sent to Router 1, the default router, to be sent
beyond the local network. It uses ARP to obtain the hardware address of Router 1,
and creates a frame (see the figure below).
Transmission Using Default Routers
The Network Interface header contains the destination hardware address B of
Router 1, and the source hardware address as A, Workstation 1. The ultimate
destination and the originating source addresses are contained in the Internet header
layer, and these remain constant throughout the transmission.
Notes
Router 1 receives the packet, removes the frame header, and passes the datagram to
the Internet layer. IP examines the destination IP address, and determines that it is
not directly connected to the destination network; therefore, the datagram must be
forwarded to another router.
Transmission to Router 1
Notes
Router 1 consults its routing table and finds that the path to network 128.40.0.0
requires it to send the message to the Next Hop Router, which is Router 2.
Because Router 1 and Router 2 share the same network, the frame can be delivered
directly, based on the hardware address. If needed, Router 1 can use ARP to obtain
the hardware address of Router 2.
Finding the Next Hop Router
Notes
The Network Interface header contains the destination hardware address D of
Router 2, and the source hardware address C, the connection from Router 1 to
network 128.30.0.0.
Notice that Router 1 receives the datagram from the previous network at hardware
address B, and sends it out on the next network using hardware address C.
Adding New Hardware Addresses to the Frame
Notes
The message travels from 128.30.0.1 to 128.30.0.2, where Router 2 removes the
frame header and brings it up into IP.
IP examines the destination IP address and recognizes its own directly connected
network as the destination address. Therefore, the datagram can be delivered
directly to the destination device.
Transmission to Router 2
Notes
Router 2 looks up host address 128.40.0.50 in its ARP table to find the hardware
address for Workstation 2. If needed, it can use ARP to obtain the hardware address.
Obtaining Destination Hardware Address
Notes
Hardware addressing enables direct delivery, and Workstation 2 receives the frame
from Router 2. It removes the Network Interface header and passes the datagram to
the Internet layer.
Direct Delivery to Destination
Notes
Application Layer
IP then recognizes its own IP address as the destination host address, removes the
Internet layer header, and passes the segment up to TCP. The message is passed up
the IP stack, reassembled, and finally reaches the Application layer where it is read.
Message Arrival: IP>Transport>Application Layer
As the datagram traveled from Workstation 1 to Workstation 2, the header from the
Internet layer did not change, and the IP source and destination addresses
remained the same. However, the frame headers of the Network Interface layer
did change. Each jump, or hop, used a different pair of hardware addresses, from
sending device to receiving device. Each router applied new header information
as the message traveled from router to router across different networks.
Also, the router tables along the way each reflected the perspective, or vantage
point, of that particular router. Each router put together the travel path in real time,
using its routing table. If an impasse had occurred along a path at any time, routers
would compensate by changing their routing table information and generating an
alternate path. Therefore, if paths go down for any reason, routers can still deliver
the information. The next section discusses how routing tables are built.
Notes
Making Routing Happen
In an IP network, different computer types running different system software and
connected to different physical networks can all successfully communicate by
adhering to the standardized IP. This functionality is a result of IP and routing
algorithms working together to transmit information across networks.
IP addressing, routing tables, and ARP tables are central to the delivery process.
Now look at how routing tables are constructed, and what rules they follow to
forward datagrams.
ARP and Routing Tables
Next, we explore some background concepts and define some terminology.
Notes
Autonomous System
Many viable methods are available for creating routing tables and implementing
routing. As in the early days of networking development, organizations can
structure solutions to fulfill their own needs, but these various approaches do not
always work well with one another.
Established Guidelines
One accepted guideline is that an organization, corporation, or group can control,
administer, and maintain the operations of its own network to include all of its
subnets. Additionally, when those networks are connected to the Internet, the
organization oversees the following functions:
Ability to access internal networks from the Internet
Ability to reach the Internet from any of the internal local networks
Basically, an organization with an internal network system is responsible for
transmitting information in to or out of its own networks.
An autonomous system is defined as the collection of routers and networks under
the control of a single administrative entity. All of the IP networks in your
company are probably an autonomous system, and most likely the system is
administered by the Information Systems (IS) or Information Technology (IT)
department of the company.
Routing happens in one of two ways: information is sent and delivered within an
autonomous system, or it is sent and delivered between autonomous systems.
Interior Gateway Protocols
Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) are:
Protocols that operate within an autonomous system.
Responsible for sending and delivering information, and sharing routing or
network updates.
Notes
Exterior Gateway Protocols
Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGPs) are protocols that operate between autonomous
systems. A router that runs EGP must be able to talk to routers from other systems
so it can share information about networks it knows, and acquire information
about the networks other routers know.
In order to communicate beyond an autonomous system, at least one router is
designated to run EGP. This goes back to the guideline we mentioned earlier about
governing access in to and out of an autonomous network.
Autonomous System Number
Each autonomous system is given a unique identifying number called an
Autonomous System Number. The number allows routing algorithms to identify
specific autonomous systems. The numbers are administered by IANA and must be
unique, because they identify routers from different autonomous systems to one
another when they exchange information.
Autonomous System Numbers
Notes
Neighbors
Two routers that communicate in order to exchange network routing information
are called peers or neighbors. Neighbor routers each have connections to the same
network.
If neighbor routers belong to the same autonomous system, they are called
interior neighbors and communicate with IGP.
If the neighbor routers belong to different autonomous systems, they are called
exterior neighbors and communicate with EGP.
Neighbors
Notes
Interior Gateway Protocols
No single protocol for IGP emerged as a standard early on, so many protocols are
currently in use. IGP often refers to any or all of them. IGP is used between interior
neighbors to communicate changing network conditions and dynamically update
routing and availability status. Routers update their routing tables with the new
information, which can affect routing decisions and delivery within the autonomous
system.
The performance of IGP is of critical importance. IGP enables the routing algorithm
to respond immediately to network changes. In the event of serious problems,
like failures, messages can get lost if the algorithm cannot respond in time.
Routing algorithms must choose between the many possible routes a message can
take in a highly interconnected IP network. In addition, when choosing paths that
avoid problems or message loss, algorithms need to find the most efficient path
for a message traveling from source to destination.
Examples of IGPs in widespread use are Router Information Protocol (RIP) and
Open Shortest Path First (OSPF).
Notes
Exterior Gateway Protocols
Although each autonomous system can still choose whatever interior routing
protocol best fills its needs, this is not the case for EGP. EGP manages the
conversation between exterior neighbors.
All autonomous systems that want to communicate with other autonomous systems
must use the same exterior routing protocol. Border Gateway Protocol 4 (BGP4) is
currently the most widely used exterior routing protocol.
Routers run EGP to communicate with exterior neighbors about changing network
conditions, or reachability. The routers can dynamically update their routing tables
with the new information about network status. As with IGP for internal routing,
information updates affect routing decisions and the choice of paths used for
delivery across networks.
Static vs. Dynamic Routing
Routing tables can be managed in two ways. Tables in static systems are built
manually, while tables in dynamic systems are created from network status
conversations between routers.
Static routing information does not change, despite possible alterations in the
network. Changes must be configured manually.
Dynamic routing tables are updated continually based on changes in the
network. Routers inform each other about events that change the available paths
through a network, like when equipment or links go up or down. The new
information changes the router table automatically.
Notes
Static Routing
In a static routing approach, a network administrator must make any changes to the
routing tables due to adds, moves, or any sort of network topology change. The
changes must be made to every affected table. The tables are not responsive to any
short-term changes, such as equipment failures.
For a network that needs to adapt to rapid growth or change, the static routing
method is probably too rigid.
Routing Tables
Notes
For certain situations static routing can be very useful. Consider when:
There is only one route leading outside the network. Establishing the static routing
path or paths means that you do not have to run software that communicates
network routing status.
Network administrative reasons cause you to want to force traffic to use a specific
path. Do so by manually configuring all traffic routing to use the desired path.
Static routing is generally used in concert with dynamic algorithms. One
example is to equip a new or relocated router with a basic static table, like from a
disc.
The router comes online with this basic table that describes the attached networks
and some routes to remote networks. After initializing is complete, the dynamic
algorithms take over and enable the router to respond to network changes.
Notes
Dynamic Routing
Dynamic algorithms come in various classes. Two of the predominant classes are
distance-vector and link-state algorithms. They differ on the following issues:
Way they define the best route to a destination network
How they exchange routing information
Process that creates a decision between all available routes
Distance-Vector Algorithms
Distance-vector algorithms are based on the distance and reachability information
exchanged between routers. Each router learns the length of the shortest possible
path, the one involving the least number of hops to reach other networks, and bases
its routing decisions on this information. Router Information Protocol (RIP) is a
distance-vector algorithm discussed in more detail later in this lesson.
Advantages for distance-vector algorithms include:
Many experienced technicians are working with the software because it has been
implemented in so many networks.
The algorithms are well understood because they have been in existence for quite
a while and are widely used.
Very few configuration parameters need to be set, so they are very easy to
implement.
Disadvantages for distance-vector algorithms include:
Routers send each other large updates that contain information about routes to
every destination network.
Every router sends out its entire table at regular intervals, regardless of whether
or not anything has changed. This can generate a lot of traffic.
The response time to a network change is surprisingly slow, because all routers
must send updates to perpetuate the information.
Notes
Link-State Algorithms
The exchange of information that forms the basis of link-state algorithms is much
more extensive than for the distance-vector class. The details routers exchange with
one another include how a router reaches other routers and networks, the type of
link, and more complete cost information.
This information gives each router a more complete representation of the state of
the network, enabling them to identify not just the shortest path, but the most
efficient path to the destination network. Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) is an
example of a link-state algorithm, and is the other protocol that is examined more
closely.
Advantages for link-state algorithms include:
Each router has an entire view of the network, which makes it easier to detect
routing problems.
The updates routers exchange contain just the changes, so they are quite small and
generate minimal traffic.
Disadvantages for link-state algorithms include:
An entire view of the network can require large amounts of system memory to
maintain.
The calculation of an entire path route can take a lot of CPU cycles.
Notes
Default Routes
If a router cannot find an appropriate route to a destination network in its routing
table, it throws the datagram away. To avoid dropping datagrams, define a special
route called a default route. This default route acts as a catch-all, or wild card route,
and is shown in a routing table with a destination network of 0.0.0.0, and the next
hop entry is shown as the neighbors IP address.
When a router looks up a destination network address in its table and does not find
it listed, it checks its own configuration for a default route. If a default route has
been defined, it forwards the datagram to the router listed in the default route entry.
Without a default route, the datagram gets dropped.
Notes
Example
Consider the following example, in which all three routers have routing table
information for all of the networks inside this autonomous system. You can set the
default route in Router 1 and Router 2 to forward messages to their neighbor that is
closest to the Internet, Router 3.
If Router 1 accepts a packet with a destination IP address of 128.40.0.10, it finds an
exact match and sends the message to Router 2, which has direct access to the
specified network. As expected, one hop to Router 2, and then direct delivery.
Default Route Example
Notes
Wild Card
In contrast, when Router 1 receives a packet with a destination address of
192.32.5.253, it does not find any matching network in its table.
Unable to find a match, Router 1 will look for a default route in its table. It finds the
address 0.0.0.0, a wild card that can match anything. Router 1 follows the
instructions with the default route, and sends the message to Router 2.
Wild Card
Notes
Router 2 has the same difficulty, and resorts to its default route which specifies
Router 3. So, Router 2 packs the packet up and sends it to Router 3.
Default Route
Notes
Router 3 runs IGP like the others, and has information about the networks in the
autonomous system. But Router 3 also runs EGP, and can converse with routers
from outside networks.
Router 3 recognizes the IP address that Routers 1 and 2 cannot decipher, and
understands the datagram as being destined for a distant network.
Router 3 inserts the datagram into a frame with an address to an exterior neighbor,
and forwards the datagram on its way across the Internet.
Forward Across the Internet
Notes
By using default routes in this way, the network routers effectively all work together
to send traffic out to the Internet.
However, Routers 1 and 2 do not need to keep any Internet network information
listed in their tables, which keeps them small and uncomplicated. This is highly
desirable on devices where memory is at a premium.
Default Routes
Notes
Summary
This lesson did not go into exhaustive detail about routers, but did cover many
important concepts. Here are the main ideas you should feel comfortable
discussing:
A source network and destination network can be physically separated by
multiple intermediary networks. The primary purpose of routing in an IP network
is to deliver information beyond a local network by sequentially passing the
message across those intermediary networks. This is also known as indirect
routing. Routers are the devices that transport the messages across networks.
In contrast, local delivery, also known as direct routing, occurs between devices
on the same IP network. Routers do not participate in direct routing, because the
hardware addressing operates the actual delivery.
Routing tables are databases of possible pathways in an internet that are available
for information delivery across networks. Routing tables contain addresses for IP
network destinations, addresses of the next hop on the route, and a cost unit, or
metric, on which to judge the best route. These tables are used for indirect routing.
Messages travel across IP networks based on their IP, or software addresses,
which specify source and destination and do not change during transport.
Messages hop from router to router according to the sender and receiver hardware
addresses, which change for each leg of the trip.
An internet administered by one authority is an autonomous system. The routing
algorithms used within autonomous systems are IGPs. The routing algorithms
used between autonomous systems are EGPs. Static routes can be part of a router
table, but require manual entry and manual updates. Dynamic routing tables are
built using routing algorithms and continual updates about network status from
neighboring routers.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. Direct routing involves the transfer of information
a. ...between sender and receiver that are connected by no more than one
router.
b. between sender and receiver that share the same network address.
c. ...between sender and receiver that have different network addresses.
d. ...by following delivery instructions embedded in the datagram by the
sender.
2. How does a router benefit from the existence of the default route in its routing
table?
a. The router conserves memory because it does not need to maintain routing
table entries relating to remote networks.
b. It enables the router to maintain detailed information about a larger
domain.
c. It is the only way to enable a router to handle traffic destined for remote
networks.
d. It enables a router to discard traffic for which there is no matching routing
table entry.
3. Indirect routing involves the transfer of information:
a. between sender and receiver that are connected by no more than one router.
c. between sender and receiver that have different network addresses.
d. by following delivery instructions embedded in the datagram by the sender.
Notes
4. What kind of information is NOT stored in an IP routing table?
a. The IP address of a destination network
b. The IP address of every computer on a destination network
c. The IP address of a neighboring router that can provide a path to a
destination network
d. The cost associated with the distance to a destination network
5. When a router forwards a datagram from one network to another network, does
it change the datagram in any way?
a. No, the router does not change the datagram.
b. Yes, it changes the existing source and destination IP address in the
datagram header.
c. Yes, it changes the source and destination hardware address in the Network
Interface layer header.
d. Yes, it adds a field to the datagram header that contains its own IP address
to enable a return path.
6. Which statements are true regarding Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP) and
autonomous systems?
(You can choose more than one answer.)
a. An EGP is a protocol that operates between autonomous systems.
b. Two routers in different autonomous systems that share routing
information are considered interior neighbors.
c. Two routers in different autonomous systems that share routing
information are considered exterior neighbors.
d. When using an EGP, you can choose an autonomous system number
randomly because that number is only locally significant.
Notes
7. What is a benefit of static routes?
a. They provide automatic recognition of alternate paths in the event of a
failure.
b. They minimize the number of locations where changes must be made.
c. They are the best way to define paths through a large, complex
internetwork that needs to adapt to rapid growth or change.
d. They minimize routing update traffic when there is a single path into or out
of a domain.
8. What is a disadvantage of routing protocols that use a distance-vector
algorithm?
a. Interface configuration for distance-vector protocols, such as RIP, is a
complex and tedious process.
b. Every router that uses a distance-vector protocol must periodically send out
its entire routing table, regardless of whether anything has changed.
c. Distance-vector path calculations require many CPU cycles and can
negatively impact the speed of traffic forwarding.
d. The additional tables required by distance-vector protocols consume large
amounts of memory and require a powerful router.
Notes
Answers to Knowledge Check

1. Direct routing involves the transfer of information
a. ...between sender and receiver that are connected by no more than one
router.
(Direct routing cannot forward the packet to another network segment; a
router is not involved in the data transfer. Delivery instructions are not
embedded in the datagram.)
c. ...between sender and receiver that have different network addresses.
d. ...by following delivery instructions embedded in the datagram by the
sender.
2. How does a router benefit from the existence of the default route in its routing
table?
a. The router conserves memory because it does not need to maintain
routing table entries relating to remote networks.
(Default routes are not the only way for a router to forward traffic to
remote networks, but they eliminate the need to maintain information about
a larger domain. They enable a router to forward [not discard] traffic for
which there is no matching table entry.)
b. It enables the router to maintain detailed information about a larger
domain.
c. It is the only way to enable a router to handle traffic destined for remote
networks.
d. It enables a router to discard traffic for which there is no matching routing
table entry.
