The Atmosphere and Environment

Sec 3 Chemistry SMTP (Self-Study Topic) Instructions Go to http://sec3chemistrypehyk.wiki.hci.edu.sg/ and click on air and atmosphere. Use the content in the wiki to identify and highlight all ey !ords in this set of notes

Specific "earnin# $%&ectives

(a) describe the volume composition of clean air in terms of !" nitrogen# $%" o&ygen# and the remainder being noble gases 'with argon as main constituent( and carbon dio&ide. (b) name some common atmospheric pollutants 'carbon mono&ide) methane) nitrogen o&ides '*+ and *+$() o,one) sulfur dio&ide) unburnt hydrocarbons( (c) state sources of these pollutants as (i) carbon mono&ide from the incomplete combustion of carbon-containing substances (ii) nitrogen o&ides from lightning activity and internal combustion engines. (iii) sulfur dio&ide from volcanoes and combustion of fossil fuels. (d) describe the reactions used in possible solutions to the problems arising from some of the pollutants in (b) (i) redo& reactions in catalytic converters to remove combustion pollutants# (ii) the use of calcium carbonate to reduce the effects of .acid rain and in flue gas desulfurisation. (e) discuss some of the effects of these pollutants on health and on the environment (i) the poisonous nature of carbon mono&ide (ii) the role of nitrogen dio&ide and sulfur dio&ide in the formation of acid rain and its effects on respiration# buildings and plants. (iii) the role of nitrogen dio&ide# methane and unburnt hydrocarbons in the formation of photochemical smog. (f) describe the importance of the o,one layer and the problems involved with the depletion of o,one by reaction with chlorine containing compounds# chlorofluorocarbons '/0/s(. (g) describe the carbon cycle in simple terms to include (i) the process of combustion# respiration and photosynthesis (ii) how carbon cycle regulates the amount of carbon dio&ide in the atmosphere. (h) state that carbon dio&ide and methane are greenhouse gases and may contribute to global warming# give the sources of these gases and discuss the possible conse1uences of an increase in global warming.

Air and $'y#en

2he air around the earth is called atmosphere. 3ir is an important natural resource. SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

2he composition of air by volume: ! " *itrogen $% " +&ygen 4" noble gases '%.!" argon# the rest being neon# helium krypton and &enon( %.%3 " /arbon dio&ide variable amount '%.5-5"(of water vapour. 3ir is a mi&ture of elements and compounds. 3s a mi&ture# its composition varies from time to time and from place to place

(ractional )istillation of "i*uid Air

(ractional distillation is used in industry to produce nitro#en# o'y#en and no%le #ases from li*uid air . 3ir can be separated into its components by fractional distillation. /ooling and compression ?tage 4 0ractional distillation ?tage $ *itrogen b.p -4!=7/ argon b.p -4>=7/ o&ygen b.p -4>37/ 6n a compressor# cold air is first compressed to about 45% atmospheres. 2he compressed air is cooled by refrigeration to separate out carbon dio&ide and water vapour. 2hese gases will be fro,en to solid in the refrigeration unit and are removed by filtration. /arbon dio&ide and water# if not removed# would free,e and block the narrow pipes. 2he compressed air is suddenly allowed to e&pand which causes cooling. 2he compression and e&pansion cycles are repeated until the temperature reaches about -$%%7/ when li1uid air is produced. 2his process is known as li1uefaction of air. 2he li1uid air is then chanelled to the fractional distillation column where it is warmed up. 8i1uid air is then fractionally distilled according to the %oilin# points of the various components + The first #as that %oils off is nitro#en !hich has the lo!est %oilin# point, follo!ed %y ar#on and then o'y#en+ 8owest bp. @istils over first

air

8i1uid air

-"a%oratory Preparation of $'y#en

6n the laboratory# o&ygen can be made by decomposin# a*ueous hydro#en pero'ide in the presence of a catalyst, man#anese (I.) o'ide (Mn$ /).
<n+$

91uation:

$:$+$

$:$+ ; +$

Test for o'y#en+

6nsert a glowing splint into a test tube containing o&ygen. 2he splint rekindles or relights) this is because o&ygen supports combustion.

0ses of $'y#en
SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

A4. $. 3. AB. A5. =.

