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2.1
Transient Overvoltage in Power System 2.1.1 Characteristic of Overvoltage in Power System Electromagnetic transient overvoltage is voltage stresses which directly
effective to equipment in power system and especially to insulation. It is severe to the system in case of stored energy in the line such as trapped charge in capacitor. The overvoltage can be classified into two groups; the first group is external overvoltage such as lightning. This causes from natural events. The second group is internal overvoltage due to switching and temporary overvoltage as show in table: 2.1[4], [5].
Table: 2.1 Cases and shapes of overvoltage Standard voltage shapes and standard withstand tests [16].
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2.1.2 Switching Overvoltage in Power System Switching overvoltage is one of the internal overvoltages which generate many changes in the operating conditions of network. There are a great variety of events that would initiate a switching surge in a power network, whenever a switch in an electric circuit is opened or closed; this is true for transmission as well as distribution circuits. The interruption by switching operations of a circuit having inductance and capacitance may result in transient oscillations that can cause overvoltage on the systems. The switching operations of greatest relevance to insulation design can be classified as following: [4], [5], [16] Line energization Line re-energization Switching off of small capacitive currents Switching off of small inductive currents Fault initiation Fault clearing
As can be seen in table: 2.2, there are different ranges of switching overvoltage classified by causes of overvoltages for EHV system.
Table: 2.2 Cases of switching overvoltage without protective device [6]. Cause of overvoltages Closing ( line energization) Re- Closing ( Re- energization ) Single phase to ground Double phase to ground Fault clearing Value of maximum SOV (p u) 2.4 2.8 3.5 4.0 1.5 1.7 1.5 1.7 1.4 1.8 p.u on phase-to-ground base
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VS sin[(t + T )]
Vc ( t )
In the Figure 2.1 the inductance L represents the leakage inductance of transformer, and the inductance of line. The resistance R includes all series resistance of the line and transformer. The voltage across the capacitor C represents the voltage at the open circuit end of the line which is included in the scope of study. The circuit performance after switch on can be expressed as:
VS (t ) = R.i (t ) + L di (t ) 1 + i (t )dt , dt C (2.1)
VS (t ) = VS sin(t + T ) ,
The expression for voltage across the line capacitance is:
VC (t ) = VC sin(t + T ) Ae t sin(1t + ) , Where:
(2.2)
(2.3)
VC =
VS
C R 2 + (.L 1/ .C )2
R , .L 1/ .C
(2.4)
= tan t 0 =
1 , LC
1 = 0 2 + 2 = 2 . f1 ,
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R , 2L
(2.8)
= tan 1
(2.9)
As we can see from above expression the voltage across at opened end VC (t ) is oscillation wave form with damped-decay. However the maximum value is the most interesting value for design and safe operation [17].
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CB
Fault
L
CB
SourceV = Vm cos t
V C
C
Fault
Figure 2.2 Equivalent circuit of transient recovery voltage when a circuit breaker clears a fault [18].
The simplest circuit that can be chosen to illustrate this phenomenon is that shown in Figure 2.2. It is assumed that load being fed through the circuit breaker is suddenly isolated by the occurrence of a fault and that fault is a dead short circuit. Where: L is all the inductance limiting the current to the point of fault. C is the natural capacitance of the adjacent to the circuit breaker. In the circuit of Figure 2.2 the current is assumed to be symmetrical and will be completely reactive since it is limited entirely by inductance. This means that at the instant of current zero, the circuit voltage will be at a maximum value, but the voltage at the switch contacts, and therefore across the capacitor C, will be arc voltage. The relative importance of the arc voltage varies. In this analysis, time will be measured from the instant of interruption when the fault current has just come to zero. Sine the source voltage is a sinusoidally varying quantity and is at its peak at the moment, it is expressed as Vm cos t . The circuit equation is therefore
L dI + Vc = Vm cos t , dt (2.10)
There are two unknowns, I and VC , so another relationship between them is required. This is
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I =C
dVc , dt
(2.11)
after the switch has cleared, the only path for current is into the capacitor. The combination of these equations gives
d 2Vc Vc V + = m cos t , dt 2 LC LC
Let 1 / LC = 2 0 , and transform Equation 2.12:
2 s 2 vc ( s ) sVc (0) Vc' (0) + 0 vc ( s ) = 02Vm
(2.12)
s , s2 + 2
or
2 vc (t ) = 0 Vm
(2.13)
If we neglect are voltage the second term on the right is zero. The third term is also zero because, from Equation 2.11, Vc' (0) =
Therefore only the first term remains. Now
I (0) =0, C
s 1 s s = 2 ( 2 2 ), 2 2 2 2 2 ( s + )( s + 0 ) 0 s + s + 0
2 2
Therefore
vc ( s ) = V m
and
02 s s ( 2 2 ), 2 2 2 2 0 s + s + 0
Vc (t ) =
02 V (cos t cos 0t ) , 02 2 m
(2.14)
Equation 2.13 is the voltage appearing across the switch contacts after current zero. It is the classical transient recovery voltage described by Park and Skeats [18].