Notes
3. Indirect routing involves the transfer of information:
a. between sender and receiver that are connected by no more than one router.
c. between sender and receiver that have different network addresses.
(With indirect routing, at least one router must become involved in
forwarding the packet off the network or subnetwork. There are no delivery
instructions embedded in the datagram.)
d. by following delivery instructions embedded in the datagram by the sender.
4. What kind of information is NOT stored in an IP routing table?
a. The IP address of a destination network
b. The IP address of every computer on a destination network
(IP routing tables do not store the IP address of every computer on a
destination network. If they did, the routing tables could easily become
unwieldy.)
c. The IP address of a neighboring router that can provide a path to a
destination network
d. The cost associated with the distance to a destination network
5. When a router forwards a datagram from one network to another network, does
it change the datagram in any way?
a. No, the router does not change the datagram.
b. Yes, it changes the existing source and destination IP address in the
datagram header.
c. Yes, it changes the source and destination hardware address in the
Network Interface layer header.
(The source and destination IP addresses are not changed in the datagram
header [Internet layer], and no fields are added to this header.)
d. Yes, it adds a field to the datagram header that contains its own IP address
to enable a return path.
Notes
6. Which statements are true regarding Exterior Gateway Protocols (EGP) and
autonomous systems?
a. An EGP is a protocol that operates between autonomous systems.
b. Two routers in different autonomous systems that share routing
information are considered interior neighbors.
c. Two routers in different autonomous systems that share routing
information are considered exterior neighbors.
(Routers in different autonomous systems that share routing information
are exterior, not interior neighbors.)
d. When using an EGP, you can choose an autonomous system number
randomly because that number is only locally significant.
7. What is a benefit of static routes?
a. They provide automatic recognition of alternate paths in the event of a
failure.
b. They minimize the number of locations where changes must be made.
c. They are the best way to define paths through a large, complex
internetwork that needs to adapt to rapid growth or change.
d. They minimize routing update traffic when there is a single path into
or out of a domain.
(The other answer options describe benefits of dynamic routing.)
Notes
8. What is a disadvantage of routing protocols that use a distance-vector
algorithm?
a. Interface configuration for distance-vector protocols, such as RIP, is a
complex and tedious process.
b. Every router that uses a distance-vector protocol must periodically
send out its entire routing table, regardless of whether anything has
changed.
(Their advantages are that they are typically easy to configure; they require
fewer CPU cycles than link-state protocols to update following network
topology changes; and they typically consume less memory.)
c. Distance-vector path calculations require many CPU cycles and can
negatively impact the speed of traffic forwarding.
d. The additional tables required by distance-vector protocols consume large
amounts of memory and require a powerful router.
Notes
5.0 Routing Information Protocol
Introduction
Routers are responsible for the actual transmission of datagrams across internets to
distant network addresses. They manage information about network paths and
desirability of different routes with router tables.
Many routers use dynamic tables that automatically change as they receive updates
about variable network conditions. Dynamic routing algorithms implement the
dynamic routing table information. They define the best route to a destination
network, exchange routing information with other routers, and choose which path a
message travels.
Autonomous systems, the collection of routers and networks under a single
administrative authority, send and deliver much of their information strictly within
their own networks. Interior Gateway Protocols (IGPs) are the conventions used for
sharing routing and network information within an autonomous system. The
protocols used within a system can be chosen by the network administrator, unlike
the protocols that deal with exterior routers, which must conform to more stringent
guidelines.
Routing Information Protocol (RIP) is one of the more widely used IGPs. RIP is
described as a distance-vector dynamic routing algorithm. This lesson covers the
fundamental functionality of RIP and discusses its limitations.
This lesson also explores how RIP routing tables are created; and within that
discussion, you will learn how RIP accomplishes routing tasks. Finally, this lesson
compares RIP with another routing protocol of a different class, called Open
Shortest Path First (OSPF).
2 of 60 5.0 Routing Information Protocol
Notes
Objectives
Entire books have been written on RIP. This lesson is only an introduction to RIP.
Upon completion of this lesson you will have a familiarity with the functions of RIP
and will be able to:
List the primary characteristics of Routing Information Protocol.
Understand and explain the meaning of the fields in a routing table.
Understand and describe how a routing table is created.
Define routing loops, split-horizon, and poison reverse.
Compare and contrast Routing Information Protocol and Open Shortest Path First.
5.0 Routing Information Protocol 3 of 60
Notes
Fundamentals of RIP
Routing Information Protocol (RIP), one of the most widely used Interior Gateway
Protocols (IGPs), is a dynamic routing algorithm.
RIP can update its router table to reflect information from other routers.
RIP is classified as a distance-vector protocol, because it exchanges information
about available access to a network and how far away it is. RIP decides routing
pathways based on shortest path, or least number of hops, to other networks.
RIP Update Messages
The messages exchanged between routers are called RIP update messages. These
messages contain destination network addresses and a metric, or hop, count that
indicates the distance to the network.
RIPs contain addresses and information for every network the router recognizes or
is aware of within the entire autonomous system. These messages tend to be quite
long, and create a lot of traffic on the network. The protocol is also referred to as
being chatty, because each router broadcasts an update message every 30 seconds,
regardless of whether or not any network changes have occurred.
Notes
In spite of this, RIP is popular because it has been in use for a long time. There is a
large base of experience with the protocol. It is well understood and is easy to
implement.
As a dynamic protocol, RIP keeps track of network status automatically. Once
initial configurations have been completed, it requires very little supervision. So,
understandably, it remains popular.
RIP Updates
Notes
RIP Characteristics
RIP is an Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) and is a distance-vector protocol.
RIP is appropriate for small- to mid-size networks, given that the maximum
number of hops allowed in a network is 15.
Each router creates as many message envelopes as needed to send all its table
information, and broadcasts these messages over every RIP interface every
30 seconds.
Each router builds its routing table information dynamically, using the update
messages it receives from its neighbors.
When multiple routes are available to a message, RIP chooses the shortest path,
or lowest count of hops, as the best route. It is a cost-based decision, with the unit
of cost being a hop, or distance metric.
RIP Characteristics
Notes
Routing Tables - A Closer Look
A routing table is designed to contain the minimal amount of information necessary
to enable the router to determine how to send datagrams to their network
destination.
The RIP routing table begins with manually configured (or static) table information,
but then builds and maintains the table dynamically.
Routing information about other networks and network status information is added
to the table so that it is continuously updated as it receives messages from
neighbor routers.
Below is an example of routing table entries. Each row contains information that
corresponds to one network, and the table represents the entire autonomous system.
Example of Routing Table Entries
Notes
Destination Network
Each entry is the IP address of a network within the autonomous system. The host
bits are 0, because the address refers to the network as a whole.
Next Hop Router
Next hop routers are the IP addresses of the neighboring routers that share direct
network connections, allowing a router to send information locally as it forwards a
datagram. These can also be the addresses of routers that can send information
beyond the local network using Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP).
Cost, or Metric Hops
The cost is a unit distance to the destination network.
Direct/Indirect
This designates whether the destination network is connected directly, or distant,
which requires additional forwarding hops.
Mask
A mask is an indication of the network portion of an IP address and can indicate
subnetting.
Age
In direct network connections, this indicates how long, in seconds, the connection
has been up. For indirect connections, it indicates the amount of time, again in
seconds, since the entry was last updated.
Notes
The RIP Routing Table
The RIP routing table begins with a description of the network interfaces that are
directly connected to the router. This information can be manually configured or,
because it is static, fed from a backup disc.
Once the router powers on and boots up, the routing table is built dynamically, over
time. Routing information about other networks and network status information is
added to the table, and it grows and changes.
RIP updates from the neighbors of the routers are added to its table of information.
However, these updates bring just the destination network and distance cost, or
hop count information. Those two pieces of information are dynamic, while the
rest of the table information, such as Next Hop Routers and Masks, remains static.
RIP Routing Table
Notes
Building the Routing Table
Where does a router get information about all the other networks in the autonomous
system, or company network? How is a routing table created?
Example Company Network
The network example shown below contains seven smaller networks, connected by
three routers. The network has a Class B address of 128.30.0.0 and a subnet mask
of 255.255.255.0, showing that the first 24 bits are used for the network portion, and
the remaining 8 bits designate the host numbers.
Example Company Network Topology With Abbreviated Addresses
For this example, the IP address has been shortened to only the subnet and host
portions. Assume that since you are already in the network, the official IP address
network portion, 128.30, is the same for all the devices in this example. This
example uses addresses with the form subnet.host only for simplicity. This is not a
legal IP address format, but for this purpose it is more convenient.
Router 2
1.0 7.0 4.0
10.1 20.1
Router 1
3.0
Router 3
5.0
1.0 = 128.130.1.0
3.0 = 128.130.3.0
4.0 = 128.130.4.0
5.0 = 128.130.5.0
7.0 = 128.130.7.0
10.0 = 128.130.10.0
20.0 = 128.130.20.0
1.0 = 128.130.1.0
3.0 = 128.130.3.0
4.0 = 128.130.4.0
5.0 = 128.130.5.0
7.0 = 128.130.7.0
10.0 = 128.130.10.0
20.0 = 128.130.20.0
1.1 10.2 20.2 7.1
5.1
20.0 10.0
3.1
4.1
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Notes
Router 1
Follow Router 1 as it initializes and builds its routing table. Consider the entire
network from the perspective of Router 1. The knowledge in the routing table grows
from only the directly connected networks to include all of the networks present on
the company internet.
So you can observe this evolution very closely, construct the network in pieces,
starting with Router 1, and two connected networks. Each network portion that you
add has an effect on the Router 1 routing table. This is the life of a routing table.
Before Router 1 boots up, it receives some static configuration information from the
system administrator. Router 1 has two interfaces, each with a unique IP address.
Router 1 - In the Beginning
Notes
When Router 1 first boots up, it learns about itself and its two interfaces from the
configuration information. Router 1 knows it is directly connected to two networks,
and those become the initial entries in its routing table.
Router 1 identifies the direct connections to Networks 1.0 and 3.0, and its own
interfaces at 1.1 and 3.1, respectively. The cost to get to these networks is 1 because
they are directly connected.
Router 1
Notes
RIP Update
RIP is a chatty protocol. Each router broadcasts a description of its routing table in
frequent update messages. RIP update messages share the following traits.
The RIP update message contains the destination network address, plus the
associated hop count for each and every network entry in the sending router table.
Regardless of whether or not the network or table has changed, RIP sends an
update message at regular intervals, broadcasting to all other RIP configured
interfaces. The default time interval is 30 seconds, though this can be modified
during configuration.
Notes
Just after startup, below is the RIP routing update information that Router 1
broadcasts.
Note: Remember that the addresses have been abbreviated.
RIP Update
At this time, Router 1 has only its two directly connected networks to advertise.
Router 1 broadcasts this same routing update every 30 seconds unless something
changes. Notice the cost to reach networks 1.0 and 3.0 is 1.
Router 2
1.0 7.0 4.0
10.1 20.1
Router 1
3.0
Router 3
5.0
1.0 = 128.130.1.0
3.0 = 128.130.3.0
4.0 = 128.130.4.0
5.0 = 128.130.5.0
7.0 = 128.130.7.0
10.0 = 128.130.10.0
20.0 = 128.130.20.0
1.0 = 128.130.1.0
3.0 = 128.130.3.0
4.0 = 128.130.4.0
5.0 = 128.130.5.0
7.0 = 128.130.7.0
10.0 = 128.130.10.0
20.0 = 128.130.20.0
1.1 10.2 20.2 7.1
5.1
20.0 10.0
3.1
4.1
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Cost
1
1
1.0
3.0
Network Cost
1
1
1.0
3.0
Network
Notes
Changes for Router 1
The kinds of changes that Router 1 notices and then advertises are the configuration
of a new network or a connection failure to an existing network.
Changes for Router 1
1.0
3.0
1.1
3.1
Router 1
10.1
10.0
Connection
Failure
New
Configuration
Notes
Connecting Router 1 and Router 2
Now Network 10.0 is added to Router 1 at interface 10.1. The new network
topology is shown in the figure below.
Connecting Router 1 and Router 2
When the new interface for RIP is configured, the routing table changes to indicate
the presence of network 10.0, and that it is connected directly to Router 1. RIP
update messages also change to reflect the new information.
Notes
Router 1 Advertises Network 10.0
Because Network 10.0 is directly connected to Router 1, the RIP message that is
broadcast advertises Network 10.0 at a hop cost of 1.
Router 1 Advertisement
1.0 4.0
10.1
Router 1
3.0
1.1 10.2
10.0
3.1
4.1
Router 2
Cost
1 1.0
1 3.0 1 3.0
Network
1 10.0
Notes
Routing Table of Router 2 at Boot Time
Router 2 is also directly connected to Network 10.0. Router 2 also sends out RIP
updates to advertise the contents of its table. What is in the table of Router 2?
Identify the first column as the list of destination networks.
1. The first network is 4.0 that is connected at interface 4.1, so it can be reached
through 4.1. That goes into the empty field in the Next Hop Router column, and
it is a direct connection.
2. Next, look at destination network 10.0. The interface for network 10.0 is 10.2,
so the Next Hop Router field lists interface 10.2. Again, this is a direct
connection, so a D is in the Direct/Indirect field.
Routing Table of Router 2
Notes
Hearing From Neighbors
Every 30 seconds, Router 2 sends updates out through its interfaces, including
interface 10.2. Router 2 advertises directly connected networks 4.0 and 10.0 in an
update message, shown in the figure below.
Hearing From Neighbors
RIP Broadcast of Router 2
Every device on Network 10.0, including Router 1, hears the broadcast of the RIP
update message from Router 2, because the communication is directed to any
device that is listening.
Update message
sent by Router 2
1.0 4.0
10.1
Router 1
3.0
1.1 10.2
10.0
3.1
4.1
Router 2
Cost
1 4.0
1 10.0
Network Cost
1 4.0
1 10.0 1 10.0
Network
Notes
Router 1 Receives a RIP From Router 2
When a router receives a RIP routing update from a neighbor, it must examine the
update message and decide whether or not to modify its own routing table.
Routing Update From a Neighbor
The router uses the criteria listed below to make this decision. If the RIP update
includes a network (path) that is not in the current routing table, it takes the
following actions:
1. Insert the route in the table.
2. Add 1 to the cost of the hop count.
3. Enter the IP address of the neighbor that sent the update in the Next Hop Router
field.
4. Record the network as Indirect.
If the RIP update includes a network (path) already in the current routing table,
it determines if any of the following criteria are met:
If the update announces a lower cost, then change the entry.
If the update announces a cost of 16, which is a special case, then change the entry
from the previous, lower cost.
If the update announces a higher cost, then do nothing.
1.0 4.0
10.1
Router 1
3.0
1.1 10.2
10.0
3.1
4.1
Router 2
Notes
Add Network 4 to the Table of Router 1
Does Router 1 act on the RIP update it receives from Router 2? Absolutely. Upon
examination, Router 1 sees the Network 4.0 entry, and sees that its own table does
not have that destination yet.
Adding Network 4 to Router 1 Table
Network 4.0 information is added:
The Destination Network field receives a value of 4.0, the network address.
The Next Hop Router field receives a value of 10.2, the interface that Router 1 can
use to forward messages. This IP address is the source of the update message.
Router 1 heard the update on Network 10.0 from interface 10.2 on Router 2.
For the Cost (in Hops) field, take the advertised cost and add one, so that is now 2.
For the Direct/Indirect field, enter I.
Another thing to notice is that the update message from Router 2 included
information about a new path to Network 10.0 via Router 2. The hop count is 1,
which is added as another path and becomes a cost of 2. Router 1 already has a hop
count of 1 for that network, because it is directly connected. Therefore, it ignores
the information about Network 10.0.
Notes
Updates From Router 1
The figure below shows an updated routing table for Router 1. Network 4.0 is
shown with a cost of 2 hops. Router 1 can now send messages destined for Network
4.0.
The first hop goes from Router 1 to Router 2 on interface 10.2, and then Router 2
can send it to the next hop router or the network itself.
Network 4 Reflected in Router 1 Table
Notes
Both routers broadcast RIP message updates every 30 seconds. Router 2 hears the
update from Router 1.
From the updated router table of Router 1, Router 2 hears the RIP update shown in
the figure below.
Updates From Router 1
Why does Network 4.0 not show a cost of 2 in the message? Because Router 1
learned about Network 4.0 from Router 2, and has designated it as the Next Hop
Router to Network 4.0.
Routers do not advertise networks back to the original source of the information.
This information is withheld on purpose because it can trigger a problem called a
routing loop, which is examined later in this lesson.
Cost
1 1.0
1 3.0 1 3.0
Network
1 10.0
1.0 4.0
10.1
Router 1
3.0
1.1 10.2
10.0
3.1
4.1
Router 2
RIP RIP
Notes
Router 2 just learned about Networks 1.0 and 3.0 from the RIP update broadcast by
Router 1. Router 2 adds the new network information to its table, in the same
manner we discussed.
