GLOSSARY OF KEY TERMS Common to Sociological RESEARCH METHODS, DATA ANALYSIS, THEORY, AND SEMINAR (For distribution in SOCI

251, 252, 353 & 454)

Association is the connection or relationship of t o or !ore concepts or a!ia"les" # o $ariables ha$e an association if the distribution of one $ariable chan%es in concert ith the other" See also ca#sation, co!!elation" $ias is an& situation in hich the accurac&, !elia"ilit%, ali&it%, etc", of data, findin%s, or conclusions are distorted b& the researcher's or theorist's !ethods or presuppositions (e"%", !oral, political, reli%ious beliefs or i&eologies)" In statistical anal&sis, bias is a technical ter! for a difference bet een a h&pothetical true $alue of a a!ia"le in a population and the obser$ed $alue in a particular sa!ple" Ca#sation is the principle that one a!ia"le (() produces chan%e in another a!ia"le ())" It is based on the assu!ption that e$ents occur in a predictable, nonrando! a&, and that one e$ent leads to, or causes, another" #o establish causation, the t o $ariables !ust be associate& or co!!elate& ith each other* the first $ariable (() !ust precede the second $ariable ()) in ti!e and space* and alternati$e, noncausal e+planations for the relationship (such as sp#!io#s ones) !ust be eli!inated" ,$ents in the ph&sical and social orlds are %enerall& too co!ple+ to be e+plained b& an& sin%le factor" For this reason, scientists are %uided b& the principle of m#ltiple ca#sation, hich states that one e$ent occurs as a result of se$eral factors operatin% or occurrin% in co!bination" Concept is a ord or set of ords that e+presses a %eneral idea about the nature of so!ethin%" -no!ie, relati$e depri$ation, and !ass societ& are a!on% the !ore ell./no n concepts in sociolo%&" Concept#ali'ation is the !ental process hereb& a!bi%uous and i!precise notions are !ade clear and !ore precise" A concept#al &e(inition states the !eanin% of a concept" Co!!elation is the !utual relationship or association of t o or !ore concepts or a!ia"les, such that hen one chan%es in $alue, the other one does also" 0ariables !a& be correlated positi$el& (i"e", the& chan%e in the sa!e direction) or ne%ati$el& (that is, the& chan%e in the opposite direction)" Correlation is necessar& but not sufficient to de!onstrate ca#sation" De&#ction and In&#ction are processes of lo%ical reasonin%" 1 De&#ction in$ol$es

reasonin% fro! %eneral principles to particular instances" In other ords, it is dra in% a conclusion fro! a set of pre!ises or de$elopin% the specific e+pectations of )%pot)eses fro! a t)eo!% or t)eo!etical pe!specti e" In&#ction in$ol$es reasonin% fro! particular instances to %eneral principles" In other ords, it is offerin% a pre!ise or a t)eo!% about a cate%or& of e$ents fro! obser$ations of specific instances or fro! the results of )%pot)esis testin%" It is the process in$ol$ed in empi!ical gene!ali'ation" -lthou%h &e&#ction is funda!ental to the scientific !ethod, sociolo%ical anal&ses are rarel& strictl& deducti$e, e$en if the& !a& clai! to be"

Depen&ent

a!ia"le1 See

a!ia"le" of a

Desc!ipti e Statistics1 2rocedures that su!!ari3e the distribution $ariable or !easure the relationship bet een t o or !ore $ariables"

Empi!ical is a e!i(ia"le 4ualit& based on e+perience, e+peri!ent, or obser$ation rather than on assu!ption, lo%ic, inspiration, or an& of the other a&s b& hich e !a& understand the social orld" -ccordin% to a ell./no n stor&, purel& rational considerations led to the conclusion that the bu!blebee is aerod&na!icall& incapable of fl&in%" ,!pirical considerations force us to conclude, to the contrar&, that bu!blebees do a $er& %ood 5ob of fl&in%" Sociolo%ists fre4uentl& ar%ue that !uch of hat is ron% ith our understandin% of social beha$ior arises fro! the tendenc& to deal ith this sub5ect on the basis of reasonin% rather than obser$ation" On the other hand, because social beha$ior is both $er& co!ple+ and %enerall& s&!bolic in character, the application of purel& e!pirical !odes of in$esti%ation can onl& pro$ide part of the social e+planation for beha$ior" Empi!ical gene!ali'ation is the process b& hich the specific, obser$ed results of research are held to appl& to the %eneral, unobser$ed cate%or& of e$ents or population under stud&" It is a for! of in&#ction" H%pot)esis is a testable state!ent of a specific relationship bet een at least t o a!ia"les" It is a state!ent of so!ethin% that ou%ht to he obser$ed in the real orld (i"e", it is an empi!ical state!ent) if the t)eo!% fro! hich it is deri$ed is correct" Ideall&, h&potheses are dra n fro! or based on theoretical p!opositions* the& are arri$ed at, in other ords, throu%h &e&#ction" I&eal*t%pe met)o& is a process of research, and of dra in% conclusions fro! such research, that in$ol$es isolatin% the !ost basic characteristics of so!e social entit&" -s used b& 6eber, it is an empi!ical !ethod that does not i!pl& or %enerate the perfect or !ost desirable characteristics of an entit&, but si!pl& those that are !ost obser$ed" #hus, 6eber anal&3ed bureaucrac& as an ideal t&pe rather than as an& particular case or e+a!ple" I&eolog% is a t)eo!% or t)eo!etical pe!specti e associated ith the self.interest of a particular %roup" -ccordin% to less co!!on usa%e, it also refers to the set of ideas underl&in% and infor!in% socio.political 2