2 2 Almost invariably 0 >> , so that 0 / (0 2 ) 1 . Thus to a very close
approximation,
Vc (t ) = Vm (cos t cos 0t ) ,
(2.15)
Indeed, it often happens that over the period of interest (the time for switch the
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natural frequency oscillation persists), there is little change in the power frequency term. In this case equation 2.14 can be further reduced to give Vc (t ) = Vm [1 cos 0t ] . (2.16)
This is very evident from Figure 2.3 which shown as oscillogram of the current interruption period. In this case the transient recovery voltage oscillation (lower trace) lasts for about 600 s . The decline of the current to zero can be seen in the upper trace. It will be noted that transient recovery voltage begins with a small excursion of the opposite polarity to the instantaneous system voltage. This indicates some current chopping [18].
2.1.3 Temporary Overvoltage in Power System Temporary overvoltage is characterized by amplitude and durations, typically from a few cycles to a few seconds. These overvoltages differ from transient switching overvoltages in that they last longer. They take the form of undamed or slightly damped oscillation at a frequency equal or close to the power frequency. The classification of temporary overvoltages as distinct from transient switching overvoltages is due mainly to the fact that responses of the power network insulation and surge arresters to their shapes are different. Some of the most important events leading to the generation of temporary overvoltages are discussed briefly as following: [4], [5], [17] Ferranti effect ( Long line effect ) Load rejection Transformer energization Ground faults
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U( x)
UR
US
X
E
E
XS
Figure 2.4 Equivalent of the Ferranti effect rise voltage at opened line [17].
From Figure 2.4 the Ferranti effect of an uncompensated transmission line is given by U S = U R cosh l + I R Z C sinh l ,
IS = UR sinh l + I R cosh l , ZC
(2.17)
(2.18)
No load in line I R = 0 US = cosh l , UR where: U R and U S are the receiving end and the sending end voltages, respectively; Z c is impedance of line and l is line length in km. (2.19)
is the phase shift constant of the line per unit length. It is equal to the
imaginary part of (YZ )1/2 , where Z and Y are impedance and admittance of the line per unit length. Obviously for uncompensated transmission line the highest overvoltage will appear at the receiving end. For a losses line:
= LC ,
(2.20)
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where: L and C are inductance and capacitance of the line per unit length.
(2.21)
tan =
XS , Z
(2.22)
tan =
Z . XR
(2.23)
XC
From Figure 2.5 when the transmission line or large inductive load that is fed from power station is suddenly switched off, the generator will speed up and busbar voltage will rise. The amplitude of the overvoltage can be evaluated approximately by V =E where: XC . X C X (2.24)
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E is voltage behind the transient reactance, which is assumed to be constant over the subtransient reactance of the generator in series with the transformer reactance [17].
X is the transient reactance of generator in series with the transformer
reactance
X C is the equivalent capacitive input reactance of the system.