You can fill in the routing table for Router 2 now that the update from Router 1 has
been added.
The first Destination Network added is Network 1.0, and the Next Hop Router
will be 10.1, the interface through which Router 2 just learned of this network.
Add one to the advertised cost, so Network 1.0 costs 2 hops.
Router 2 also just learned about Network 3.0.
Again, because it just received the update from interface 10.1, it becomes the
address for the Next Hop Router. Network 3.0 also costs 2 hops.
Router 2 is not concerned with which interface is used by Router 1 to access these
networks; Router 2 only needs to know which interface Router 1 names as the
destination.
Notes
Adding One More Network - Network 20.0
Now, add Network 20.0 and Router 3 to our internet. Information about Networks
20.0, 5.0, and 7.0 will eventually get distributed to Router 1 and added to the Router
1 table. Router 3 announces its network connections, Router 2 adds the information,
and Router 1 learns about the networks from Router 2.
Here is how the information gets there.
After the addition of Network 20.0, Router 2 lists the direct connection in its
routing table, showing the destination Network 20.0 at interface 20.1 and with a
cost of 1.
Router 1 then learns that Router 2 has a connection to Network 20.0, and that
information goes into its routing table.
Adding Network 20.0
Router 2
1.0 7.0 4.0
10.1 20.1
Router 1
3.0
Router 3
5.0
1.1 10.2 20.2 7.1
5.1
20.0 10.0
3.1
4.1
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Notes
RIP Update From Router 2 Over Network 10.0
A directly connected network is always advertised with a cost of 1. Below is the
update Router 1 receives from Router 2 over Network 10.0.
In the figure below, you see Networks 4.0, 10.0, and 20.0. You also see that the
router does not advertise a network back to the original source of the information,
so Networks 1.0 and 3.0 are not listed in the message to Router 1.
RIP Update From Router 2
Notes
Network 20.0 Added to the Router 1 Table
Router 1 modifies its table with the new information about Network 20.0. The RIP
update that told Router 1 about Network 20.0 arrived from the 10.2 interface on
Router 2.
So, 10.2 is the address that Router 1 enters as the Next Hop Router for any traffic
bound for Network 20.0.
A 1 is added to the cost listed in the update message, so Network 20.0 has a hop
count of 2. Since Router 1 already has information about Networks 4.0 and 10.0
with a lower cost, it does not act on that information.
Network 20 Added to Router 1 Table
Notes
Router 3 Routing Table and RIP Update Messages
At boot up, Router 3 learned about Networks 5.0, 7.0, and 20.0 from configuration
information. Below is the routing table it created just after initialization.
Router 3 Routing Table/RIP Updates
For Network 5.0, the listing for the Next Hop Router field is 5.1, the interface
that connects Router 3 directly with Network 5.0. The cost is 1, and you know that
it is a direct connection.
For Network 7.0, the Next Hop will be 7.1, again because it is a direct interface
connection. The cost is 1, and the connection Direct.
For Network 20.0, the Next Hop will be 20.2, and is another direct connection.
Again, the cost is 1, and the connection Direct.
Notes
Router 3 broadcasts a RIP update every 30 seconds through all of its RIP configured
interfaces. Router 2 receives the routing update over Network 20.0.
Notes
Router 2 Routing Table and RIP Update Messages
Router 2 compares the routing update message to its routing table entries and
recognizes that it already knows about Network 20.0, so Router 2 will not act on
that information. Networks 5.0 and 7.0 are new information though, so Router 2
will add them to its routing table.
An extra hop cost is added to each, resulting in each having a cost of 2. As expected,
because Router 2 learned about Networks 5.0 and 7.0 from an update broadcast
from interface 20.2, that becomes the Next Hop Router for both the network
destinations. Below is the routing table of Router 2 after the update.
Router 2 has learned about all of the networks residing in the system, but Router 1
still has not.
Notes
Format Update Message Router 2 Broadcasts Over Network 10.0
Shortly after updating its own routing table, Router 2 broadcasts a RIP update
message to Router 1 over Network 10.0.
RIP Update from Router 2
The information in the table includes:
Network 4.0 with a cost of 1
As before, Router 2 leaves out information about Networks 1.0 and 3.0 because
Router 1 was the original source of that information.
Notes
Router 1 Updates Its Table
Router 1 learns about Networks 5.0 and 7.0, each with a cost of 2, when it receives
the update message from the router at interface 10.2. Router 1 adds them to its
routing table, and increases the cost of the new networks by one each.
Note: An important thing to notice when looking at the Next Hop Router listed for
Networks 5.0 and 7.0, is that the router is interface 10.2, which was the source of
information about these networks. A router only knows its neighbor routers, and
that they are advertising the networks. Router 1 does not even know about
Router 3, Router 1 only knows the access to the networks as a function of
forwarding data to Router 2.
Notes
Complete Routing Tables
By sharing information between neighbor routers, each router learns about all of the
networks in the autonomous system. Just because they learn about all of the
networks, they might not necessarily know about the devices.
For instance, Router 1 learned about the networks connected to Router 3, but Router
1 did not receive any information about Router 3 itself.
For review, here is a diagram with the complete routing table contents for each
router.
Complete Routing Tables
Notes
Summary
Finally, the main points from Life of a Routing Table, include:
The RIP protocol automatically creates dynamic routing tables, which enable
routers to form a representation of the network. The routing tables do not need to
be configured manually.
Routers learn about all of the networks in an autonomous system in stages
rather than all at once.
The RIP protocol is not only chatty, but also gossipy, because it tells its
neighbors everything it has heard from other routers. The receiving router trusts
that they are accurate, and acts on the RIP updates if the information meets its
criteria for being of interest.
RIP configured routers broadcast verbose update messages at regular intervals,
usually every 30 seconds. They send these broadcasts regardless of whether any
network information has changed or not.
Notes
Network Changes
In all the scenarios and network configurations so far, the equipment has been
flawless, the network stable, and everything has gone according to plan.
Failures can and do occur in both the lines and the equipment. Do the systems and
protocols take action and find alternate routes to keep messages traveling?
When routes change in the network, or a network becomes inaccessible, there is a
procedure to follow to inform each router in the autonomous system. However,
signaling these changes does not happen as quickly as expected. There are times
when not every device is up to date with one another. This lag time can multiply
significantly through large networks.
Sending notice that a piece of routing equipment has failed on the network is
not always possible, especially if the equipment failure isolates the devices that
first notice the problem from the rest of the network.
We will revisit the company network example, but this time we will use the full IP
addresses. You recall that this network was using subnet addressing.
Notes
Link Failure
Router 2 has been hearing the RIP update message from Router 3 every 30 seconds.
Now a link failure is introduced, cutting Router 3 and networks 128.30.5.0 and
128.30.7.0 from the rest of the network.
You know that messages can no longer get through, but Routers 1 and 2 do not know
this, and their routing tables still reflect a viable connection.
Link Failure
Router 2 no longer hears update messages from Router 3. Router 2 waits for three
broadcast cycles, or in this case 3 times 30 seconds, or 90 seconds, and then
assumes that the neighbor router or the connection between them has failed.
128.30.20.0
128.30.1.0 128.30.7.0 128.30.4.0
128.30.10.0
Router 1
128.30.3.0
Router 3
128.30.5.0
Router 2
Tags the routes to those networks as invalid
Broadcasts special RIP updates for the next 90
seconds that declare the network inaccessible
Waits another 90 seconds and then removes the
network routes from its routing table
The maximum number of
hops in a network is 15.
A cost or hop count of 16
is assigned to the target
network.
The value of 16 is referred
to as "infinity ".
The maximum number of
hops in a network is 15.
A cost or hop count of 16
is assigned to the target
network.
The value of 16 is referred
to as "infinity ".
Notes
In response to the missing information, Router 2:
Tags the routes to those networks invalid
Broadcasts special RIP updates for the next 90 seconds that declare the network
inaccessible
Waits another 90 seconds and removes the network routes from its routing table
Replaces the deleted routes, when Router 2 hears of the networks again
The maximum number of hops in a network is 15. Therefore, to flag a route as
inaccessible, a cost or hop count of 16 is assigned to the target network. This
advertised cost of 16 is outside of the range allowed, and signals a problem. The
value of 16 is referred to as infinity.
Notes
Router 2 Table and Link Failure
The routing table for Router 2 after the Link Failure has been noticed is shown
below.
Notes
The RIP update from Router 2 is shown below.
Router 2 RIP Update After Link Failure
Note: Router 1 acts on this information when it receives the RIP update from
Router 2. The entries for the affected networks are ultimately deleted from the
routing table, and replaced only when the router receives a broadcast that
announces them again.
128.30.20.0
128.30.1.0 128.30.7.0 128.30.4.0
128.30.10.0
Router 1
128.30.3.0
Router 3
Router 2
Cost
1
Network
128.30.10.0
1 128.30.4.0
16 128.30.20.0
2 128.30.1.0
2 128.30.3.0
16 128.30.5.0
16 128.30.7.0
128.30.5.0
Notes
Convergence
Convergence is the favorable condition when all routers recognize all the same
reachable networks and share a common view of the network. Link or router failure
disrupts convergence. It can take time before all the routers in a network exchange
information to the point of reaching an accord about the new routing terrain.
Convergence
When convergence is disrupted, update information exchanged between
neighboring routers might be incorrect. A router can calculate new routes based on
incorrect information and forward that information to its neighbors.
Convergence Disrupted
128.30.10.0 128.30.20.0
128.30.1.0 128.30.7.0 128.30.4.0
Router 1
128.30.3.0
Router 3
Router 2
128.30.5.0
128.30.10.0 128.30.20.0
128.30.1.0 128.30.7.0 128.30.4.0
Router 1
128.30.3.0
Router 3
Router 2
128.30.5.0
Notes
The Chain Reaction
Because of the chain-reaction style by which changes to the network are relayed,
RIP has been labeled slow to reach convergence.
For instance, in a company network with 15 routers, a significant amount of time
can elapse before routing updates that begin at one side of the network reach the
other side. During that interval, packets can be lost or dropped as they are sent to
inaccessible networks.
The Chain Reaction
Triggered Updates
One way to speed convergence is by using triggered updates. A triggered update
command tells a router to broadcast an update message immediately, whenever it
changes a route hop count, whether or not it is time to send a normal RIP message.
Packets
Network Down Network Down
Network Down Network Down
Lost
Packets
RIP Sending Network
Destination Network
Lost Packets
Notes
When Updates Fail
If expected updates fall silent, a router waits 90 seconds by default before
concluding that the network is no longer accessible. It spends another 90 seconds
broadcasting the unresponsive status of the network by advertising a hop count of
16. After that, it finally removes the network route from its table.
Updates Fail
Advantages and Disadvantages of Triggered Updates
Triggered updates can move the spread of changes through a network more swiftly.
But there is also a disadvantage to using triggered updates. If a link or router
frequently bounces between being up and down, triggered updates can flood
the network with RIP updates. Conversely, with default updates, the change
might not be propagated at all.
128.30.10.0 128.30.20.0
128.30.1.0 128.30.7.0 128.30.4.0
Router 1
128.30.3.0
Router 3
Router 2
128.30.5.0
Router waits 90 seconds.
Router spends another 90 seconds
broadcasting hop count of 16.
Router removes the network route from
its table
Router waits 90 seconds.
Router spends another 90 seconds
broadcasting hop count of 16.
Router removes the network route from
its table
Notes
Routing Decisions and Issues
RIP is a distance-vector protocol, and the decisions it makes to determine message
paths are based on the shortest distance or fewest number of hops: however, this
might not be the most efficient path.
Routing Decisions
For example, a router has more than one path available to a destination network (see
the figure below). One route requires three hops, but the network type is a high
bandwidth link, such as T3, which has a 45 megabits per second (Mbps) speed. The
other route only requires one hop, but the connection is over a 56 kilobits per second
(Kbps) path.
The shortest path, with the smallest number of hops, is over the 56 Kbps link
between Router 1 and Router 3. But the path through Router 2, using the high
bandwidth network, is actually significantly faster. RIP chooses the single hop,
56 Kbps path.
Routing Decisions
A good analogy is the beltways, or outer loops, around major cities. The shortest
distance between two points is a straight line, but if that line makes you drive
through the middle of the city during rush hour, or navigate numerous one-way
streets, it is definitely not the most efficient route. The route might take more miles
to go around the city, but it is significantly faster.
Router 2
Network 1
Router 1 Router 3
Network 2
T3
56K
T3
Fastest Route Fastest Route
Most Direct
Route
Most Direct
Route
Notes
Routing Decisions and Parallel Links
Below is a different demonstration of RIP routing decisions. Two parallel links
connect two routers. One is a T3 line and the other is 56 Kbps. The paths have equal
cost, or number of hops, but the higher speed line is preferable.
RIP does not consider link speed when making routing decisions. RIP chooses the
first path that was added when the router table was built, which is usually the older
link. In the event of a failure in one of the links, the other link is used.
Routing Decisions
In many instances the routing decisions RIP makes are neither the fastest nor the
most efficient.
You can modify the router configurations. Static routes can force traffic onto the
more efficient router, or the hop counts can be manually changed, but that
compromises the dynamic quality of the protocol.
Network 1
Router 1 Router 3
Network 2
56K
T3
Faster, but added
last to router table
Faster, but added
last to router table
Slower, but added
first to router table
Slower, but added
first to router table
Notes
Routing Loops
Routers do not advertise network availability back to the address from which the
information first arrived to avoid routing loops.
Early in the implementation of RIP, routing loops appeared in networks. Messages
bounced back and forth between routers, because each router had information that
said the other router knew how to forward the data to the destination network. Yet
each was using the other as the Next Hop Router. The three-router system from
earlier demonstrates how this can happen.
Routing Loops
When routers broadcast RIP updates that include all the networks they know about,
routing loops can result:
Router 1 advertises a route to Network 1.0, with a cost of 1.
Router 2 gets the update, and puts the listing into its table, saying Network 1.0 is
accessible through Router 1 with a cost of 2.
Router 2 advertises a route to Network 1.0 with a cost of 2.
Router 3 gets the update and enters the information in its table, saying Network
1.0 is accessible through Router 2 with a cost of 3.
Router 3 advertises a route to Network 1.0 with a cost of 3.
Router 2 now thinks there are two routes to Network 1.0: the first through Router
1 and the second through Router 3. Router 2 uses the route to Network 1.0 through
Router 1 because it costs less.
10.0 20.0
1.0 7.0
Router 1 Router 1 Router 3 Router 3
N1, 1 Hop
Update
N1, 2 Hops
Update
N1, 3 Hops
Update
Update
Router 2
Notes
Loop Between Routers
The figure below depicts the update messages sent over every network interface, to
every device; even the ones that supplied the information.
Update Messages
Suppose Router 1 and Network 1.0 become isolated because of a link failure in
Network 10.0. What happens to traffic destined for Network 1.0? Router 2
eventually removes the path over Network 10.0 through Router 1.
Link Failures and Endless Loops
However, Router 2 has another route to Network 1 in its table, through Router 3.
Router 2 uses that now because of the link failure on Network 10.0. A problem is
about to happen. Router 3 receives the packet destined for Network 1.0, and, sure
enough, it knows a route to Network 1.0 through Router 2. Router 3 sends the
message to Router 2 for forwarding. Router 2 sends it to Router 3, and Router 3
sends it to Router 2. The loop can go on and on. This message will not get delivered.
10.0 20.0
1.0 7.0
N1, 2 Hops N1, 2 Hops N1, 1 Hop N1, 1 Hop N1, 3 Hops N1, 3 Hops
Router 2
Router 1s
RIP Updates
Router 2s
RIP Updates
Router 3s
RIP Updates
10.0 20.0
1.0 7.0
Router 3
knows a route
to Network 1.
Message Loop Message Loop
Removes
path over
Network
10
Removes
path over
Network
10
Notes
Split-Horizon
In the previous example, the routing loop would not have occurred if Router 3 did
not tell Router 2 that it knew how to get to Network 1.0. Router 2 would not have
had that other route listing in its table, so when the link to Network 1.0 stopped
responding, it would have removed its table listing and assigned a hop count of 16,
which flags Network 1.0 as being inaccessible.
Split-Horizon
A configuration technique called split-horizon prevents a router from advertising
a route back over the same interface on which it arrived. A router excludes routes
obtained from a neighbor when it sends updates to that same neighbor. There
is also an added benefit, because split-horizon also reduces the size of the RIP
update broadcasts and reduces network traffic.
With split-horizon implemented, Router 3 does not advertise a path to Network 1.0
over Network 20.0, because that is the network port on which the information about
Network 1.0 arrived. And Router 2 only knows of one path to Network 1.0, so in
the event of a failure on Network 10.0, it signals the network as inaccessible.