6n hospitals# o&ygen in cylinders is used to help people with breathing difficulties. +&ygen is needed by divers when they work under water. 2hey breathe a mi&ture of o&ygen and helium gas. 6n space# astronauts need o&ygen. 8i1uid o&ygen is also needed for the burning of fuel in rockets. 6n the making of steel# o&ygen gas is passed into molten iron to burn off impurities such as carbon# sulfur and phosphorus. 3 mi&ture of o&ygen and acetylene gases burns with a very hot flame. 2his mi&ture is used in an o&yacetylene torch to weld iron and steel. +&ygen is also used in the treatment of sewage. 3ir is bubbled through the sewage and the o&ygen kills harmful bacteria.

--Air Pollution
3ir pollution is defined as air that has chemicals in high enough concentration to harm living things or to damage non-living things. 3ir pollution is caused by solid particles and poisonous gases in the air called pollutants. Collutants are harmful substances which cause damage to people# plants and animals# buildings and machines.

Pollutants 1+ Car%on mono'ide

Source
/arbon mono&ide in air comes from the incomplete combustion of carbon containing compounds such as petrol# coal# oil or gas. 2here are two types of combustion: 4. Complete combustion - occurs when there is a e&cess supply of o&ygen. Croducts could be car%on dio'ide and !ater . $. Incomplete combustion - occurs when there is a limited supply of o'y#en. Croducts could be soot (car%on), car%on mono'ide and !ater .

Effect

+&ygen absorbed by the lungs reacts with haemoglobin in our blood to form a comple& known as o&yhaemoglobin. 2he o&yhaemoglobin then moves throughout our bodies and releases o&ygen when it is needed. /arbon mono&ide reacts irreversibly with haemoglobin to form a very stable comple& known as carbo&yhaemoglobin. +nce changed into carbo&yhaemoglobin it can no longer absorb o&ygen. 2hus carbon mono&ide prevents the haemoglobin in the blood from carrying o&ygen around our body# leading to breathing difficulties# loss of consciousness and even death. /arbon mono&ide is known as the silent killer. 6t is tasteless# colourless and odourless. At very lo! levels, inhalation of car%on mono'ide causes headaches, fati#ue and impaired &ud#ement+ %.4 " of carbon mono&ide for 4 hour will cause immobilisation of about 5%" of haemoglobin and loss of consciousness + 12 of car%on mono'ide can ill in /-3 minutes.

/+

Sulfur dio'ide
Source
4. $. 4. Durning of fossil fuels which contain sulfur as an impurity in power stations and industries. 91uation: ? ; +$ ?+$ 0rom Eolcanic eruptions ?ulfur dio&ide irritates the eyes and attacks the lungs# causing breathing difficulties. :igh levels of sulfur dio&ide can lead to bronchitis 'inflammation of the lungs(.

Effects of Sulfur dio'ide

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

A$.

(ormation of acid rain ?ulfur dio&ide dissolves in rain water to form a weak acid known as sulfurous acid.

?+$ 'g( ; :$+ 'l(

:$?+3 'a1(

F $:s?+3 'a1( ; +$ 'g( $:$?+B 'a1(

?ulfurous acid is then o'idised by the o'y#en in the air to form sulfuric acid, a stron# acid, :$?+B. ?ulfuric acid dissolves in rainwater# making it acidic. p4 of normal and acid rain Type of !ater Cure water Unpolluted rain water p4 5.= 'carbon dio&ide from the air dissolves in rainwater# causing it to be weakly acidic(

/+$ ; :$+
3cid rain p: B or less

:$/+3

carbonic acid

4armful effects of acid rain

2he acidity or rainwater caused by man-made sulfur dio&ide and nitrogen dio&ide from air pollution# is called acid rain. 3cid rain corrodes metal structures# limestone structures# statues# and concrete which in turn causes damages to metal bridges and stone buildings. 3cidic waters in lakes with p: levels below B can kill fish and other a1uatic life. 3cidic rainwater also leaches important nutrients from the soil and make it unsuitable for plant growth. 6t also makes the soil too acidic# causing it to be unsuitable for plant growth. 3cid rain damages trees and vegetation. 2hroughout 9urope# acid rain is destroying whole forests.