2.1.3.3 Inrush Transient by Switching on Transformer Transformer energization creates transient inrush currents, when the transformers core becomes over fluxed or saturation. Transformer inrush currents can have a high magnitude containing a significant harmonic content. The harmonic rich transformer inrush currents interact with harmonic resonances of power system. The inrush is most severe when the transformer is switched on the instant the voltage goes through zero with such polarity that flux increases in the direction of residual flux is shown in Figure 2.6 [18].
d vs = 2Vs sin t = d = N , dt dt
The value of the flux is then found by integration:
(2.25)
(2.26)
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(2.27)
Representing winding and core losses, the periodic component m + 0 , is obtained as a constant quantity. However, due to these losses, the aperiodic term decays very slowly according to the large time constant of magnetizing circuit. Then, at t = ( a period after switching) the instantaneous flux will be
max = 2 m + 0 ,
(2.28)
The magnetic flux density under steady-state conditions is Bm 1.3T . If 0 is assumed to 0.6 m , then the maximal flux density, which in a transformer is directly proportional to the flux, will be
(2.29)
The typical curve of an inrush current for a transformer switched at zero instantaneous voltage is shown in Figure 2.7 [19]. Since a magnetic flux density is the ratio of magnetic flux to a given area with passes through equation 2.28 can be recast of following:
max = Ac (2 Bm + B0 ) ,
(2.30)
Bm and BO are the peak steady state and residual magnetic flux density
magnitudes, and Ac is sectional area of the transformer core. Equation 2.30 assumes that the flux lines are perpendicular to Ac. Using Amperes Law, where inrush current magnitude as follow:
I inrush = H al Al = c (2 Bm + B0 + BSat ), N NAa
H dl = iN
a
(2.31)
where l is the mean length of the transformer leg and winding, N is the number of the turns in winding and is the flux linkages. It should be noted that the inrush current magnitude estimate is the maximum theoretical value as shown in Figure 2.7.
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(A)
(B)
Figure 2.7 (A) Magnetizing curve, (B) Inrush current of transformer [18].
2.2. Determination of Transient Overvoltages At present, computer is an important equipment used for analyzing the overvoltage in power system because of its high accuracy, speed and convenient to change the parameters. There are four main methods for analyzing the electromagnetic transient overvoltage in the transmission line which are Lattice Diagram, Fourier Transform, Transient Network Analysis (TNA) and
Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP). The detail of each method could be explained as follows: 2.2.1 Lattice Diagram Method Lattice Diagram is an excellent method of keeping track of the various reflections as they occurred. By applied reflection theory the voltage at the receiving end can be plotted. But the method is not suitable for actual system, because there are many transmission lines connect together. For study of transient in single line this method is rather suitable [20].
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2.2.2 Fourier Transform Method This method is applies in the frequency domain analysis and convert in the time domain in final state. The output results are more accurate than Lattice Diagram method. But the Fourier Transform is not convenient for complicated or network systems [21]. 2.2.3 Transient Network Analysis (TNA) Method This method is simulator device for power system or substation. The Transient Network Analysis can be used to study transient switching surge level that take place at the substation. It is suitable for specified model with all equipments are not change, because must re-arrange modeling which take the time and cost. The results may be used to determine and coordinate proper impulse insulation and switching surge strength required in substation apparatus [21]. 2.2.4 Electromagnetic Transient Program (EMTP) Method Generally in electromagnetic transient simulations, there are two main ways to represent transmission lines. The most familiar method is Pi sections model. The other method is a distributed transmission line, which is most suited for transient line response modeling using digital computer [22]. Using transient studies in the Electromagnetic Transient Program is very popular in the world. This simulator not only can simulate the transient in power systems, but also simulate steady state solutions and Transient Analysis of Control Systems (TACS). If there is any change in equipment, it is very easy to modify the model and re-simulate as user requirement [20], [23]. 2.2.4.1 Equipment Modeling There are many types of equipment models in the PSCAD/ EMTDC program library. This thesis used the equipment models for the 500 kV transmission line Nam Theun 2 Roi Et 2 from program library as shown in table 2.3.
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Table: 2.3 Equipments modeling of 500 kV transmission system [20], [23]. List 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Transmission line / Equipment Modeling of equipment
Transmission line Traveling wave parameter frequency dependent model Transformer Generator Surge Arrester Circuit Breaker Shunt Reactor Load Lumped linear elements, Type short circuit impedance Non-linear elements, Type three phase (X)-matrix Non-linear elements, Type metal oxide arrester Lumped linear elements for pre-insert resistor, Ordinary switches Lumped linear elements Lumped linear elements
2.2.4.2 Transmission Line There are three basic transmission line modeling techniques in PSCAD/EMTDC: Pi section model, the Bergeron model, and the frequency dependent line models. The requirements for this research will determine which one of three models will be suitable [22]. 2.2.4.2.1 The Pi Section Model Equivalent Pi section is shown in Figure 2.8. There are two Pi line section components: normal Pi line model and coupled Pi line model. One Pi section is equal 15 km of transmission line length. If the line is longer than 15 km, then two or more Pi sections should be cascaded in series, a maximum of 10 Pi sections for a long line is adequate. This model is usually quite short line and it is use at power frequency, where R, L and C is resistance, inductance and capacitance of line per unit length [22-24].