Notes
Poison Reverse
Another configuration technique that can prevent routing loops in a RIP network is
called poison reverse. A router still advertises a route over the same interface from
which it learned about the network, but it assigns the route a cost of 16.
Poison Reverse
If several routers are all connected to the same network, this technique can speed
up convergence, because all the routers broadcast unavailable, as well as valid,
routes.
Notes
RIP Version 1 and RIP Version 2
RIP Version 1
RIP Version 1 (RIPv1) message updates do not include mask information. On
directly connected RIP networks, RIPv1 looks at the mask and assumes there is only
one mask and that it is the same for the entire network; RIPv1 has no way to
differentiate between different length subnet masks in the same network.
RIPv1 does not understand variable subnetting. This is a problem because many
network administrators need to make very efficient use of their IP address
assignments, and therefore, they implement different masks within their
autonomous system.
RIP Version 2
RIP Version 2 (RIPv2) can include mask information with message updates, in
addition to the destination network address and hop count. RIPv2 can specify the
network mask for each network, and allows more than one mask on each
autonomous network.
With RIPv2, the system administrator has more control over how the RIP network
functions, because the rule that the router must designate the Next Hop Router as
the address of the interface from which the information arrives has been lifted.
A router can advertise a next hop router that is not necessarily the router from which
it received the routing update.
Notes
RIP and OSPF Compared
While RIP is good at maintaining dynamic routing within an autonomous system
and is easy to implement, it is an aging protocol. RIP was the first protocol capable
of simplifying the interoperability between routers from different vendors. But the
dramatic rise in the growth of networks has exposed many of its limitations, which
include:
RIP supports only 15 hops between source and destination networks. It is not
possible to reach a network that is more than 15 hops away. Although RIP is an
IGP rather than an EGP, todays corporate autonomous networks are expanding at
a tremendous rate.
RIP chooses paths based on the lowest number of hops, which is not
necessarily the most efficient route, and often is not the fastest. RIP does not
consider line speed.
RIP broadcasts chatty routing updates on a regular basis. These broadcasts
are sent whether the network status has changed or not., which can cause
excessive traffic in large networks.
RIP updates are spread with chain-reaction propagation, which can take a
relatively long period of time. During this interval, routing inconsistencies can
arise, such as routing loops or dropped messages. This also makes it slow to come
to convergence.
OSPF Protocol
Another Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP) routing algorithm is Open Shortest Path
First (OSPF). OSPF is classified as a link-state protocol.
Each router contains a database providing an exact representation of the network.
OSPF calculates the shortest route to a destination network using the network-
wide information.
While OSPF is a very powerful protocol, it is also very complex.
The extensive array of options makes configuration rather elaborate.
OSPF requires a higher degree of proficiency to manage than RIP.
Notes
Protocols Compared
Network requirements determine which algorithm is better suited to fill the needs
of a company.
RIP is common in small- to medium-sized networks that do not have a large
number of redundant links.
OSPF is more often found in large complex networks with multiple redundant
variable-speed links, and where fast convergence is a priority.
Protocols Compared
Notes
RIP vs. OSPF
RIP OSPF
RIP is a distance-vector algorithm. OSPF is a link-state algorithm.
Rip allows 15 maximum hops. OSPF hop limit is determined only by size of the routing
tables the router can manage.
RIPv1 allows only one mask for the entire autonomous
network.
OSPF allows variable length subnet masks.
The routing metric used by RIP is a hop count. The metric used by OSPF is a calculated cost.
RIP is relatively simple to implement and manage. OSPF is quite complex and has many parameters to
configure.
RIP is slow to achieve convergence. OSPF achieves convergence quickly.
RIP broadcasts routing update information frequently,
regardless of whether there have been any changes. The
messages it uses are also rather large.
OSPF only sends routing updates when something has
changed, and it sends only the changed information,
keeping messages small and network traffic light.
Contents of the RIP update messages include the
networks in the autonomous system and the hop counts
associated with each one.
Contents of the OSPF update messages contain directly
connected networks, mask information, and cost.
Notes
Summary
In this lesson, you looked closer at the routing and decision-making protocol, RIP,
which was one of the earliest router protocols and is still widely used in IGPs today.
You are now familiar with these key points:
RIP is a distance-vector algorithm used for IGP. RIP is well suited to serve small-
to medium-sized networks, and is very simple to configure. Because RIP is
limited to a maximum hop count of 15, it might not fill the needs of larger or more
complex networks. RIP is considered a chatty protocol, because it regularly sends
out routing updates, regardless of actual changes in the network.
Router tables contain lists of destination networks within an autonomous system.
Associated with each destination address are fields including Next Hop Router,
Cost, or hop count associated with each path, and the relationship of the network,
direct or indirect.
When a router is initialized, its routing table comes online with only directly
connected interfaces in the database. As the router receives RIP updates from
neighboring routers, the information is built dynamically.
When there is a failure in a RIP network, routing loops, in which messages bounce
between routers continuously, can occur. Two techniques are used to avoid
routing loops. Split-horizon prevents routers from advertising routes back to the
source of the route information, and poisoned reverse allows the routes to be
advertised, but flags them as not reachable.
RIP has several important limitations. Many of these are solved by OSPF, but
OSPF is more difficult to administer. OSPF is a link-state algorithm. It is capable
of supporting larger networks, allows variable subnet masks, represents the entire
network topology, and converges more quickly. OSPF also sends routing updates
only in direct response to changes in the network.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. What conditions suggest the use of OSPF as a routing protocol?
a. Large, complex network
b. Routing information must be shared among different autonomous systems
c. Variable speed links with redundancy
d. The same subnet mask is used in all parts of the network
2. Which statement best summarizes the differences in RIP and OSPF?
a. RIP supports routers and networks in the same autonomous system; OSPF
supports routers and networks in different autonomous systems.
b. RIP calculates cost based on information received in updates; OSPF
calculates cost based on a statically defined table.
c. RIPv1 routers send periodic updates without regard to link state changes;
OSPF router updates are triggered by link state changes.
d. RIP requires that every subnet have a different address; OSPF allows the
same address to be used on several networks.
Notes
3. How often do RIPv1 routers exchange information by default?
a. When one experiences a link state change
b. Every 30 seconds
c. Every 60 seconds
d. Every 30 minutes
4. Under what circumstance does a RIP router replace an entry in its routing
table?
a. When it receives an update advertising an equal or lower cost path to a
destination network
b. When it receives an update advertising a path to a destination network from
a router with a higher priority
c. When it receives an update advertising a lower cost path to a destination
network
d. When it receives an update advertising an equal cost path to a destination
network over higher bandwidth links
5. Which occurrence will cause a router to consider a network to be unavailable?
a. The address of that network is not included in the next expected update.
b. The router connected to that network sends a link down message.
c. One of the hosts in that network sends a jam signal.
d. The address of that network is not advertised in three consecutive update
cycles.
Notes
6. Which factor does RIP consider when making path decisions?
a. Link speed
b. Link usage
c. Number of routers to be crossed
d. All of the above
7. If a RIP router hears about two equal cost paths to a destination, which one will
it choose?
a. The route that traverses the fastest routers
b. The first route it learned about.
c. The last route it learned about
d. It will use one path until it becomes saturated, and then use the second path
8. What is the reason for using split horizon in RIP routing?
a. To allow routers to find the lowest cost path based on link speed
b. To enable RIP routers to interpret subnet masks
c. To prevent a router from advertising a route over the same interface on
which it arrived
d. To enable a router to send updates as soon as a link state change occurs
9. Under which circumstance do you need to use RIP version 2, instead of RIP
version 1?
a. If the network supports more than 20 subnets
b. If the network supports subnet masks
c. If the network must support poison reverse
d. If you need to assign the same IP address to more than one host
Notes
10. RIPv2 uses a hop count of 16 to signify
a. the destination network is unreachable.
b. the network is as far away as can be reached.
c. the default route.
d. a static route.
Notes

1. What conditions suggest the use of OSPF as a routing protocol?
a. Large, complex network
(OSPF is suggested for large, complex networks, and in networks with
variable speed links, with redundancy. Remember that large networks often
use multiple subnet masks.)
b. Routing information must be shared among different autonomous systems
c. Variable speed links with redundancy
d. The same subnet mask is used in all parts of the network
2. Which statement best summarizes the differences in RIP and OSPF?
a. RIP supports routers and networks in the same autonomous system; OSPF
supports routers and networks in different autonomous systems.
b. RIP calculates cost based on information received in updates; OSPF
calculates cost based on a statically defined table.
c. RIPv1 routers send periodic updates without regard to link state
changes; OSPF router updates are triggered by link state changes.
(Both protocols operate within a single autonomous system; both follow
the same addressing requirements; and OSPF does not rely on a statically
defined table to calculate costs.)
d. RIP requires that every subnet have a different address; OSPF allows the
same address to be used on several networks.
Notes
3. How often do RIPv1 routers exchange information by default?
a. When one experiences a link state change
b. Every 30 seconds
(By default, RIPv1 routers exchange information every 30 seconds. This
value is typically configurable.)
c. Every 60 seconds
d. Every 30 minutes
4. Under what circumstance does a RIP router replace an entry in its routing
table?
a. When it receives an update advertising an equal or lower cost path to a
destination network
b. When it receives an update advertising a path to a destination network from
a router with a higher priority
c. When it receives an update advertising a lower cost path to a
destination network
(A RIP router replaces an entry in its routing table when it receives an
update advertising a LOWER cost path to a given destination network.RIP
does not prioritize routes or consider bandwidth when updating its routing
tables.)
d. When it receives an update advertising an equal cost path to a destination
network over higher bandwidth links
Notes
5. Which occurrence will cause a router to consider a network to be unavailable?
a. The address of that network is not included in the next expected update.
b. The router connected to that network sends a link down message.
c. One of the hosts in that network sends a jam signal.
d. The address of that network is not advertised in three consecutive
update cycles.
(Link downmessages are not used because if the network was
unavailable, a router connected to it might not be able to deliver such a
message.)
6. Which factor does RIP consider when making path decisions?
a. Link speed
b. Link usage
c. Number of routers to be crossed
d. All of the above
7. If a RIP router hears about two equal cost paths to a destination, which one will
it choose?
a. The route that traverses the fastest routers
b. The first route it learned about.
c. The last route it learned about
d. It will use one path until it becomes saturated, and then use the second path
Notes
8. What is the reason for using split horizon in RIP routing?
a. To allow routers to find the lowest cost path based on link speed
b. To enable RIP routers to interpret subnet masks
c. To prevent a router from advertising a route over the same interface
on which it arrived
d. To enable a router to send updates as soon as a link state change occurs
9. Under which circumstance do you need to use RIP version 2, instead of RIP
version 1?
a. If the network supports more than 20 subnets
b. If the network supports subnet masks
(Use RIP version 2 if the network supports subnet masks. RIPv2 advertises
subnet masks in its updates. RIPv1 does not, assuming natural class masks
for all its networks.)
c. If the network must support poison reverse
d. If you need to assign the same IP address to more than one host
10. RIPv2 uses a hop count of 16 to signify
a. the destination network is unreachable.
b. the network is as far away as can be reached.
c. the default route.
d. a static route.
6.0 Transport Layer Overview
Introduction
The Transport layer creates, maintains, and terminates the end-to-end information
delivery between devices. Responsibilities include error checking and
segmentation of data units, if necessary.
Previous lessons discussed the Transport protocols Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and User Datagram Protocol (UDP) in general terms; this lesson looks more
closely at those protocols and the types of transport services they offer.
Objectives
Discuss the Transport layer and the functions performed in that layer.
Identify the significant differences between reliable and unreliable services.
List Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) services.
List User Datagram Protocol (UDP) services.
Explain port number and socket.
2 of 28 6.0 Transport Layer Overview
Notes
Transport Layer Protocols
The Transport layer is the third layer in the IP Suite, and corresponds to the fourth
layer in the OSI model.
Transport layer protocols bring data from the Application layer on the sender
device, across the network, and into the Application layer on the recipient device.
Transport layer duties include segmenting large data files into smaller unit pieces to
accommodate the physical network, labeling them according to their source
application, and ensuring those data units are reconstructed correctly at the other
end.
Depending on the protocol used, this delivery can be purposefully reliable or
unreliable. In the reliable delivery method, the Transport layer also monitors
message transmission, identifies errors, and makes requests for retransmission, if
needed.
Transport Layer
The two protocols of the Transport layer are TCP and UDP. The delivery they
perform is referred to as reliable or unreliable, respectively.
6.0 Transport Layer Overview 3 of 28
Notes
TCP: Reliable Transport Service
TCP is known as a reliable transport service, because it ensures that messages
reach their destinations successfully. TCP establishes a virtual pathway before any
data messages are sent.
TCP is also termed connection oriented, because TCP monitors the connection and
keeps track of what has been sent successfully, what still needs to be sent, and what
encountered problems and needs to be resent.
TCP can also modify the rate of transmission to avoid missing messages or flooding
applications on the recipient end.
TCP: Reliable Transport Service
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
(Computer to computer)
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
Origination Destination
0101010
0101010
1010101
0101010
0101010
1010101
0101010
0101010
1010101
Notes
UDP: Best Effort Transport Service
UDP is known as an unreliable transport service because, while it uses a best-
effort approach to deliver messages, it performs no follow-up once they are sent.
UDP does not confirm a connection before it transmits data. UDP is known as
connectionless, because each packet is sent through the network on its own, rather
than as part of a supervised caravan.
UDP has few error controls, so it becomes the burden of the application to inspect
the incoming data for inaccuracy.
UDP: Best Effort Transport Service
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
01 010
0101 0
101
01
10
101
10
01
0101010
0101010
1010101
Notes
Determining Where Data is Sent
The application layer determines whether data is sent to the TCP or the UDP. The
directions enclosed in the datagram header tell IP to pass it up to either TCP or UDP
at the final destination.
TCP or UDP
Application
Transport
Appl
Data
TCP UDP
Notes
Reliable and Unreliable Transport Services
A comparison of reliable and unreliable services of TCP and UDP is listed in the
table below.
Reliable and Unreliable Transport Services
TCP UDP
Connections TCP establishes a connection from the
sender side before it transmits data.
This connection is analogous to a phone call,
where you talk only after someone answers,
and hang up once the conversation is
finished.
UDP does not establish any connection. The
source sends the data out and hopes the
destination receives it.
This exchange is analogous to dropping a
letter in a mailbox, because you do not know
if or when it will arrive, you just assume that
it will.
Acknowledge TCP at the destination acknowledges each
segment and requests retransmission, if
necessary.
UDP processes incoming data without
providing feedback. Each data segment
stands alone. The segment can be discarded.
Validation TCP on the recipient side checks for errors
and requests retransmission if the data is
flawed.
UDP on the recipient side does minimal error
checking. UDP accepts incoming data, and
can discard incoherent segments.
Pacing TCP at the destination can modify the rate of
data arrival, keeping the recipient operations
from becoming congested or overwhelmed.
UDP on the recipient side cannot pace the
flow of information. If the inflow exceeds
capacity, information can be dropped.
Notes
TCP
In the IP stack layers, TCP provides reliable services to both the Internet layer and
the Application layer.
TCP is connection-oriented, performs message validation, and follows through with
retransmission requests to ensure that arriving data is intact and complete before the
protocol passes the data up to the Application layer.
TCP
Application
Transport
Internet
Packets
Packets
Notes
TCP Services
To manage the data transfer between the Application layer and the Internet layer,
TCP must perform a variety of precise functions. TCP must also react to
unexpected events in either layer, such as an application quitting or a physical
network failure, both of which interrupt data flow. Finally, TCP must
simultaneously manage connections to multiple applications. For example, a single
server can run FTP, HTTP, and SMTP all at the same time.
TCP Services
Primary Services of TCP
The primary services of TCP include:
Establishment, maintenance, and termination of the virtual circuit between
the source and destination devices
Confirmation of data arrival and inspection for errors, to guarantee reliable
delivery
Reassembly of data units into the original sequence
Flow control, so the processing capacity of the recipient is not overwhelmed
Error management, to request retransmission of lost packets or elimination of
duplicate packets
Supervision of simultaneous connections to multiple applications on same
device
Application
Transport
Internet
TCP
Functions
Notes
Error Correction
The layered protocol stack is a way to group tasks into discrete modules.
The isolation of TCP services in the Transport layer is beneficial, because it
resolves issues of flow control and error correction before the information is sent up
to the Application layer. This allows programmers to write user applications
without having to include these capabilities.
Error Correction
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
0101010
0101010
1010101
0101010
0101010
1010101
0101010
0101010
1010101
Notes
Cost Associated With TCP
The cost associated with TCP is called overhead. The conversation of queries and
acknowledgements between source and destination computers creates additional,
higher, data traffic over the network.