Minimisin# the effects of acid rain

4. A$. ?laked lime or solid calcium hydro&ide and lime '/a+( can be added to lakes and soil to neutralise the e&cess acid. (lue #as desulpurisation 3fter combustion of fuel in power stations or industries# sulfur dio&ide is removed from the waste gases 'flue #ases( by reacting it with an a1ueous suspension of calcium carbonate to form solid calcium sulfite. /a/+3 'a1( ; ?+$ 'g( /a?+3 's( ; /+$ 'g( 2he calcium sulfite is further o&idised to calcium sulfate by atmospheric o&ygen. $/a?+3 's( ; +$ 'g( $/a?+B 's( SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

Desides calcium carbonate# calcium o&ide can also be used for desulfurisation. /a+ 's( ; ?+$ 'g( /a?+3 's(

3+

5itro#en $'ides
*itrogen o&ides include nitrogen '66( o&ide/nitrogen mono&ide '*+( and nitrogen dio&ide '*+ $(. +&ides of nitrogen are present in car e&haust fumes.

Sources
A4. 6n car engines where temperature is very high# the nitrogen and o&ygen in the air combine to form nitrogen mono&ide/nitrogen '66( o&ide: *$ ; +$ $*+ 2he nitrogen mono&ide combines with more o&ygen/is o&idised to become nitrogen dio&ide. $*+ ; +$ $*+$ $. *itrogen o&ides can also be produced in the atmosphere during thunderstorms. 2he heat energy released by lightning causes nitrogen and o&ygen in the air to react to form nitrogen mono&ide. *itrogen mono&ide is further o&idised by air to give nitrogen dio&ide. *itrogen dio&ide which is acidic dissolves in rainwater to give nitric acid# a strong acid. 91uations: *$ ; +$ $*+ $*+ ; +$ $*+$ B*+$ ; +$ ; $:$+ B :*+3

Effects
4. *itrogen dio&ide# a reddish-brown to&ic gas# causes irritation of the eyes# inflammation of lung tissue. $. 0ormation of acid rain *itrogen dio&ide is acidic. 6t dissolves in rain water and is o&idised by o&ygen in the air to form nitric acid# :*+3. 2his nitric acid also dissolves in rain water# resulting in acid rain. B*+$ ; +$ ; $:$+ B :*+3 '9ffect of acid rain is discussed under the section on sulfur dio&ide( 6n the presence of sunlight# nitrogen dio&ide react with o&ygen to form photochemical smog.

3.

6+

"ead
8ead can cause brain damage and is particularly harmful to young children.

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

3+

0n%urnt hydrocar%ons
Source 6ncomplete combustion of petrol in car engines is the source of carbon mono&ide and unburnt hydrocarbon such as octane. 2here is either insufficient o&ygen present or insufficient time in the cylinders for all the hydrocarbons to be burnt completely to form carbon dio&ide and water. 2herefore hydrocarbon such as octane escapes into the atmosphere. Unburnt hydrocarbons react with nitrogen dio&ide from car e&haust in the presence of sunlight to form photochemical smog.

Effect

7+

Methane
<ethane is colourless# odourless and combustible.

<ethane# also known as marsh gas# is produced from the bacterial decay of vegetable matter trapped in lowlying wetlands and stagnant water. <ethane is also produced from decaying animal dung and from rubbish buried in landfills.

Source

Effect
6n strong sunlight# methane and other unburnt hydrocarbons can react with nitrogen dio&ide from car e&haust to form photochemical smog.

8+

$9one
+,one is an allotrope of o&ygen. 3llotropes are different forms of the same element. +,one has the chemical formula: $3. 6t is pale blue# almost colourless with a characteristic odour. +,one is known as a secondary pollutant# because it is formed from primary pollutants such as nitrogen dio&ide when they undergo chemical or photochemical reactions.

(ormation of o9one
+,one is the main component of photochemical smog. 3 photochemical smog is the presence of ha,y brown air that reduces visibility. ?mog refers to a mi&ture of smoke and fog which reduces the visibility of air and may cause stinging eyes and breathing difficulties. 6t is ha,ardous to health. (ormation of photochemical smo# and o9one 4. 6n the presence of sunlight# nitrogen dio&ide in the air reacts with o&ygen to produce o&ygen atoms:

*itrogen dio&ide

*+$ 'g(

; +$ 'g(

*+ 'g(
*itrogen o&ide

+'g(

+&ygen molecule

+&ygen atom

+&ygen molecule

+$'g(

3 photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by sunlight or ultraviolet light. $. 2he o&ygen atoms then react with the o&ygen molecules to form o,one:

+'g(
+&ygen atom

; +$ 'g(
+&ygen molecule

+3 'g(
+,one

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

+,one is a highly reactive substance and can further combine with unburnt hydrocarbons. 2he end result is the production of pero&yacyl nitrates 'C3*(# which are powerful lacrimators# i.e. they cause tearing of eyes. ?ummary: Collutants such as nitrogen o&ides and hydrocarbons UE light from sun# water vapour and o&ygen from atmosphere Chotochemical smog# +,one# @ust particles

4armful effects of o9one and photochemical smo#

+,one is a powerful o&idising agent. 6t irritates the eyes and nasal passages. Ceople with asthma or heart disease are particularly susceptible to its harmful effects. +,one is also very to&ic to plants. 6n /alifornia# crop damage caused by o,one and other photochemical pollutants costs the state millions of dollars a year. +,one also damages fabrics as well as rubber in tires and windshield wiper blades.