1 [C] 2
1 [C ] 2
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2.2.2.4.2 The Bergeron Model The Bergeron model is based on a distributed LC parameter traveling wave line model with lumped resistance. It should generally be chosen over a Pi model, lines over 15 km could be represented by Bergeron model. The model produces a constant surge impedance and is essentially a single frequency model, it is roughly equivalent to using an infinite number like of Pi Section except that resistance is lumped by inserting R/2 in the middle of line and R/4 at each end of the line. The Bergeron model can be used for any general fundamental frequency impedance studies, such as relay testing or matching load-flow result. A line model will be represented as shown in Figure 2.9 (A) and (B) with Z 0 for the characteristic or surge impedance [] and for travel time of the line [s]. The travel time of the line and the characteristic impedance Z 0 can be related to inductance and capacitance of the transmission line [22-24].
R1 4
R1 2
R1 4
(A) k
ik , m
I k (t ) I (t ) I m (t )
(B)
im , k
V k ( t ) Z0
Z0
V m (t )
Figure 2.9 (A) Lossless line [6], (B) Equivalent impedance network [22].
2.2.2.4.3. The Frequency Dependent Line Model The frequency dependent line model represents the frequency dependence of all parameters R, L and C. This model should be used for all
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studies that require frequency other than the fundamental to be represented accurately such as transient overvoltage, harmonic analysis etc. There are two models: the frequency dependent phase model is the most accurate, as it presents the frequency dependence of internal transformation matrices, whereas the frequency dependent mode model assumes a constant transformation. The line is divided into two sections, each section of transmission line has characteristic impedance. The voltages and currents at one end of the line at the time ( t ) may be represented in terms of the voltage and current at the other end at the time ( t- ), and related in terms of sources
bk (t ) and bm (t ) . The Bergeron model and frequency dependent model are basically
distributed parameters traveling wave models. This model can be solved using the more advantage phase domain techniques. The thesis is used this model for representing equipment models for transmission line, because it is more accurate and suitable for analysis of switching and temporary overvoltage. The frequency dependent line model is shown in Figure 2.10 [6], [22-23].
Figure 2.10 Traveling wave frequency dependent line model (Matrix) [6], [9].
2.2.4.3 Transformer Transformer is device that transfers energy from one circuit to another by means of a common magnetic field. In all cases except autotransformers, there is no direct connection from one circuit to the other. Transformer model in Electromagnetic Transient Program is presented through one of two fundamental methods. Simulation of transformers requires an understanding of some of their basic properties involving both core and winding configuration. This is complicated by the fact that the core of the transformer is prone
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to saturation leading to the phenomena of the inrush current, remanence geomagnetic current effect and Ferro resonance. The two mutually couple winding is shown in Figure 2.11.
Where: L11 : Self inductance of winding 1 L12 : Mutual inductance between winding 1 and 2 L22 : Self inductance of winding 2 The voltage across the first winding is V1 and the voltage across the second winding is V2 . The following equation describes the voltage and current relationship for two coupled coil [22].
V1 L11 V = L 2 12
L12 d I1 . . L22 dt I 2
(2.32)
2.2.4.4 Generator In electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts mechanical energy to electrical energy, generally using electromagnetic induction. The reverse conversion of electrical energy into mechanical energy is done by a motor, and motors and generators have many similarities. A generator forces electric charges to move through an external electrical circuit, but it does not create electricity or charge, which is presented already in the wire of its windings. Synchronous machines are simply represented as voltage sources. Switches are not needed for the connection of these sources since they are connected to the network
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at all times. However, sources parameters ( TStart and TStop ) are employed to model the period during which the source is in effect. Therefore, the source functions are zero between 0 < t < TStart and for > TStop . The source functions are evaluated at discrete time step t = t , 2t ,. only. Linear interpolation is assumed by the program to be in-between. The following option is adopted for the sinusoidal function representation:
v(t ) = Vmax cos( (t Tstart ) + 0 ) , (2.33)
where Vmax , 0 ( in degrees), Tstart ( in second ) must be supplied. The value Tstart < 0 is used to get AC steady state solution. Before entering the transient solution, negative value of Tstart are set to zero and treated as zero in the equation 2.33 [26].