Additionally, the segment header that contains the information used to track and
verify the messages unavoidably increases the size of the data units.
Finally, the computers themselves must run, or process, the protocols during the
entire data exchange.
Cost With TCP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
Packet
Packet
Packet
Overhead
Notes
TCP Operations
TCP operations fall into the following four categories:
Reliability
Flow control
Multiplexing
Connection regulation
Reliability
Data can arrive at its destination damaged, duplicated, and out of order. Or not
arrive at all. TCP examines data for these problems and performs a head count of
sorts. TCP on the sender side assigns a sequence number to each piece of data it
sends. TCP also performs a calculation called a checksum, which is a function of
the message itself. Both pieces of information become part of the Transport layer
message header.
TCP Operations
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
Damaged
Duplicated
Out of order
Notes
Acknowledgement
TCP on the receiver side returns a message that acknowledges the data and
references the sequence number. If an acknowledgement for a specific sequence
number is missing, the senders TCP notices the discrepancy, and after a
predetermined amount of time, it retransmits the data.
Acknowledgement
An analogy is a letter you send as Return Receipt. When the letter is delivered, the
receipt is returned to the sender. You expect to get the receipt within a certain
amount of time. If not, you assume it is lost, and you can send the letter again.
In addition, the receiver side TCP performs the checksum calculation, and if the
result does not match the source enclosed in the header, the message is discarded.
No acknowledgement is sent, so a retransmission is triggered which replaces the
faulty data.
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TELNET
TELNET
FTP
FTP
HTTP
HTTP
SMTP
SMTP
DNS
DNS
SNMP
SNMP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
TCP
TCP
UDP
UDP
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
Ethernet
Ethernet
Token Ring
Token Ring
ATM
ATM
FDDI
FDDI
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
ICMP
ICMP
Internet Protocol
Internet Protocol
ARP
ARP
Application Layer
Transport Layer
Internet Layer
(Network)
Network Interface
0101010
0101010
1010101
01 010
0101 0
101
0101010
0101010
1010101
0101010
0101010
1010101
Damaged
Duplicated
Out of order
Retransmit
Notes
Flow Control
TCP at the destination computer also provides feedback to control the rate of data
sent by the source computer.
Along with the acknowledgement messages TCP sends to the source, TCP can
indicate its available buffer space, or capacity. When the capacity indication
decreases, the sender slows data transmission.
Conversely, when it expands, the flow increases. This way, the receiver gets the data
as quickly as possible, but does not risk data loss, which can result if the recipient
exceeds its capacity to process the data.
Flow Control
Notes
Multiplexing
TCP discriminates between the many applications that use the protocol by using a
number called a port number. A different port number is associated with each
application.
An analogy is the assignment of P.O. box numbers. Once the mail is at the
destination post office, the P.O. box number on the envelope tells the clerk to put
the envelope into the corresponding box.
Multiplexing
Notes
Frequently Used TCP Port Numbers
Certain associations between popular applications running on servers and well-
known ports have become generally accepted. Below are some common application
port numbers.
Frequently Used TCP Port Numbers
How does TCP work?
TCP attaches a Transport layer header to each data segment. In addition to the other
header information already discussed, the transport layer header also contains the
source and destination application port numbers.
The destination port number directs the message to the correct application on the
destination host, or server. The source, or client, port number is assigned randomly
by the software. The use of port numbers allows multiple applications to have
simultaneous connections, all using TCP services.
Port Number Application
21 File Transfer Protocol
23 Telnet
25 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
69 Trivial File Transfer Protocol
80 Hypertext Transport Protocol
110 Post Office Protocol v3
Notes
Connection Regulation
A server can have simultaneous active connections into more than one application,
and the port number directs the connections to the correct application.
Can a single application have more than one simultaneous connection? Yes, but
there must be a way to distinguish between each of the connections to the
application, so that the individual responses are sent to the correct user.
Socket Numbers
An additional pair of source and destination numbers identifies each simultaneous
connection. These are called socket numbers, and they are a combination of the
unique IP address plus the port number of the application.
The port number pair is unique on a host, and the IP addresses are unique across
the Internet. The source and destination socket number pairing uniquely identifies
an exchange.
Another way to think of it is that the port number pair is the subject matter or topic
for a conversation, and the IP addresses identify the participants. Therefore, the
combination of the topic discussed by the two participants is a unique conversation.
The same topic can be discussed by different participants, but it is also a unique
conversation.
Notes
Port Number Pair
Above is a depiction of two client devices that have each formed a connection to the
same server. Of course, each device has a unique IP address.
They are both using the same application; therefore, the port numbers are the same
for each connection.
So, we see the numbers are Port 21 for the server and Port 350 for each of the
clients, though the connection for each conversation is different.
The socket numbersthe port plus IP combinationis unique.
Notes
Flow Control and Reliability
Flow control and reliability are a function of the individual connection. If the
connection fails due to network problems, both machines recognize the failure and
alert the relevant application process.
Notice that if connection 1 fails, connection 2 can remain unaffected if connection
2 was established over different network hardware.
Flow Control and Reliability
Notes
Applications Using TCP
Applications that use TCP are generally those that require guaranteed delivery,
guaranteed reliability, and are strictly error-free data.
These applications have no ability to detect errors or resolve anomalies from lower
IP stack layers. They are completely dependent on TCP to provide all error recovery
functions.
Some popular applications that use TCP are listed in the figure below.
Popular TCP Applications
Notes
UDP
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that establishes a transmission path and
assures delivery. But it also has a lot of overhead in terms of increasing network
traffic with all of its verification messages and enlarging the data units with header
information. Some applications do not require all of the safety and security that the
chatty, but reliable, TCP provides, such as SNMP, TFTP, and DNS.
UDP is a Transport layer protocol that provides connectionless transport services
with minimal overhead. UDP is a bare-bones protocol that makes a best-effort
attempt to deliver messages between source and destination computers, but it can
drop packets without notification.
UDP does not invest in the substantial follow-up messaging that makes TCP so
reliable. If an application needs error recovery with a UDP connection, the
application must provide it.
Because UDP is such a lean protocol, it is also very efficient for certain tasks.
UDP is especially good for sending short messages that are not critical and can be
resent later if necessary.
UDP
Notes
UDP Services
UDP only provides the most straightforward services: no flow control mechanisms,
no data arrival acknowledgements, and no sequencing headers to help reconstruct
larger messages.
UDP does provide:
Simple data transmission between application programs on source and
destination computers
Inclusion of port numbers to reach appropriate applications or multiplexes
Simple error detection at the destination host, but without recovery mechanisms
Most applications are configured to use only one Transport layer protocol:
either TCP or UDP. Domain Name Service (DNS) is an exception because it uses
both protocols, but for different application functions. DNS uses UDP to make
address translation requests, and it uses TCP for the response.
UDP is used when reliability is not absolutely necessary, or when it is managed
by the application. Examples include:
Domain Name Service (DNS)
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
Notes
Summary
While TCP is the dominant protocol because of its error-checking and recovery
abilities, it also has a significant overhead.
Key concepts include:
TCP functions include establishing and maintaining a virtual connection between
source and destination devices, monitoring the entire transmission through
acknowledgement messages, and providing error checking and recovery
mechanisms.
UDP, in contrast, offers only simple services and no reliability guarantee, but is
very useful for certain applications.
UDP uses a best-effort approach to message delivery. UDP does not maintain an
end-to-end connection; it merely pushes messages out to the network and receives
incoming messages from the network.
Multiple applications on a computer, generally a server, are distinguished by
using port numbers. The Transport layer receives application messages and
references them to particular applications using port and socket numbers.
When a matching of port number to a particular application becomes customary,
the numbers are called well-known ports. Individual connections are identified
with socket numbers, which combine the port number and the unique IP address.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. What is the duty of Transport layer protocols?
a. Associate a hosts software address to its hardware address.
b. Find the best path through the Internet.
c. Enable the sender to segment a block of data into manageable pieces and
the receiver to reassemble them.
d. Grant access to the network medium.
2. Transport Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable service by:
a. Sending each unit of data twice
b. Requiring the receiver to acknowledge each segment of the data and the
sender to retransmit if loss or errors occur
c. Limiting each receiver to only one active session at a time to avoid
confusion
3. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides connectionless services in the
sense that:
a. UDP processes traffic without providing feedback to the sender.
b. UDP uses a special type of message to confirm arrival of each individual
packet, rather than acknowledging several packets at a time.
c. UDP can modify the rate of flow and request transmission of missed
packets.
Notes
4. What is the cost of the reliable service provided by the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)?
a. Data is frequently lost due to insufficient buffer space.
b. Complex user interaction is required to assure reliable service.
c. Acknowledgements and connection setup result in higher overhead.
d. TCP limits the client to only one session at a time.
5. Applications that use TCP must perform their own error recovery and flow
control procedures.
a. True
b. False
6. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the unreliable service
provided by the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)?
a. Application layer protocols that use UDP may implement procedures that
provide reliable service.
b. Only unreliable Application layer protocols can use UDP.
c. Unreliable service imposes additional overhead on data transmission.
d. None of the above
Notes

1. What is the duty of Transport layer protocols?
a. Associate a hosts software address to its hardware address.
b. Find the best path through the Internet.
c. Enable the sender to segment a block of data into manageable pieces
and the receiver to reassemble them.
(The Transport layer is tasked with host-to-host communication.
Segmenting data into manageable pieces that will fit the Maximum
Transmission Unit at the Network Interface Layer is part of that task. ARP
associates software and hardware addresses; IP layer finds the best path
through the Internet; the Network Interface layer grants access to the
network medium.)
2. Transport Control Protocol (TCP) provides reliable service by:
a. Sending each unit of data twice
b. Requiring the receiver to acknowledge each segment of the data and
the sender to retransmit if loss or errors occur
c. Limiting each receiver to only one active session at a time to avoid
confusion
Notes
3. The User Datagram Protocol (UDP) provides connectionless services in the
sense that:
a. UDP processes traffic without providing feedback to the sender.
(Unlike TCP, UDP does not acknowledge receipt of datagrams or request
retransmission. There is no connection between source and destination.
Network control messages use UDP so that they are more likely to get
through in the case of network congestion.)
b. UDP uses a special type of message to confirm arrival of each individual
packet, rather than acknowledging several packets at a time.
c. UDP can modify the rate of flow and request transmission of missed
packets.
4. What is the cost of the reliable service provided by the Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP)?
a. Data is frequently lost due to insufficient buffer space.
b. Complex user interaction is required to assure reliable service.
c. Acknowledgements and connection setup result in higher overhead.
(TCP requires no user interaction, and does not limit client sessions.)
d. TCP limits the client to only one session at a time.
5. Applications that use TCP must perform their own error recovery and flow
control procedures.
a. True
b. False
(TCP provides error recovery and flow control procedures to the
applications that use it.)
Notes
6. Which of the following statements is true regarding the unreliable service
provided by the User Datagram Protocol (UDP)?
a. Application layer protocols that use UDP may implement procedures
that provide reliable service.
(UDP, unlike TCP, does not provide error recovery. However, many
application layer protocols that use UDP implement their own error-
recovery procedures to provide reliable service. Allowing service to be
unreliable generally reduces the overhead on data transmission.)
b. Only unreliable Application layer protocols can use UDP.
c. Unreliable service imposes additional overhead on data transmission.
d. None of the above
Notes
7.0 Application Layer
Introduction
Application protocols are found in the Application layer, the top layer of the IP
Suite.
The role of Application protocols is to send information between systems through
the IP stack. Of all of the IP Suite layers, functionality of the application protocols
is the most visible to the user; but do not confuse them with application programs
loaded on computers that provide the interface and interaction for the user.
Application protocols are the mechanisms that enable users to send data down
through the IP stack and out onto the network, and in reverse, allow them to view
data received from the network through the lower layers in the IP stack.
This lesson explores the role of Application protocols and takes a close look at some
of the more popular protocols that transfer files of various types over the Internet.
Also discussed is a protocol that makes addresses on the Internet much more user
friendly by associating names with numeric IP addresses.
Objectives
Explain the role of the Application layer protocols.
Define Telnet.
List some uses of File Transfer Protocol (FTP).
Explain the functions of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP).
Define how HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used.
Describe the addressing scheme in Domain Name Service (DNS).
2 of 44 7.0 Application Layer
Notes
Network Applications
The Application layer is the highest layer in the IP stack. It translates
information received from an IP network into files that end-user desktop programs
can use, thus enabling users to display the information.
Application layer protocols also act as translators to go down through the IP stack.
Application protocols can take vendor-specific file formats and convert them into
data that the lower IP stack layers can manage and further package for transmittal
across networks.
Application Layer Role
7.0 Application Layer 3 of 44
Notes
Client/Server Configuration
Applications that use the IP Suite are generally client/server style applications. The
client is the software operating on a workstation or personal computer. The server
is the software that delivers information to the client.
Servers are generally distant computers that clients can access through IP networks.
Client/Server Configuration
Notes
Application Programs
Application programs are designed in response to specific needs, so they generally
manage select groups of tasks. There are applications specifically designed to carry
out functions, such as email, WWW browsing, file transfer, remote access, and
others.
Each of the applications has a specific set of procedures, rules, and constraints. Yet
each can pass information to other layers of the IP stack for delivery over networks,
and each can accept data from other layers that was received from the network.
Application Programs
Email
Web Browsing
File Transfer
Notes
Message From Source Computer to Destination Computer
The IP layers below the Application layer manage the details of packaging,
labeling, and physically transmitting data across IP networks. The services they
provide take a message from an application on a source computer to a
corresponding application on a destination computer.
From Source to Destination
Application Functions
Of all the IP Suite protocols, the functionality of the Application protocols are most
visible to the end user. The letters that represent the names of these protocols are
also the most recognized. Many of the names have become commonplace.
Even casual users have probably seen messages about SMTP flash across their
desktop screens and associate it with email; or they are aware that HTTP is the
beginning of their favorite WWW Uniform Resource Locator (URL).
Notes
In this lesson, a few of the most common Application layer protocols are discussed:
Telnet is a remote terminal emulator.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for file transfer.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) is used for lightweight file transfer.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for electronic mail.
Network File System (NFS) is used for network file system sharing.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used for web browsing.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used for network
management.
Domain Name Service (DNS) is a human-friendly address naming system.
Application Functions
Notes
Telnet
Telnet is an application that allows a user to connect to a distant computer across an
IP network. Users can log in, run programs, access files, or communicate with
special application programs running on the host.
When a user runs the Telnet application on a workstation, it operates as though it is
a terminal that is directly connected to the distant host. This is called terminal
emulation. Telnet is a client/server application that uses TCP.
Telnet
Notes
Why and How Telnet is Used
Previously, only mainframe computers ran application programs, and to use these
programs, such as a university database, workers used a terminal that was directly
connected to the mainframe. The terminal was a way of interfacing with the host
application computer using keyboard and monitorand nothing more.
To access a different large application host, you needed to use a second directly
wired terminal. Workers were only able to disperse as far as the wiring to the
directly connected terminals would stretch to the host.
Enter the PC. Because the PC had its own central processing unit (CPU),
application programs were able to live on workstations. Data was transferred over
networks, while the application programs stayed put on each workstation.
Companies installed more workstations and built more networks, and the workforce
became dispersed.
PC Connected to Many Hosts
Notes
Telnet Today
What happened to all those applications running on application host mainframes?
Many of them are still there, operating to this day.
Part of the reason they are still operating is because of Telnet. As global networks
emerged, the advantages of using a network to access information became clear.
However, many companies and organizations had invested a lot of capital into those
mainframes, and some of those highly specialized applications were not easily
moved into the workstation environment. Those applications had to be run from the
original host using the original terminals that were directly connected to the host.
Telnet solves this problem because it is a terminal emulator. In a way, Telnet tricks
the mainframe host computer into believing that it is receiving input from one of its
own terminals. The Telnet protocol can emulate many different types of terminals.
The user chooses the one that the host requires. The mainframe applications can be
run remotely using Telnet.
As long as you can access an IP network, it is possible to log on to the mainframe
application host. Telnet also allows access to many different hosts, as long as they
are on a network.
Telnet Host Advantages
Advantages of Telnet host connections over directly connected terminals are clear:
The number of physical terminals and connections required to provide access to
host applications is reduced, because one workstation can access any of the hosts
using Telnet.
Geographically dispersed sites can still access the applications host as long as
they can get onto an IP network.
The workforce is more mobile; even laptops emulate terminals by running Telnet.
Specialized computer programs can be shared.
Users do not need to switch from the terminal of one host to another terminal
connected to a different host. The user can simultaneously connect to multiple
applications hosts and run programs on each.