)epletion of $9one
Ghen o,one is formed at low altitudes# it can cause severe pollution problems. Dut# in the upper layer of atmosphere 'stratosphere(# o,one acts like a giant shield protecting the 9arth against e&cessive ultraviolet radiations from the sun. 6t absorbs most of the ?unHs harmful ultraviolet rays. 9&cessive UE light from the sun can increase the number of cases of skin cancer# genetic mutation and eye damage 'cataract(. 2he radiation may also be harmful to the marine life + ?ince 4!>3# satellite images have revealed a hole in the o,one layer each spring over the ?outh Cole. 6n 4!>!# a hole in the o,one layer was detected over the *orth Cole for the first time. ?ince three 1uarters of the world.s population live in the *orthern :emisphere# depletion of the o,one layer over the 3rtic could have even more serious conse1uences than depletion over the 3ntarctic.

Cause of depletion
2he depletion of the o,one layer is caused by reaction of o,one with chlorofluorocarbons# /0/s + /0/s are made of the elements chlorine# fluorine and carbon. /0/s are widely used as propellants for aerosols# coolants in refrigerators and air conditioners# and in the manufacture of packing foam. Githin the last few decades# large amounts of /0/s have been released into the atmosphere. /0/s are very unreactive and can remain in the atmosphere for a very long time. +ver the years# they slowly diffuse through the air and up into the stratosphere# where they react with o,one and destroy the o,one layer.

4o! do C(Cs destroy the o9one layer

6n the presence of ultraviolet radiation# /0/ molecules decompose to form chlorine atoms 'also known as chlorine radicals( that initiate the destruction of o,one.

/0$/l$ /0/

UE

/0$/l

/l chl orine radical

2he chlorine radicals react with o,one molecules in the o,one layer to form chlorine o&ide radicals and o&ygen# thus destroying the o,one layer.

/l

+3

/l+

+$

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

2he chlorine o&ide radical can react with o&ygen atom to generate another chlorine radical - which can then start the chain reaction over again.

:hat can %e done to minimise o9one depletion

<any countries have now agreed to ban the use of /0/s. 3lternatives to /0/s such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons ':/0/s(# which have a lower percentage of chlorine than /0/s and hydrofluorocarbons ':0/s( which have no chlorine# are used.

;educin# air pollution %y the use of catalytic converters

/ar e&haust contains pollutants such as carbon mono&ide# unburnt hydrocarbons and nitrogen o&ides. /atalytic converters are attached to the e&haust system of cars to convert these to&ic gases into harmless gases before allowing them to be released into the atmosphere. 3 catalytic converter contains the catalysts platinum and rhodium. 6n the converter# redo& reactions occur. *itrogen o&ides '*+ and *+$( are reduced to nitrogen /arbon mono&ide is o&idised to carbon dio&ide. /arbon mono&ide is o&idised as o&idation state of carbon increases from ;$ 'in /+( to ;B 'in /+ $( Unburnt hydrocarbon is o&idised to carbon dio&ide and water. $*+ 'g( ; $/+ 'g( *$ 'g( ; $/+$ 'g( $/>:4> 'g( ; $5+$ 'g( 4=/+$ 'g( ; 4>:$+ 'g(

0uture control measures of air pollution may include the use of alternative fuels such as methanol and hydrogen# and the development of electric-powered motor vehicles. /ontrolling 3ir Collution in ?ingapore '9nrichment( ?ingaporeHs <inistry of the 9nvironment monitors has taken the following steps to control air pollution: 4. $. 3. B. Crohibition of the use of open fires for the disposal of domestic and industrial wastes) 6ntroduction of unleaded petrol in 4!!4# and phasing out leaded petrol by 4!!>. Ieduction of the permissible level of sulfur in diesel 'since 4!!=( from %.5 "by mass to %.3") 0itting of all petrol-driven vehicles with catalytic converters since 4!!B.