action" In(e!ential Statistics1 to populations" In&epen&ent a!ia"le1 See procedures that produce %enerali3ations fro! sa!ples a!ia"le"

In&#ction1 See &e&#ction* see also empi!ical gene!ali'ation" Meas#!ement is the process of deter!inin% the $alue or le$el (either 4ualitati$e or 4uantitati$e) of a particular attribute of a unit of anal&sis" It refers to assi%nin% nu!bers to concepts or $ariables" #hese series of assi%ned nu!bers can be used to 1) classif& or cate%ori3e at the no!inal le$el of !easure!ent* 2) ran/ or order at the ordinal le$el of !easure!ent* or 3) assi%n a score at the inter$al le$el of !easure!ent" Met)o&olog% is the lo%ic of scientific in$esti%ation, includin% anal&sis of the basic assu!ptions of science in %eneral and of sociolo%& in particular, processes of t)eo!% construction, interrelationships of theor& and research, and procedures of empi!ical in$esti%ation"

Mi&&le*!ange t)eo!%1 #his ter! as coined b& 7obert 8" 9erton ho belie$es in the necessit& for sociolo%ical theor& constructed bet een '!inor or/in% h&potheses' and '!aster conceptual sche!es"' M#ltiple ca#sation1 See ca#sation" Ope!ationali'ation is the process of definin% concepts in ter!s of si!ple, obser$able procedures" -n ope!ational &e(inition states a concept or a!ia"le in such a a& that it can be !easured and obser$ed" For e+a!ple, reli%ious de$otion !a& be operationall& defined in ter!s of fre4uenc& of attendin% church" #he use of constructs and scales are other co!!on for!s of operationali3ation" For e+a!ple, the Srole Scale of -no!ie is one of !an& atte!pts to operationali3e the concept of ano!ie, an idio!atic abstraction that is difficult to !easure directl&" - +a!a&igm is a perspecti$e or a fra!e of reference for $ie in% the social orld consistin% of a set of concepts and assu!ptions" 7esearchers describin% the sa!e aspects of the social orld fro! t o different paradi%!s !a& ha$e $er& different interpretations" 2aradi%!s differ in ter!s of assu!ptions, concepts, and proble!s the& consider to be i!portant" +!oposition is a state!ent or specification ithin a t)eo!% that describes a ca#sal relationship bet een t o or !ore concepts" - proposition !a& be translated into one or !ore testable )%pot)eses b& ope!ationali'ing the concepts into !easurable a!ia"les" Re&#ctionism1 - sociolo%ical e+planation is said to be reductionist atte!pts to account for a ran%e of pheno!ena in ter!s of a 3 hen it sin%le