Notes
Using Telnet
To use Telnet, the user specifies the IP address or domain name of the applications
host where the programs reside
User Name and Password
The Telnet protocol connects you to the host. A username and password are
required. Your PC then emulates the type of terminal the host requires. It operates
just like a directly connected terminal. Keyboard commands and keystrokes are
interpreted just as if you were typing them in at a directly connected terminal.
Your screen also emulates exactly what a terminal shows you. To use the program
that Telnet is accessing on the applications host, you need to know how to use the
program, since the commands and interface are that of the application on the host.
There are a large variety of host applications, and many are either specialized or
custom programs designed to fill a specific purpose. Telnet cannot help you with
how-tos of the program, but it will get you access to those programs.
Notes
Examples of Telnet Usage
Some examples of how Telnet is used include the following:
Connect to a public or private library system and use their card catalog application
to conduct a search.
Telnet to a weather service program to find a report for any location worldwide.
Connect to U.S. Government systems and run application programs to find census
data.
Connect to systems at work while you are traveling and run programs as if you
were there.
Connect to databases such as Nexus or Lexis.
Run business accounting programs on IBM mainframes.
Notes
File Transfer Protocol
Like Telnet, File Transfer Protocol (FTP) also uses TCP at the Transport layer,
because FTP requires a high level of reliability. FTP allows users to access and
transfer files between two computers. Transfers between a local computer and a
distant host are most common. The transfer takes place in either direction, to or
from the host, over an IP network.
A user can also initiate a third-party transfer, moving files between two distant
hosts. While there is a connection between client computers and host servers, the
user cannot run programs on the host. Also, the host can limit the users access to
various files.
FTP Connection
Notes
FTP Transfer
During a basic FTP transfer, a user accesses an FTP application program to make a
connection to a networked host. The user inputs the hosts address or domain name.
Connecting to FTP
Notes
Once logged in, users can transfer files in either direction. The logon gives some
control to the host, so they can make only selected files available. Many systems,
for instance those that allow downloads of demonstration software, allow a logon
of guest or anonymous. These are called anonymous FTP servers. The files are
made available without restriction, by using a public login procedure. Additionally,
the host can limit the allowable actions. For instance, while users can receive files
from anonymous servers, they will not have permission to send files to the host.
FTP Transfer Screen and Copy Button
If logged in with full privileges, users can copy files from their computer to the
host computer to deliver a report, or they can copy files from the server and save
them to their own computer. Files can be transferred as text files with special
characters to indicate formatting, or as binary files with no formatting. Computer
programs, graphic files, and sound files are all sent as binary files.
Notes
Examples of FTP Usage
Some examples of how FTP can be used include the following:
Download software files: There are many sources for downloadable software.
Once transferred, you can install and run it on your own computer. Common types
include demonstrations, freeware, and shareware. Sometimes vendors have their
products available on a locked FTP site, and, in exchange for payment, you get a
password to a personal, customized FTP site. This site is available in minutes and
it gives you access to your order with each of your itemssoftware, graphics, or
mailing listsready to download.
Send or receive documents: Document files can be in a wide variety of formats,
including plain text, formatted word processing files, PDFs, web archives, and
more. Examples include documents from archives or from collections, annual
reports, electronic journal articles, and news articles.
Transfer multimedia files: You can transfer any media files: graphic images,
sound tracks, movie clips, virtual reality files, or any other digital media.
Share documents among co-workers: FTP can make long-distance
collaboration feasible.
Notes
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) uses the reliable TCP at the Transport layer
to deliver electronic mail, or email. SMTP transfers mail between mail servers
in networks.
SMTP is not involved with the mechanisms of message creation, frequency of
message transfer, or user notification. Email messages are delivered to and stored
on mail servers in mailboxes in a manner analogous to mail arriving at a post office
and getting sorted into a particular P.O. box. The user collects mail messages from
their mailbox on a local server.
Retrieving Mail From Server Mailboxes
Notes
How SMTP is Used
A user runs an email program and connects to the mail server where their mailbox
is located. To send and receive mail messages, the user interacts with this local
server.
Usually a company or organization has its own mail server or servers. These servers
use SMTP to communicate with other mail servers across the Internet, in the
collective effort to deliver messages to their destination mail server.
Using SMTP
Notes
Sending Electronic Mail
A user creates a mail message by using an email program on their computer or
workstation. The message can be a text message or it might have files of various
formats attached to it. The user sends the message from a workstation to the local
mail server.
At the server the message is put into a queue for outgoing mail. SMTP checks the
queue at regular intervals and sends waiting messages to the mail network. The
source server keeps a copy of the message until it receives a delivery
acknowledgement from the destination server.
Sending Email
Create email On PC
Press send
email goes to queue
SMTP sends message
Notes
When the destination mail server receives a message, it puts the message into a
mailbox or forwards the message to another server for delivery. Messages wait in
the mailbox until the user connects to the mail server.
Getting Email
Notes
Internet Mail Message Addresses
Internet mail message addresses have two parts that follow this general format:
username@domain-name.
The domain name identifies a specific mail server, and the username identifies a
specific mailbox on that server. The following address identifies a person named
John Smith at Nortel: Jsmith@nortel.com
Internet Mail Message Addresses
Domain Name
The domain name is a very user-friendly, readable name that is bound to a numeric
IP address. Domain names are discussed in more detail in the DNS section of this
lesson.
Notes
Email Use
Email was one of the earliest applications on the ARPANET. Email has been, and
continues to be, one of the most popular methods for communicating over IP
networks. Email is widely used for a variety of purposes:
To communicate with colleagues and friends
To increase a sense of connection and community
To exchange files with other people
To increase the speed of communication and avoid telephone tag
To reduce the sense of geographical distance
To participate in listserves or email-based topic discussions
Notes
HyperText Transfer Protocol
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a client/server protocol used on the WWW
to exchange documents formatted with Hypertext Markup Language (HTML).
HTML is a subset of Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). HTML
documents, or web pages, contain a collection of files of multiple types, including
text, graphics, video, sound, and other multimedia files.
HTTP protocol is the set of rules or conventions that governs the exchange of
information across the WWW.
Sample Web Page
Notes
How HTTP is Used
HTTP is a client/server protocol. A web browser is an HTTP client that sends
requests to servers. When a user runs a browser application, the file that is displayed
on the computer screen has text or graphics that are highlighted.
These highlighted elements are called hypertext links, and reference other files,
with the option to go directly to those files. Below is an example of a web page with
hypertext links:
By selecting a hypertext link, the user, though unaware, is sending an instruction to
a server to deliver additional information files. A variety of file types can be
exchanged between an HTTP client and server.
When a user requests information with a browser, either by selecting a hypertext
link or by dictating a web file from the Application File menu, the browser builds
an HTTP request to send to the server. The browser requests a specific file on a
specific server within the Internet, and identifies this request with a URL address.
The server responds by sending the requested file to the user.
URL vs. FTP and Telnet
Notice that FTP and Telnet require you to know IP addresses of the destination
hosts, in addition to the names of the files you wish to access; however, the HTTP
protocol includes addressing at the Application layer for browsers and servers.
The addresses and file names are imbedded in the documents, within the hyperlinks
themselves. The user does not have to remember any IP addresses or file names.
The ease of use of HTTP makes the WWW a very popular way to exchange
information.
Notes
Examples of HTTP Usage
The WWW is constantly evolving, and new uses emerge regularly. Examples of the
ways the web distributes information are listed below.
Publicize internal company information, making it accessible to all employees.
Publicize company information to customers, such as annual reports, financial
reports, product and service information, relevant news items, market
information, or other public interest information
Provide access to breaking news information from anywhere in the world. Often
this information is available on the WWW before it is published in print media,
and is usually conveyed in more detail.
Track up-to-the-minute information, such as stock quotes.
Obtain or offer real-time access to customer support services over the WWW.
Advertise and sell products.
Research databases and collections of information.
Notes
Domain Name Service
IP Numeric Scheme
IP addressing uniquely and effectively identifies device connections to the Internet.
As a numeric scheme, it is efficient, but has some drawbacks:
IP address numbers can be difficult to remember. The problem gets worse when
you are using many of them.
IP addresses refer to specific network connection locations. IP addresses change
when equipment moves.
Numeric addresses are difficult to guess.
Domain Name Service (DNS):
Simplifies the job of identifying and using an IP address
Associates host names with IP addresses in a user-friendly naming hierarchy
Naming Structure
DNS is structured in a similar way to the organization of directories, subdirectories,
and files on a desktop computer. A hierarchical tree associates host names with
IP addresses.
Notes
DNS Hierarchy
Each name consists of two or more alphanumeric fields separated by dots.
While we read the names from left to right, the IP address is interpreted from
right to left. Some examples are nortel.com, rs.internic.net, gimble.cs.umd.edu,
www.w3.org, and www.loc.gov.
DNS Hierarchy
Notes
Top Level Domain Names
The top level is called a domain. It is a small set of names that relate to countries
and types of organizations. Top-level names are at the far right of a domain name.
Some well-known organizational domains include:
.com for commercial
.edu for educational, primarily in the U.S.
.net for network operators
.gov for the U.S. Government
.mil for the U.S. Military
Some example country domains include:
.us United States
.ca Canada
.uk United Kingdom
.au Australia
.fr France
Notes
Subdomain Names
To the left of the top-level domain are additional names. These are subdomains that
describe the next level of specificity to identify the computer location or owner. The
names relate to the company, group, organization, or location.
Subdomain Names
For example, in the .com domain, subdomains often match the company name;
examples include nortel.com, ibm.com, and pillsbury.com. Within the .us
domain, each of the 50 states has a subdomain, usually matching the postal
abbreviation. Within the .uk domain, some examples are the .ac.uk subdomain for
academic sites and .co.uk subdomain for commercial sites. Other top-level domains
can be divided in the same way.
Together, the top-level domain, in combination with the subdomains, is the
domain name. For example, the domain name loc.gov belongs to the computer
www.loc.gov.
Notes
Computer Name or Host Name
The last field name, at the far left of a domain name, is the computer name or host
name.
Computer or Host Names
Fully Qualified Domain Name
A fully qualified domain name (FQDN) is the entire name of a system. It contains
the computer name, its subdomain names, and the top-level domain name. For
example, a computer at 18.85.6.33 in the MIT Media Laboratory can be identified
as plexus.media.mit.edu, which is a fully qualified domain name. However, the
hostname plexus is not a fully qualified domain name.
Fully Qualified Domain Name
Like the corresponding IP address, a fully qualified domain name is unique and
specifies a single device. There can be another computer with the same host name
on the Internet, but it will have different subdomain or top-level domain names, and
therefore, its address is unique.
Host name Subdomain Top-level domain
Domain name
www gimble com
gimble cs.umd edu
www loc gov
plexus.media.mit.edu plexus.media.mit.edu
Fully qualified domain name
Unique
Host name
(not a fully qualified
domain name)
Notes
DNS in Action
IP needs a numeric IP address. When a user enters a domain name instead of an IP
address, the application program starts a translation process to convert the name
into an IP address.
DNS in Action
Name Servers
There is an entire network of Internet computers called name servers that
translate domain names into IP addresses. These name servers are arranged in a
hierarchy across networks, mirroring domain name hierarchy. Some servers handle
the top-level domains such as .com or .edu. Others, which are local name servers,
handle subdomains as part of local organization networks. The top-level and local
name servers cooperate to translate domain names into IP addresses.
Name Servers
plexus.media.mit.edu plexus.media.mit.edu
DNS converts this domain name into
the valid IP address of 18.85.6.33
Corporate Network Branch Office
Name
Server
Router
Local Name
Servers
Name
Server
Notes
Example of DNS
A synopsis of the translation activity is shown below.
1. A user types www.disney.com to get vacation information. It is a fully qualified
domain name.
Example of DNS
User
www.disney.com
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
Notes
2. DNS sends an IP address request to the local name server.
Example of DNS (Continued)
User
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
IP Request
Notes
3. The local name server responds with the IP address, for instance 204.127.235.41,
if the server knows it. If the local name server does not know the IP address,
more steps are needed.
User
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
204.127.235.41
Notes
4. The local name server sends an IP address request to a top-level name server that
knows about .com domains.
User
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
IP Address
Request
Notes
5. The .com server determines and submits the IP address.
User
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
204.127.235.41
Notes
6. Your program sends the numeric address to TCP/IP.
User
Local Name
Server
Name
Server
204.127.235.41
Notes
Summary
Several main points about Application protocols were discussed:
Application protocols are highly specialized to carry out specific tasks. While
each application performs a very different assignment, they all send and receive
information from the Transport layer of the IP stack.
Telnet allows users to connect to a distant applications host across IP networks,
log in, and run programs on that host using their own workstation as a terminal
emulator.
FTP assists users to transfer files of any type between devices on an IP network.
Software files, documents, and media can all be sent using the FTP protocol.
An HTTP browser enables users to access WWW information using hypertext
links within a document.
The SMTP protocol supervises message delivery between mail servers; however,
SMTP is not involved with the user-oriented functions of message creation,
frequency of message transfer, or user notification. When a user creates a
message, SMTP only addresses the way it is put out into the mail network for
delivery.
DNS organizes names into a tree-like hierarchy. Each name is made up of at least
two alphanumeric fields separated by dots. Domain names are interpreted from
right to left. Most organizations can be put into one of the top-level domains that
include .com, .edu, .net, .gov, and .mil.
Notes
Practice Questions
1. What is a responsibility of Application layer protocols?
a. Enable a system to translate received data into a format usable by desktop
applications.
b. Associate a hosts software address to its hardware address.
c. Encapsulate datagrams into data link layer frames.
2. An important goal of DNS name servers is to enable multiple IP hosts to share
the same fully qualified domain name.
a. True
b. False
3. What is NOT a benefit of the Telnet protocol?
a. It allows users to connect to a distant computer across an IP network.
b. It provides a comprehensive help facility that shows you how to use
mainframe applications.
c. It lets you use a computer to access many types of host systems because it
can emulate several terminal types.
d. It appears to a host system as a directly connected terminal.
4. Files transferred using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
a. May only be copied from a server to a client.
b. May only be copied from a client to a server.
c. May be copied from a client to a server or from a server to a client.
Notes
5. Which capability is included as FTP services?
a. Clients can run applications from the FTP server.
b. Information may be transmitted either as formatted text or binary files.
c. Authentication is never required for access.
6. What is the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used for?
a. SMTP is an index lookup program for finding electronic mail addresses
worldwide.
b. SMTP is used to transfer email between mail servers.
c. SMTP is an application used for editing electronic mail messages.
d. SMTP is used for device and fault management.
7. The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is:
a. The set of rules and conventions that govern the exchange of information
across the World Wide Web.
b. The only internet-based application that does not rely on the client/server
communication model.
c. A set of specifications for representing data and text on a web page.
Notes
8. Which statement is true regarding an HTTP client?
a. An HTTP client is a language for formatting documents with text,
graphics, video, and sound.
b. An HTTP client is typically implemented as a browser application that
sends requests to a web server.
c. An HTTP client primarily responds to requests sent from an HTTP server.
d. An HTTP client facilitates text-based terminal sessions with routers and
switches.
9. Which application makes it possible to start a web browser session using a
domain name instead of an IP address?
a. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
b. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
c. Domain Name Service (DNS)
d. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
10. Which statement is true regarding domain names?
a. A fully qualified domain specifies a single name, and contains an IP
address and a computer name.
b. Subdomains are organized under a limited set of top-level domains, and
hosts are organized within subdomains.
c. Fully qualified domain names can be used only with HTTP and FTP
applications; other applications require the user to specify an IP address.
d. The elements in a fully qualified domain name are separated by dots and
begin with the most general (top-level domain) at the left and proceed to
the most specific (computer name) at the right.
Notes

1. What is a responsibility of Application layer protocols?
a. Enable a system to translate received data into a format usable by
desktop applications.
b. Associate a hosts software address to its hardware address.
c. Encapsulate datagrams into data link layer frames.
2. An important goal of DNS name servers is to enable multiple IP hosts to share
the same fully qualified domain name.
a. True
b. False
3. What is NOT a benefit of the Telnet protocol?
a. It allows users to connect to a distant computer across an IP network.
b. It provides a comprehensive help facility that shows you how to use
mainframe applications.
c. It lets you use a computer to access many types of host systems because it
can emulate several terminal types.
d. It appears to a host system as a directly connected terminal.
Notes
4. Files transferred using the File Transfer Protocol (FTP):
a. May only be copied from a server to a client.
b. May only be copied from a client to a server.
c. May be copied from a client to a server or from a server to a client.
5. Which capability is included as FTP services?
a. Clients can run applications from the FTP server.
b. Information may be transmitted either as formatted text or binary
files.
c. Authentication is never required for access.
6. What is the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) used for?
a. SMTP is an index lookup program for finding electronic mail addresses
worldwide.
b. SMTP is used to transfer email between mail servers.
c. SMTP is an application used for editing electronic mail messages.
d. SMTP is used for device and fault management.