(sign of Vk ) , k= 1,2,,m,
(2.34)
= is constant.
C = difference voltage. These equations are solved simultaneously with the rest of the network, which is represented by the three phase Thevenin equivalent circuit
(2.35)
In each time step. Since the equations are nonlinear, a solution can only be obtained iteratively. Newtons method is used to solve these equations for the voltage. The accuracy of the convergence is determined according to a predefined tolerance V . It is shown in Figure 2.12 [26].
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k1
k2
k3
m1
m2
m3
2.2.4.6 Circuit Breaker In general, there are five basic switch types in electromagnetic transient program which are modeled as ideal switches. In this thesis the time controlled switch is used for modeling transmission line circuit breakers, as well as for fault representation. The switch is originally open, and close at Tclose . It opens again after Topen ( if Topen p Tmax ), where Tmax is the maximum time for the transient
simulation, either as soon as the absolute value of the switch current falls below a user defined current margin, or as soon as the current goes through zero. Tclose p 0 signal to the program that switch is normally closed. The switching operation due to fault inception and/or fault clearing is modeled as shown in Figure 2.13 [26].
R switch 2 R switch 2
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- Reduction of overvoltage due to line to ground fault. - Reduction of switching overvoltage due to the initial charging of lines. Shunt reactor compensation has a two fold effect when situated at the transmission line receiving end, both respects of which contribute to a reduction in the severity of the transient overvoltages. The reactor reduces the magnitude of the Ferranti rise long line by negating the effect of portion of the line shunt capacitance and presents a line termination other than an open circuit to any traveling waves from the transmission line sending end as shown in Figure 2.14 [27]. Neutral reactors is compensated in additional to ensuring that the design of the main reactors will satisfactory for single phase recloser, it is necessary to eliminate the risk of an arc being maintained by capacitance coupling after this phase on with the fault occurred has been disconnected by circuit breaker operation. This can be achieved by connection a neutral reactor between the star point of the phase reactor and earth [20].
ik , m (t t )
ik , m (t )
Vk (t )
2L R= t
Vm (t )
Figure 2.14 Equivalent circuit shunt reactor using lumped elements [22].
2.3 Control Transient Overvoltages in Power System The adverse effects of overvoltages on power networks can be reduced in two ways: by using protective devices such as surge arrester or by reducing their magnitudes wherever the surge originates. The latter way is commonly known overvoltage control. The techniques employed to control switching surges and temporary overvoltages are outlined briefly below.
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2.3.1 Pre-Insertion Resistor in Circuit Breaker Devices This is one of the most common methods for reducing energization overvoltages. It is effected by initially applying the voltage to the line, normally between one-third or one- half of a cycle, the pre-insertion is short circuit, allowing the full apply voltage to be applied to the line. The initial amplitude of the energization surge when the pre-insertion resistor of value R is used would be only Z 0 /( R + Z 0 ) of reached in the absence of the resistor. It is shown in Figure 2.15, where Z 0 is surge impedance of the line. When the resistor is short at the end of the pre-insertion period, another surge will develop. If R is too small, control of the first surge become ineffective; if it is too large, the second surge become dangerous. An optimal value of T would normally be a fraction of Z 0 , and depend on transmission line length [16]. K2
K1
Figure 2.15 Diagram of circuit breaker with pre-inserted resistor. ( R Pre-inserted resistor, K1 - Arcing contract and K 2 - Main contract ) It is effected by initially applying the apply voltage to the line through a resistor. By the end of the pre-insertion period, the magnitude of the energization surge is usually is much reduced by the effect of the system damping. 2.3.2 Use of Shunt Reactor Shunt reactors are used on many high voltage transmission lines as a means of shunt compensation to improve the performance of the line, which would otherwise draw large capacitive currents from the supply. The additional advantage of shunt reactor is to decrease the transient surge magnitudes. This is accomplished mainly by reduction in temporary overvoltages, as will be seen in the next section.