deter!inin% factor" It is said of so!e 9ar+ian theories, for instance, that the& are reductionist because the& e+plain the di$ersit& of social beha$ior b& reference si!pl& to the econo!&" Sociolo%ists tend to be s/eptical of an&thin% rese!blin% 'ps&cholo%ical reductionis!"' Re(le,i it% is present in research and:or theor& hich refers to itself" #heories in the sociolo%& of /no led%e, for e+a!ple, refer to the!sel$es since the& ar%ue that all /no led%e, includin% sociolo%ical /no led%e, can be e+plained sociall&" - sociolo%ist ho considers his or her o n role in a stud&, and ho it influences and is influenced b& the findin%s !a& be thou%ht of as a refle+i$e sociolo%ist" #heories about the nature of theor&;<!eta.theor&=;are also refle+i$e" Relia"ilit% and ali&it% are e$aluati$e 4ualities assi%ned to empi!ical !esea!c) met)o&s" Relia"ilit% is the capacit& of a research instru!ent to deli$er an unchan%ed, dependable result or !easure!ent hen applied repeatedl& to the sa!e pheno!enon" -ali&it% is the capacit& of a research instru!ent to !easure hat it purports, or clai!s, to !easure" It %enerall& is !ore difficult, both conceptuall& and practicall&, to establish $alidit& than to establish reliabilit&" -n instru!ent can be reliable but in$alid* in that case, it ill %i$e consistent results that do not !ean hat the& are supposed to !ean" >o e$er, an instru!ent cannot he $alid but unreliable" If it is unreliable, it cannot !easure an&thin% ade4uatel&" #he difficult& of establishin% the $alidit& of an instru!ent so!eti!es can he b&passed (or at least !ini!i3ed) ith a %ood ope!ational &e(inition" Resea!c) met)o&s are the procedures of stud&in% a pheno!enon, includin% a&s of collectin% and handlin% empi!ical obser$ations and data" 7esearch !ethods co!!onl& e!plo&ed b& sociolo%ists include sur$e&s, obser$ation, and content anal&sis"

Social (acts are the re%ularities of beha$ior ithin a social s&ste!" -ccordin% to ?ur/hei!, social facts are the proper units of stud& for sociolo%ists, and the& can be e+plained onl& b& reference to other social facts" #he& e+ist outside the indi$idual (i"e", the& both pre. and post.date an& one person's e+istence)* the& are coerci$e to the indi$idual (i"e", their influence on a person's beha$ior cannot he illed a a&)* and the& are %eneral and idespread throu%hout a social s&ste!" Co!!on e+a!ples of social facts include rates of beha$ior, such as !arria%e, di$orce, cri!e, suicide, e!plo&!ent, reli%iosit&, etc" 2ublic opinion and social attitudes are also i!portant social facts" Sociological imagination1 #he set of !ind that allo s indi$iduals to see the relationship bet een e$ents in their personal li$es and e$ents in their societ&" #his ter! as populari3ed b& C" 6ri%ht 9ills" Sp#!io#s !elations)ips are those that are not %enuine" #he 4 a!ia"les appear to

be ca#sall% related, thou%h the& are not, because each is influenced b& the sa!e other a!ia"le" - classic e+a!ple of a spurious relationship is that bet een le$els of ice crea! consu!ption and rates of rape" #hese t o a!ia"les e+hibit a $er& stron%, positi$e co!!elation1 hen ice crea! consu!ption increases, so does rape, and $ice $ersa" -re e safe in concludin%, then, that eatin% ice crea! (independent $ariable, () causes people to co!!it rape (&epen&ent a!ia"le, )) or, %i$en that the direction of influence could 5ust as lo%icall& he re$ersed in this instance, that rape (in&epen&ent a!ia"le, () causes offenders or $icti!s to eat ice crea! (&epen&ent a!ia"le, ))@ Ao, that is not a safe conclusion" Both le$els of ice crea! consu!ption and rates of rape are stron%l& influenced b& season of the &ear or b& outdoor te!perature" 9ore directl&, the season affects the de%ree to hich people en%a%e in certain /inds of beha$ior* in other ords, !an& beha$iors ha$e a predictable te!poral di!ension" #he obser$ed co!!elation bet een le$els of ice crea! consu!ption and rates of rape is spurious, not ca#sal, because each actuall& is dependent on a third, te!poral a!ia"le" 9an& spurious relationships are far !ore subtle and difficult to detect than this empi!ical e+a!ple" Ta#tolog%1 Circular reasonin%* sa&in% the sa!e thin% in different a&s* redefinin% a condition and then usin% the redefinition as an e+planation" Aot all tautolo%ies are re%arded as useless* ?ur/hei!'s definition of reli%ion (as 'all thin%s thou%ht to be sacred') is both tautolo%ical and endurin%" T)eo!% is an e+planation of so!e pheno!enon" 9ore specificall&, it is an e+planation of the relationship bet een t o or !ore concepts or a!ia"les" - t)eo!% is not 5ust a description of an empi!ical relationship* rather, it is an atte!pt to ans er the 4uestion of h& (and, so!eti!es, ho ) the relationship e+ists as it does" T)eo!etical pe!specti e is a set of interrelated assu!ptions about the a& thin%s or/" 9ore specificall&, it is a broad $ie about the nature of societ& and of social beha$ior" - %i$en theoretical perspecti$e !a& %enerate an& nu!ber of !ore specific t)eo!ies, hich then !a& be tested b& an& nu!ber of e$en !ore specific )%pot)eses" T%polog%1 - classification sche!e* an e+a!ination of t&pes" 9erton's '9odes of Indi$idual -daptation' and Soro/in=s <Sensate and Ideational Culture= are ell./no n t&polo%ies" -ali&it%1 see !elia"ilit%" -al#e*(!ee !esea!c) occurs hen personal "iases or cultural al#es are not allo ed to affect either the conduct or the results of empi!ical stud&" It is usuall& thou%ht of as an ideal to be pursued rather than as a standard to be !et"