7. The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is:
a. The set of rules and conventions that govern the exchange of
information across the World Wide Web.
b. The only internet-based application that does not rely on the client/server
communication model.
c. A set of specifications for representing data and text on a web page.
Notes
8. Which statement is true regarding an HTTP client?
a. An HTTP client is a language for formatting documents with text,
graphics, video, and sound.
b. An HTTP client is typically implemented as a browser application that
sends requests to a web server.
c. An HTTP client primarily responds to requests sent from an HTTP server.
d. An HTTP client facilitates text-based terminal sessions with routers and
switches.
9. Which application makes it possible to start a web browser session using a
domain name instead of an IP address?
a. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
b. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
c. Domain Name Service (DNS)
d. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
10. Which statement is true regarding domain names?
a. A fully qualified domain specifies a single name, and contains an IP
address and a computer name.
b. Subdomains are organized under a limited set of top-level domains,
and hosts are organized within subdomains.
c. Fully qualified domain names can be used only with HTTP and FTP
applications; other applications require the user to specify an IP address.
d. The elements in a fully qualified domain name are separated by dots and
begin with the most general (top-level domain) at the left and proceed to
the most specific (computer name) at the right.
Notes
8.0 Life of a Packet
Introduction
In this lesson, all the topics discussed in this course come together. You have
examined the IP Suite and delved into some of the particulars of various protocols.
You have learned how data is segmented, how headers are added or stripped off, and
the additional information that assists in the data transfer process. Now you will
observe and participate in the Life of a Packet.
This lesson follows one FTP packet from its creation in the Application layer on one
workstation, through the IP Suite layers, and onto the network. You will witness
several encounters with routers, and travel on the network types of life. Observe the
arrival of the packet at the destination network, the direct hardware delivery, and the
final transit up through the IP stack. Finally, watch the FTP packet restored to the
original file on a destination workstation, many networks away from the original
source.
Objectives
While this lesson does not introduce a lot of new information, you can make
connections between all of the ideas previously encountered.
Identify the address class and subnet mask of an IP network.
Analyze a network diagram to identify an IP address and distinguish between the
network and host portions, as well as associated hardware addresses.
Examine Router Information Protocol (RIP) update messages and complete
routing table information.
Specify IP stack layer services.
Assign IP and hardware addresses as the packet travels across networks.
Use routing table information to determine how the packet is routed.
2 of 62 8.0 Life of a Packet
Notes
The Scenario
Many systems play a role in sending information packets across internets. At each
device along the way, both hardware and software addresses perform the transfer.
Major steps from the source computer to the destination computer are listed below.
Sending a Packet
1. A workstation application creates a message that transits the layers of the IP
stack onto a LAN and off to the local router.
2. Each router along the way uses software address comparisons, IP routing
techniques, and hardware addresses to forward the message through IP
networks.
3. Destination router sends the message over the LAN to the recipient computer.
4. The destination computer accepts the message and passes it up through the IP
Suite layers to the application for display.
IP Stack Processing
180.1.2.0
Router 1 Router 3 Router 2
180.1.3.0
180.1.1.0 180.1.4.0
Workstation 1
Workstation 2
4 Application
3 Transport
2 IP
1 Network Interface
2 IP
1 Network Interface
Workstation 1
Router 1
IP Stack Processing
4 Application
3 Transport
2 IP
1 Network Interface
2 IP
1 Network Interface
Workstation 2
Router 3
Destination
8.0 Life of a Packet 3 of 62
Notes
TCP or UDP
When TCP is the transport the journey of the message can be reliable; or unreliable
if UDP is the transport. With either transport method, a message must use IP
services for address and packaging requirements, routing services to cross multiple
networks, and network interface services to travel the physical network media.
As you follow a message from source to destination and across several networks,
you can gain a clear picture of the systems and services involved in the life of a
packet.
The journey begins with a file on the source computer and the command to
transfer that file to a target computer three networks away.
Follow the message through computers, routers, and procedures at each step of the
way. You need to provide some of the information required to deliver the packet.
But first, describe the environment. Look at the network topology, routing tables,
and application protocol.
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.1.0 180.1.4.0
Workstation 1
Workstation 2
Message Destination
Notes
Our Network Environment
Information on the interconnected networks that are to be travelled during this
journey is given below.
The goal is for Workstation 1 on Network 180.1.1.0 to send a file to Workstation
2 on Network 180.1.4.0.
The Environment - A Network Description
Networks 180.1.2.0 and 180.1.3.0 lie between the source and destination networks,
so the packet needs the assistance of three routers along the way.
Notes
Our Networks Class
Is network 180.1.0.0 a Class A, Class B, or Class C network?
Network 180.1.0.0 is a Class B network. Network numbers use zeros to designate
the host portion; therefore, the network portion of this number includes the first two
octets. So by definition, this is a Class B designation.
Our Networks Class
The networks in this example are all part of a large company network. The
individual networks are all subnets of an autonomous system, so a subnet mask is
in place.
What is the subnet mask for network 180.1.0.0?
a)255.255.0.0
b)255.255.255.240
c)255.255.255.0
Notes
What is the Subnet Mask
The subnet mask, 255.255.0.0 is the natural, or non-subnetted mask, for Class B
networks. The bits of the mask indicate a direct correlation, we expect the extension
of the Class B network number to use the third octet of bits. The third octet is
reassigned from the host portion into the network portion.

The subnet mask, 255.255.255.240, indicates a subnet mask that splits the fourth
octet, or indicates the network and host portions on a bit-by-bit basis. That split is
only done when absolutely necessary in Class C networks, where just the fourth
octet is the host portion, and therefore only the fourth octet is available for
reassignment into the network portion.
The subnet mask is 255.255.255.0. Since this is a Class B network using the first
two octets as the network portion of the IP address, because a subnet extends the
network portion of the address, and the subnet mask shows us which bits are
included in that extension.
Notes
IP and Hardware MAC Addresses
Each computer connection to an IP network is designated by a unique IP address.
Hardware addresses are at the network interface card (NIC) level. Software is only
concerned with IP addresses.
In previous lessons you learned that both hardware, or MAC addresses, and IP
addresses, are involved in end-to-end delivery. The workstation and router IP
addresses are given in the figure below.
Network types vary, and each has different requirements for hardware addressing.
Ethernet networks are the most common and use 48-bit hexadecimal hardware
addresses. To simplify the discussion, hardware addresses are identified by the
letters A through H.
IP and Hardware MAC Addresses
This section of the company network is comprised of four smaller networks, and
due to the use of subnetting, each has a unique network number.
Note: Keep in mind that the networks can each be LANs, but the networks between
the routers can also be wide area networks (WANs). Also, routers can connect to
different types of networks because they can have many interface types. The
network type is not important to IP networking.
Notes
Network Specifications
The network specifications for the system are listed below.
The subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 tells you that the subnets are indicated in the
third octet.
A Class B network contains the natural network number in the first two octets. The
official IP network number is 180.1.0.0.
Network Specifications
Workstation 1
Workstation 2
180.1.2.0 180.1.3.0 180.1.1.0 180.1.4.0
180.1.1.10 180.1.4.20
180.1.1.1 180.1.2.2 180.1.2.1 180.1.3.2 180.1.3.1 180.1.4.2
180.1.0.0 180.1.0.0
A
H
B C D E F G
Subnet Tag: Subnet Tag:
Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0 Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0
Subnets: 180.1.1.0
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.4.0
Subnets: 180.1.1.0
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.4.0
Notes
Each computer device that sends or receives packets in an IP internet has a unique
address for each of its connections to those IP networks. Each workstation on this
network has one network connection.
Network Connections
The routers, however, are each connected to two networks. Typically, routers
connect to many networksthis example is simplified. Lets look at the network
device specifications for the workstations and routers.
Notes
Workstation and Router Addresses
In this next section we will complete the table below.
Workstation and Router Addresses
Notes
1. The table indicates that Workstation 1 is connected to Network 180.1.1.0, but
we need the host number to complete the IP address, which is 10. So we can fill
in 180.1.1.10 as the IP address. Looking at the diagram, we see the hardware
address is A.
2. Router 1 connects to two networks. The first network interface address,
180.1.1.1, is given in the table. Enter that as connected to Network 180.1.1.0 (in
Network Address column). Notice that it is the same network address that
Workstation 1 is because they share that network. The host address is 1, and the
hardware address is already listed.
3. Now, we need the other IP address for Router 1, the one at the interface with
Network 180.1.2.0. The host address (2) is given, so the IP address is 180.1.2.2.
We see from the graphic, the hardware address is C.
4. Router 2 also has two network interface connections. The first IP address,
180.1.2.1, connects to Network 180.1.2.0, with host address 1 and hardware
address D. Enter 180.1.2.0 in the Network Address column for Router 2.
5. The second IP address, 180.1.3.2, is connected to Network 180.1.3.0 as shown
in the graphic. The host address is 2, and we will fill in the hardware address,
which is E.
6. Now, from the graphic we see that Router 3 connects to Networks 180.1.3.0 and
180.1.4.0. We need to fill in the IP address and network address of the first
interface. Since the host number is 1 (from table), we can enter the IP address as
180.1.3.1. The hardware address is F.
7. The second interface address, 180.1.4.2, is shown in the graphic, so we can fill
in the host address as 2 and the hardware address, which we see from the graphic
is G.
8. And finally, we come to Workstation 2, which is on Network 180.1.4.0, along
with Router 3, with a host address of 20. So, we can fill in the IP address as
180.1.4.20. We see that the hardware address is H.
Notes
Assumptions
For this task we assumed the following:
All router interfaces are configured for RIP.
The routers have been online and are broadcasting RIP updates regularly.
All routers have built their tables, and the tables are stablethey are at a point of
convergence.
All router RIP interfaces are configured with poison reverse, meaning the router
advertises a route back to its source with a cost of 16, or infinity.
During the time our message travels from Workstation 1 to Workstation 2, we will
experience no network failures.
Below is the completed table.
Workstation and Router Addresses Completed Table
180.1.1.0 180.1.2.0
Workstation 1
180.1.3.0 180.1.4.0
180.1.1.10
A
180.1.1.1 180.1.2.2 180.1.2.1 180.1.3.2 180.1.3.1 180.1.4.2
Workstation 2
180.1.4.20
IP Address
180.1.1.10
180.1.1.1
180.1.2.2
180.1.2.1
180.1.3.2
180.1.3.1
180.1.4.2
180.1.4.20
Workstation 1
Router 1
Router 2
Router 3
Workstation 2
Network Address
180.1.1.0
180.1.1.0
180.1.2.0
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.4.0
180.1.4.0
Host Address
10
1
2
1
2
1
2
20
Hardware Address
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
B C D E F G
H
Notes
Network and Router Topology
Each router has built a routing table that it uses to send packets through IP networks
to their destinations. The routers built their tables from RIP routing update
messages they received every 30 seconds from their neighbors.
RIP Update Messages
Below are the RIP updates broadcast by each router. Router 2 sends a different RIP
message out through each of its network interfaces. This is because poison reverse
is turned on, so information sent back to the source of that information has a cost of
infinity.
RIP Update Messages
Notes
Here are the tables kept by each router. They have been built from the RIP
messages. The tables show the accessible networks, and the cost, in hops, to get to
each of those networks. They also show how to start out, or use the Next Hop
Router, to reach each network.
RIP Update Messages
Notes
1. The first two entries are network interfaces of Router 1its two direct
connections to networks.
2. The Next Hop Router numbers are, by default, its IP addresses for those
interfaces: 180.1.1.1 and 180.1.2.2. The router is directly connected, so the cost
to reach those networks is 1 for both.
3. Next, Router 1 knows about Network 180.1.3.0 from Router 2, so Router 1 lists
that network as reachable through Router 2, which makes the Next Hop Router
entry 180.1.2.1. The cost for Network 3.0 is 2 hops.
4. Finally, notice that Router 1 also knows about Network 4.0, or 180.1.4.0. Router
1 heard about this network when it got a RIP update from Router 2, so interface
number of Router 2, 180.1.2.1, is the Next Hop Router address here. And, the
cost is 3.
Notes
Notes
1. Router 2 learned about Network 1.0 from a RIP message that came from
interface 180.1.2.2 on Router 1, so that address becomes the Next Hop Router
address.
2. Router 1 advertises the cost as 1, because Router 1 is directly connected to
Network 1.0. To confirm this, look at the advertised price for Network 1.0 in the
RIP messages broadcast by Router 1. But, Router 2 must add 1 to the advertised
price, so Network 1.0 costs 2 hops.
3. Next, Router 2 also knows about Network 2.0. Router 2 is directly connected to
180.1.2.0, so interface address on Router 2, 180.1.2.1, becomes the Next Hop
Router address. As a direct connection, the cost is 1.
4. After that, the next entry is for Network 3, which is another direct connection for
Router 2. The Next Hop Router is an interface address on Router 2, 180.1.3.2,
and the cost is 1.
5. Finally, Router 2 learned about Network 4.0, or 180.1.4.0, from the broadcast out
of interface 180.1.3.1, so this becomes the Next Hop Router. The cost was
advertised by Router 3 as 1 hop, so Router 2 must add 1 and enter it at a cost of
2 hops.
Notes
Notes
1. Router 3 learned about Network 1.0 through the Router 2 interface at 180.1.3.2,
and, because Network 1.0 was advertised with a cost of 2 hops, Router 3 must
enter it as costing 3 hops. We see this is an indirect (I) connection.
2. Also, you need to list Router 2 as an Indirect route. Router 2 knows that Network
180.1.2.0 can also be reached through interface 180.1.3.2, and that it costs only
2 hops.
3. Router 3 is very familiar with Network 3.0 at 180.1.3.0, because it is directly
connected to this network using its interface, 180.1.3.1. As a direct connection,
Network 3.0 costs 1 hop.
4. Finally, Router 3 is also directly connected to Network 4.0, through an interface
on Router 3, 180.1.4.2. As another directly connected network, Network 4.0 also
carries a cost of 1 in all Router 3 broadcasts.
Notes
The FTP Message
The file travels from Workstation 1 on Network 180.1.1.0 to Workstation 2 on
Network 180.1.4.0. The FTP application sends the file to TCP for transport
services. To simplify notation, represent the file as one packet labeled FTP
Message. Actually, the file might need to be split into many packets.
The FTP Message
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0
180.1.1.0 180.1.4.0
Workstation 1
FTP
Message
FTP
Message
Workstation 2
FTP
Message
FTP
Message
180.1.4.20
Notes
Destination IP Address
When FTP starts up and asks for a destination IP address for the file we are sending
to Workstation 2, the IP address is 180.1.4.20 which signifies that the destination is
host 20 on network 4 at 180.1.4.0.
Destination IP Address
Notes
Our Packets Journey
Most people send and receive information over the Internet quickly and reliably. An
amazing range of functions must happen to accomplish data transport across
networks. For this lesson consider only the major functions as you follow the packet
across networks. Our discussion will take far longer than the actual transmission.
We split the journey into stages. Different packet-processing activities are
examined along the way. The stages are listed below.
Stage 1 follows the packet as it travels from Workstation 1, over Network
180.1.1.0, and arrives at Router 1.
Stage 2 tracks the packet through Router 1 processing, over Network 180.1.2.0 to
Router 2, and through Router 2 processing.
Stage 3 leads the packet over Network 180.1.3.0 to Router 3, through Router 3
processing, and onto Network 180.1.4.0.
Stage 4 sees the packet to Workstation 2, and conveys it through receipt and the
final IP transit process.
Journey in Stages
180.1.2.0
180.1.3.0 180.1.1.0 180.1.4.0
Workstation 1
Workstation 2
180.1.1.10
A
H
B C D E F G
180.1.4.20
180.1.1.1 180.1.2.2 180.1.2.1 180.1.3.2 180.1.3.1 180.1.4.2
Stage 1 Stage 1 Stage 2 Stage 2 Stage 3 Stage 3 Stage 4 Stage 4
Notes
At each stage, we look at the process in terms of the IP stack. Notice that all four IP
Suite layers are involved at the end stations.
Only the lower two layersthe Network Interface layer and the Internet, or IP,
layerare used by the routers.
IP Stacks
Notes
Stage 1: FTP Application to Router 1
The following steps are taken in stage 1.
1. At the top of the IP stack, Workstation 1 engages an FTP application to send a
file to Workstation 2.
2. The FTP protocol requests the IP address for Workstation 2.
Stage 1: FTP Application to Router 1
Notes
3. If we enter the domain name workstation2.company.com rather than IP address
180.1.4.20 as the destination, DNS performs the translation between the
alphanumeric address and the dotted-decimal IP address formats.
DNS
Notes
At the Application layer, the packet will look like just the data stream with no
header information attached.