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The shunt reactors can effectively control the temporary particularly the Ferranti voltage rise.
2.3.3 Use of Surge Arrester Surge arresters are used to control transient overvoltages effect on power system, particularly the Zinc Oxide arrester, as shown in Figure 2.16. Voltage in (p.u) of rate voltage ( Crest value )
Current ( A)
Surge arresters are used of protective of power system equipment against surge ovevoltages because they offer low protection levels and permit the decreasing of insulation levels, which has a substantial effect on the cost of high voltage equipment. 2.4 Statistical Switching Studies Circuit breaker closing in power systems can produce transient overvoltages whose maximum peaks depend on several factors such as network configuration on the source side of the circuit breaker and the amount of trapped charge in reclosing operations of transmission lines. Therefore, statistical switching studies are used to determine the maximum switching overvoltages along the transmission line [28].
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Since all switching surges are products of circuit breaker actions, the random variation in switching surges is attributed primarily to the performance of these devises, as well as the network circumstances at the time of switching. Random angles of switching are mainly responsible for this variation. The following factors contribute to the randomness in switching angle: The mechanical movement of circuit breaker contacts produces fluctuations about the aiming angle of interruption or closure. Circuit closure may be prematurely effected following a breakdown between the breakers contacts. Arc interruption, whose timing is relevant to the production of recovery transient voltages, involves a number of physical processes, many of which are inherently random. In Figure 2.17 shows the closing and the delay times of circuit breaker. When the operator closes the circuit breaker at time = t. Each phase of the circuit breaker does not close immediately since the delay time of mechanical equipment. Normally, each phase does not close at the same time. Therefore, in this work, it should be assumed that circuit breaker phases a, b and c are closed at t+ta, t+tb and t+tc respectively [16], [28], [29].
The closing angles of the three breaker poles are the phase angles of the source side voltages at the instant of electrical closure of the contract. The angles have a strong influence on the line closing and reclosing overvoltages as they determine the initial conditions for the transients. For transients, when they are not controlled, undesired closing instants of the three poles many occur, but only within the limits of
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the circuit breakers pole span. The pole span is the time between the first and the last pole to close. When all the three breaker poles close simultaneously, the overvoltages are smaller than those of random closing. If pre-insertion resistors are used to mitigate switching overvoltages, the closing times of both main and auxiliary contacts are statistically determined. The closing times can be determined assuming that main contacts aim at the same closing time and both switches have a normal distribution. If statistical switches are used to normal present a circuit breaker with pre-insertion resistors, the closing time of the auxiliary contact is determined as follow [28]:
Tclose ( slave ) = Tclose ( master ) + Toffset ,
(2.36)
where Toffset is now a constant value. Therefore, the transient overvoltages depend upon the instant on the voltage waveform at which the circuit breaker contacts close electrically. A statistical switching case study typically consists of 100 or more separate simulations, each using different set of circuit breaker closing times shown in Figure 2.18. The statistic can be used to process the peak overvoltages from all the simulations. Normally, the 2% value on the cumulative frequency distribution curve is used to design overvoltages. This thesis selects a numerically 200 times closing poles of circuit breaker [6], [16], [28].
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T + 3
T + 2
T +
Figure 2.18 Breaker pole random closing orders for the simulation of SOV during line energization and reclosing [16]. In the transient overvoltage study, the breaker trip order is given at a precise time during the simulation since the system separation time has a minor impact on the near steady state overvoltage. During line energizing or single phase reclosing tests, the breaker pole closing orders are generated as follows [16]:
_
T - 3
T - 2
T -
T
6
The T angle is first randomly selected recording to an even distribution between 0 and 360 of period of the fundamental frequency.
Afterwards, the closing time of the three breaker poles auxiliary contacts is selected according to normal distribution around point T truncated at
3 (3 = 2ms ) . The operation simulates breaker three poles closing time
_
dispersion. Finally, the closing time of the breaker three main interrupting heads is delayed by 10 ms with respect to point T with a standard deviation of
2 ms normally distribute around this point (3 = 2ms ) . The operation is to simulate the insertion time of the reclosing resistors. This procedure is illustrated in the following Figure2.18 [4], [16].
_
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