-al#es are broad.based notions about

hat people in a particular culture hold 5

in hi%hest and lo est re%ard" #he& are principles e!bod&in% ideas about hat that culture considers to be ri%ht and ron%, i!portant and uni!portant, desirable and undesirable" -a!ia"le is so!ethin% that can chan%e or $ar&, so that its opposite is a constant" - $ariable occurs in different de%rees (or has different $alues) a!on% indi$iduals, %roups, ob5ects, and e$ents" - &epen&ent a!ia"le ()) is an effect, result, or outco!e* it is assu!ed to depend on or to be caused b& at least one in&epen&ent a!ia"le (()" - researcher or theorist uses the independent $ariable(s) to e+plain the dependent $ariable" In other ords, chan%es in the independent $ariable(s) are t)eo!i'e& or )%pot)esi'e& to be co!!elate& ith or to ha$e ca#se& the chan%es in the dependent $ariable" 7esearchers and theorists often specif& their $ariables in the titles of their articles" For e+a!ple, as &ou s/i! throu%h a recent issue of Social Forces, &ou !a& co!e across an article titled C#he Influences of -%e, Se+, Inco!e, and 9arital Status on Church -ttendance"C It is safe to conclude that fi$e $ariables ere e+a!ined in this stud&1 a%e, se+, inco!e, !arital status, and church attendance" In all li/elihood, the &epen&ent a!ia"le ould be church attendance ()), hich ould be presu!ed to be affected b& the four in&epen&ent a!ia"les of a%e ((1), se+ ((2), inco!e ((3), and !arital status ((4)" [NOTE: The ability to identify and specify variables is essential for all students of research methods, data analysis, and theory. It is also of utmost importance to the practice of sociologicallyinformed critical thin ing.! -e!i(ia"ilit% is the principle of science b& hich an& %i$en piece of research and, especiall&, its results can be duplicated or replicated b& other scientists" -e!ste)en is a !ethod of research, proposed b& 6eber, b& hich e atte!pt to understand others' beha$ior b& !entall& puttin% oursel$es in their place" (#he closest ,n%lish ord for e!ste)en is e!pathi3e") -e!ste)en is at the heart of !an& field research !ethods" It is !ost li/el& to be in$o/ed b& sociolo%ists at the t)eo!i'ing and conclusion.dra in% (rather than durin% the data.collection) sta%es of research" .allace .)eel is a depiction, offered b& 6alter 6allace (1DE1) in his The "ogic of #cience in #ociology (Chica%o1 -ldine.-therton), of the interconnectedness of t)eo!% and research" Ideall&, the heel turns in this fashion1 t)eo!% leads to )%pot)eses hich lead to obser$ations hich lead to empi!ical gene!ali'ations hich are then used to re$ise or ad$ance t)eo!%"

?efinitions adapted fro! the follo in% sources1 -bercro!bie, Aicholas, Stephen >ill, and Br&an S" #urner" 2GG4" %ictionary of #ociology, 4th ed" Ae )or/1 0i/in% 2en%uin" Babbie, ,arl" 1DD2" 6ads orth" The $ractice of #ocial &esearch, Fth ed" The $enguin Bel!ont, C-1

Cu33ort, 7" 2" and ," 6" 8in%" 1DD5" T'entieth-(entury #ocial Thought, 5th ed" Chica%o1 >olt, 7inehart and 6inston" >eale&, Hoseph" 2GGG" C-1 6ads orth" #tatistics: ) Tool for #ocial &esearch, 5th ed" Bel!ont, The *arper (ollins %ictionary of #ociology" The +ulticultural and (lassic

Har&, ?a$id and Hulia Har&" 1DD1" Ae )or/1 >arper Collins"

Ie!ert, Charles (ed")" 1DD3" #ocial Theory: &eadings" Boulder, CO1 6est$ie "

Ie$in, Hac/ and Ha!es -llen Fo+" 2GG2" Elementary #tatistics in #ocial &esearch, Jth ed" Ae )or/1 >arper Collins" Ie$ine, Hohn, 9ar%aret Ie$ine )oun% and -rnold 7einhold" 1DDF" The Internet for %ummies (2nd ed")" Foster Cit&, C-1 International ?ata Kroup" Shepard, Hon 9" 2GG5" #ociology, Dth ed" L L St" 2aul, 9A1 6est" L