Packet at Application Layer
Notes
Workstation 1 at the Transport Layer
4. FTP has the destination address and sends the file transfer message to the TCP
software module in the Transport layer. The primary function TCP performs is
to pass messages from the source IP applications to the destination IP
applications with consistent reliability.

TCP uses port numbers in the transport header to deliver the data to the correct
computer application, and ensures that the data is complete and error-free. TCP
functions were covered in detail in an earlier lesson.
Workstation 1 Transport Layer
Notes
Workstation 1 at the Internet Layer
5. Remember, the FTP message remains intact throughout the entire transport
process. Only the headers may change as the message travels across networks.

TCP passes the segment containing the message to IP at the Internet layer (see
the figure below). The message has a header from the Transport layer, which is
seen as an integral part of the data unit by the IP layer.
6. IP attaches the source and destination IP addresses, and packages it as a
datagram. The source IP address is 180.1.1.10 and the destination IP address is
180.1.4.20. The IP addresses are consulted by every router along the path to
Workstation 2.

The header also includes a code that instructs the IP layer at the destination
device which transport protocol to use; in this case, TCP.
Workstation 1 Internet Layer
Notes
7. IP compares the network IP addresses of both the source and the destination.
Because there is a subnet mask, IP sees the network portion as including the
subnet. The Workstation 1 network is 180.1.1.0, while the Workstation 2
network is 180.1.4.0.
8. IP realizes these are different networks, so it cannot deliver the message locally
using just the hardware, or MAC address. This message needs to go to the local
router so it can travel to another network.
9. The IP of Workstation 1 knows the IP address of Router 1 because Workstation
1 was configured with Router 1 as the default router. If the hardware address for
Router 1 is no longer in its memory cache, it uses ARP to obtain the hardware
address of Router 1.
Workstation 1 Internet Layer
Notes
Workstation 1 at the Network Interface Layer
10.Workstation 1 knows the IP address of Router 1, but when Workstation 1 checks
its cache, the hardware address for Router 1 is no longer there.
Workstation 1 Network Interface Layer
Notes
ARP Request From Workstation 1
11.Workstation 1 broadcasts an ARP request onto its local network. This happens
to be a Token Ring network. While the hardware addresses for all of the devices
in our network scenario have been simplified, the ARP request must contain
certain information. The IP address part of the request lists its own IP address as
the source, and the IP address of Router 1 as the destination.
12.The hardware address lists as the source its own A for our network, and the
destination hardware address will be FF:FF:FF:FF:FF:FF, which is a generic
hardware address so that the request is examined by all devices on the local
network. The content contains the IP address of Router 1 address and the actual
hardware request.
ARP Request Contents
Notes
ARP Reply From Router 1
13.When devices look at the request and do not see their own IP address they
discard the request. Though, when Router 1 sees the request, it recognizes its
own IP address. Router 1 records the IP and hardware addresses of the source
into its own memory, then responds with an ARP reply.
14.The ARP reply looks similar, but shows Router 1 as the source and Workstation
1 as the destination. The hardware address for Router 1 is supplied.
ARP Reply From Router 1
Notes
15.The Network Interface layer of Workstation 1 can now complete its header
information with the hardware address of Router 1 and send the FTP message to
Router 1.
Workstation 1 Network Interface Layer
Notes
Address Information
We can now complete the address information for the frame traveling to Router 1.
From right to left, look closely at this frame. First, notice the FTP message. The FTP
message remains unchanged. The same is true for the header from the Transport
layer.
The IP header tells us the source and destination for the entire journey. The source
is Workstation 1 at 180.1.1.10, and the destination is Workstation 2 at 180.1.4.20.
The Network Interface header designates where the frame is headed, which is to
Router 1.
The Network Interface layer is only concerned with the physical transmission and
hardware addresses. The source hardware address is A for Workstation 1, and the
destination hardware address is B for Router 1. Our message is now on its way to
Router 1.
Packet Headers
Notes
Stage 2: Packet Journey
Router 1 and Router 2 are both intermediary routers on the way to the destination
network. The events that occur are the same on both, but using different routing
information.
On the routers, the message only travels between the Network Interface and IP
layers of the IP stack. Those are the only two layers that need to get involved with
the network-to-network travel.
1. Router 1 receives the frame.
Router 1 Processing (Step 1)
Notes
2. The hardware address is B, its own hardware address. So Router 1 opens the
frame and removes the Network Interface header.
Notes
3. Router 1 then passes the datagram up to IP.
4. Router 1 examines the destination IP address and concludes that the destination
network is not one of its directly connected networks. Router 1 decides to
forward the packet to a neighboring router. Below is the Router 1 routing table
again.
Notes
5. Router 1 sees that the best way to get to Network 4.0 at 180.1.4.0 is to send the
packet to its neighboring router at 180.1.2.1. The packet can get there in 3 hops.
Router 1
Notes
6. Router 1 checks its ARP table to see if it has the hardware address for the
interface address of 180.1.2.1 on Router 2. If not, Router 1 uses ARP to obtain
the hardware address. Router 1 then packages the frame and sends it on its way.

In the figure below is the depiction of the frame, showing the Network Interface
header. The hardware address of the source is C, which is Router 1, and the
hardware address of the destination is D, which is Router 2. As before, the FTP
message and IP header remain unchanged.
Frame Passes to Router 2
7. Router 2 receives the frame. Router 2 recognizes its own hardware address of D
and passes the frame up to its IP layer.
Notes
8. IP examines the IP header to determine the destination network and concludes
that Router 2 is not directly connected to the destination network, and so the
message must be forwarded.
Router 2 Processing
Notes
9. Router 2 consults its routing table to find where the packet must be directed.
a)So, using the routing table in the graphic below, to which Next Hop Router does
the message now go? In order to reach Network 4.0, Router 2 sends the message
to 180.1.3.1.
b)And what is the cost to get to Workstation 2 from Router 2? The cost is 2 hops to
get from Router 2 to Workstation 2.
Router 2 Routing Table
Notes
c)If an ARP request and reply occur between Router 2 and Router 3, what
information is in the reply message? Lets fill in the missing fields in the figure
below
ARP Reply Contents
Notes
The IP addresses list the Router 3 interface with Network 3.0 as the source at
180.1.3.1, and the destination is Router 2, which made the request, at 180.1.3.2. The
source hardware address is F, and the destination hardware address is E.
ARP Reply Contents (Continued)
The message content gives the information about the Router 3 interface with
Network 3.0. The message lists the IP address as 180.1.3.1 and the hardware
address as F.
Notes
Traveling From Router 2 to Router 3
Now, we need to enter all the addresses that appear on the frame that is traveling to
Router 3.
Router 2 to Router 3
10.The Network Interface header designates where the frame is headed at a
particular stageit changes for each leg of the journey. Our frame is traveling to
Router 3, and therefore, the source hardware address is E for Router 2, and the
destination hardware address is F for Router 3.
11.The IP header remains the same. The source is Workstation 1 at 180.1.1.10, and
the destination is Workstation 2 at 180.1.4.20.
12.Looking at the graphic of our network system, we see that the message is getting
closer to its destination. Router 3 is on the destination network. Router 3 will
receive the frame and follow similar procedures as the other routers.
Notes
This time we are directly connected to the destination network, so rather than
forwarding the message to another router, the IP layer of Router 3 uses hardware
addressing to send it directly to the destination network. The process is listed below.
1. Router 3 receives the frame with a hardware address of F.
2. Router 3 takes the frame and passes it up to IP.
3. IP examines the destination network IP address and determines that Router 3 is
directly connected to Network 180.1.4.0, so it can send the packet directly to the
destination host.
Router 3 Processing
Notes
4. Router 3 looks up the host address, 180.1.4.20, in its ARP table to obtain the
hardware address of destination. If Router 3 does not know the hardware address
already, it uses ARP to request the address.
Note: A router only looks at the host portion of the destination IP address after it
has determined that it is on the destination network and can deliver the message
directly.
Router 3 Processing (Continued)
Notes
A new frame is created to deliver the message to the destination device (see the
figure below). The source MAC address is G and the destination MAC address is H.
Delivery to Workstation 2
Notes
Routers transferring a message between networks only use the bottom two layers of
the IP stack. At the destination, you need all the layers to recreate the message in its
original form.
The process of transiting all four layers on Workstation 1, which is listed below, is
reversed at Workstation 2.
1. Workstation 2 recognizes its hardware address, and receives the frame and
passes the frame up the stack to the IP layer.
Delivery to Workstation 2 (Continued)
Notes
2. IP at the destination computer has fewer responsibilities than IP at the routers.
Here, IP puts datagrams back together if they were split apart at any time during
transit due to network carrying capacity.
3. IP does not perform any error checking or recovery functions. IP reads the code
in the header attached at Workstation 1, and recognizes that it should send the
data to the TCP protocol.
Notes
4. To provide reliability, TCP must confirm that the information it passes to the
FTP protocol is complete and error-free. The data must not have any errors, it
must be in the proper sequence, and no data can be missingit must contain the
entire file.
The mechanisms TCP uses to validate data integrity are listed below.
TCP puts messages in the correct sequence by reading the codes enclosed from
the source TCP protocol.
TCP checks for damaged messages with a checksum calculation.
TCP requests a retransmission if the segment is damaged or missing.
Notes
5. Once TCP has verified that the message has arrived intact and complete, TCP
sends a confirmation to the TCP mechanism on Workstation 1.
TCP Sends Confirmation
Notes
6. TCP then sends the message up to the application specified in the Transport
Layer header. In the case of our message packet, the message is sent to FTP.
7. The Application layer receives the message, and formats it the way the users
program requires to process the file.
Application Layer
Notes
The FTP message traveled from an application running on one workstation
connected to a Token Ring network, across many other network types, and finally
arrived at the application running on the destination workstation connected to an
Ethernet network.
One of the primary advantages to IP networks is IPs ability to successfully
communicate between many different technologies.
Message Received
Notes
Summary
Following a packet along, from the Application layer on one workstation, through
the IP stack, across networks, up the IP stack, and into the Application layer of a
recipient workstation, gives you a real appreciation of the many functions that must
be carried out for successful data communications.
You supplied information at each step of the way. A recap of the tasks you
performed includes:
Identified the network address class and the subnet mask of an IP network
Distinguished between many addressing conventions on a network diagram,
including identifying the network and host portions of an IP address, as well as
hardware addresses.
Completed routing table information using RIP update broadcasts
Specified IP stack layer services
Provided packet IP and changing hardware addresses as the packet traveled across
networks
Notes
Practice Questions

Caution: Most of the following questions rely on your understanding of
previous IP lessons.
1. Given an IP address of 180.1.3.15 and a mask of 255.255.255.0, can you
determine what the network portion of the address is?
a. Yes. The network address is 180.1.3.15
b. Yes. The network address is 180.1.3.0
c. Yes. The network address is 180.1.0.0
d. Not enough information is supplied
2. What is the natural mask for the IP address 175.16.90.25?
a. 255.0.0.0
b. 255.255.0.0
c. 255.255.255.0
d. 255.255.255.255
3. What are the first entries a router puts in its routing table when it first powers
up?
a. Networks that are directly connected to the router
b. Networks that are connected to the routers nearest neighbor
c. Networks that are connected to the routers most distant neighbor
d. All of the entries are simultaneously placed into the routing table
Notes
4. How does a router running RIP derive the cost of a remote destination
network?
a. The router adds 1 to the cost of the network that is advertised by a
neighbor.
b. The cost of the remote network is advertised by all routers in that remote
network.
c. The router uses the configured cost of the interface that leads to the remote
network.
5. What does the routing table show as the next hop for a remote network?
a. All remote networks show the IP address 0.0.0.0 as next hop router
b. The hardware address of the local interface that received an update
advertising the best path to the remote network
c. The IP address on the router that is directly connected to the remote
network
d. The IP address of the neighboring router interface that advertised the best
path to the remote network
6. A workstation uses an ARP broadcast in which of the following
circumstances?
a. Every time it needs to send IP information
b. When it must send traffic to a destination whose hardware address is not in
cache memory
c. Only when sending traffic to its default router
d. Only when delivering directly to a local workstation
Notes
7. What is true regarding a routers handling of messages managed by an
application layer protocol? (Hint: What does a router do?)
a. The router never changes the message.
b. The router translates the message from one format to another.
c. The router embeds its port number in the message.
d. The router embeds its IP address in the message.
8. When an IP workstation receives an ARP broadcast that is requesting another
workstations hardware address, what does it do?
a. It performs a lookup on its cache and responds if it has the requested
information.
b. It discards the request.
c. It sends the message back on to the network.
9. Which layer(s) of the IP stack does a router use when it forwards datagrams?
a. Application layer
b. IP layer
c. Transport layer
d. Network Interface layer
Notes

1. Given an IP address of 180.1.3.15 and a mask of 255.255.255.0, can you
determine what the network portion of the address is?
a. Yes. The network address is 180.1.3.15
b. Yes. The network address is 180.1.3.0
(The subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 tells us that the first 3 octets comprise
the network portion of the address. The host portion is denoted as zero.)
c. Yes. The network address is 180.1.0.0
d. Not enough information is supplied
2. What is the natural mask for the IP address 175.16.90.25?
a. 255.0.0.0
b. 255.255.0.0
(An IP address of 175.16.90.25 falls into the Class B address range.
Therefore, its natural mask is 255.255.0.0.)
c. 255.255.255.0
d. 255.255.255.255
Notes
3. What are the first entries a router puts in its routing table when it first powers
up?
a. Networks that are directly connected to the router
(When a router first powers up and builds its routing table, it will first
learn which networks are directly connected to its own interfaces.It will
then look to its nearest neighbor routers to learn about the network paths
they are advertising.)
b. Networks that are connected to the routers nearest neighbor
c. Networks that are connected to the routers most distant neighbor
d. All of the entries are simultaneously placed into the routing table
4. How does a router running RIP derive the cost of a remote destination
network?
a. The router adds 1 to the cost of the network that is advertised by a
neighbor.
(RIP works on hop counts. A router derives its cost/hop count to a remote
destination network by adding 1 to the cost that its neighboring router
advertises.)
b. The cost of the remote network is advertised by all routers in that remote
network.
c. The router uses the configured cost of the interface that leads to the remote
network.
Notes
5. What does the routing table show as the next hop for a remote network?
a. All remote networks show the IP address 0.0.0.0 as next hop router
b. The hardware address of the local interface that received an update
advertising the best path to the remote network
c. The IP address on the router that is directly connected to the remote
network
d. The IP address of the neighboring router interface that advertised the
best path to the remote network
(A routing table does not show hardware addresses, and only shows IP
addresses of interfaces on neighboring routers.)
6. A workstation uses an ARP broadcast in which of the following
circumstances?
a. Every time it needs to send IP information
b. When it must send traffic to a destination whose hardware address is
not in cache memory
(Once ARP resolves the hardware address of the device on the local subnet,
this address will be cached in the workstation's memory and ARP
broadcasts will not be required for additional traffic between the
workstation and this destination.)
c. Only when sending traffic to its default router
d. Only when delivering directly to a local workstation
Notes
7. What is true regarding a routers handling of messages managed by an
application layer protocol? (Hint: What does a router do?)
a. The router never changes the message.
(A router treats the Application Layer portion of the packet as payload to
be delivered. It does not modify the Application Layer portion of the
packet.)
b. The router translates the message from one format to another.
c. The router embeds its port number in the message.
d. The router embeds its IP address in the message.
8. When an IP workstation receives an ARP broadcast that is requesting another
workstations hardware address, what does it do?
a. It performs a lookup on its cache and responds if it has the requested
information.
b. It discards the request.
(An IP workstation only replies if its own interface matches the address
about which the ARP request is inquiring.)
c. It sends the message back on to the network.
9. Which layer(s) of the IP stack does a router use when it forwards datagrams?
a. Application layer
b. IP layer
c. Transport layer
d. Network Interface layer
(The router reads both the IP layer and the Network Interface layer. It then
creates a new Network Interface layer header and footer to forward the
packet across the network. Look at the diagram on page 2. Look at the IP
Stack Processing.)
Notes
IP Networking Summary
The reasons that IP networking continues to be very popular are listed below.
IP works with any physical network media, such as copper wire, satellite,
microwave, coax cable, and cellular.
IP supports different network types like Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay,
FDDI, and ATM.
IP works with computers of all sizes: desktops, workstations, minis, mainframes,
and supercomputers.
IP handles all details of data transmission, including troubleshooting.
IP allows any pair of computers to communicate regardless of size, manufacturer,
operating platform, or location.
IP supports client/server applications distributed between user stations and hosts,
which lets users share information between servers and hosts.
IP provides applications that translate between user programs and the lower IP
layers. IP enables data to be transmitted across networks, because these
applications provide universal connectivity.
IP applications are the most visible to users. IP applications assist the transfer of
files between computers, the delivery and receipt of messages, remote access to
software programs running on distant computers, and browser functionality.

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