Summary of Common pollutants and their sources

Pollutants ACar%on mono'ide (C$) Sources Incomplete com%ustion of car%on containin# fuel such as petrol in car engines. Main source< Combustion of fossil fuels which contain sulfur as Methods of reducin# pollution Use of catalytic converter in cars 2he harmful /+ is o&idised to /+$. Get calcium carbonate or calcium o&ide is used to remove sulfur dio&ide in flue gas desulfurisation.

ASulfur dio'ide (S$/)

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

>

-$'ides of nitro#en < nitro#en mono'ide (5$) and nitro#en dio'ide (5$/)

8ead compounds 'not in syllabus( /hlorofluorocarbon '/0/(

impurities in power stations and industries. Sulfur in the fuel burns to give out sulfur dioxide ; +ther minor sources: 9&traction of metals in industries) Eolcanic eruptions. /ombustion of fuels in motor vehicles# power stations and industries at high temperature. '5itro#en and o'y#en in the air react at hi#h temperature to give o&ides of nitrogen.( /ombustion of leaded petrol in motorcars. Use of aerosol propellants) refrigerator coolants and foam plastic. +ctane is obtained from incomplete combustion of petrol in car engines. Chotochemical reactions between nitrogen o&ides and o&ygen in the presence of sunlight. Croduced from the %acterial decay of ve#eta%le matter trapped in low-lying wetlands 'marsh( and stagnant water. 3lso produced from decaying animal dung and from rubbish buried in landfills.

2o reduce nitrogen o&ides in car e&haust# use catalytic converter . 2he o&ides of nitrogen are reduced to nitrogen which is harmless. Use of unleaded petrol. Ieduce the use of /0/) find substitutes for /0/. Use of catalytic converter which o&idises unburnt hydrocarbons to carbon dio&ide and water. Use of catalytic converter to reduce o&ides of nitrogen to nitrogen. -

-0n%urnt hydrocar%ons such as octane -$9ones -Methane

The Car%on Cycle

/arbon dio&ide is continually being removed from and returned to the atmosphere by a variety of processes. 6f the atmosphere is to maintain a constant amount of carbon dio&ide# then the rate of removal of atmospheric carbon dio&ide must be balanced by the rate of return of the gas. The mechanism that re#ulates and maintains the level of car%on dio'ide in the atmosphere is called the car%on cycle+ 2he processes involved in the cycle are: combustion# respiration and photosynthesis.

Processes that produce car%on dio'ide into the atmosphere

1+ ;espiration SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

3ll living things respire. @uring respiration# glucose is converted into carbon dio&ide and water with the release of energy. Glucose ; o&ygen carbon dio&ide ; water ; E5E;=> /=:4$+= ; =+$ =/+$ ; = :$+ /+ Com%ustion of fuels <ost fuels contain carbon# e&amples are coal# petrol and natural gas. /ombustion of fuels produce carbon dio&ide. 9&ample of combustion: / ; +$ /+$

Process that removes car%on dio'ide from the atmosphere

/arbon dio&ide from the atmosphere is removed from the atmosphere by the process known as photosynthesis+ Clants help to remove carbon dio&ide from the atmosphere by the process photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process !here%y #reen plants manufacture car%ohydrates (#lucose) from car%on dio'ide and !ater in the presence of sunli#ht and chlorophyll as catalyst+ 2he chemical reaction of photosynthesis is:
sunlight chlorophyll

=/+$ ; = :$+

/ =:4$+= ; =+$

3nimals cannot make their own food. 2hey obtain their food by eating plants or other animals. 2hus# humans and other animals depend directly or indirectly on plants for their food and o&ygen supply. *ote: 4. Chotosynthesis is the reverse of respiration. $. 2he net result of photosynthesis is the conversion of solar energy into a form which can be used by living organisms.

The =reenhouse Effect

:eat energy from the sun reaches the earth and is radiated back into space# keeping the temperature of the earth constant. @ue to the increased human activities such as burning of fossil fuels and deforestation# massive amounts of a number of greenhouse gases are released into the atmosphere: Car%on dio'ide from the combustion of fossil fuels. Methane from rotting vegetation Chlorofluorocar%ons from aerosol propellants and refrigerants.

2hese greenhouse gases absorb the heat energy radiated back from the earth.s surface# acting as a blanket to trap the heat and prevent it from escaping into space. 3s the level of greenhouse gases steadily increases# carbon dio&ide is being added to the atmosphere at a faster rate than photosynthesis can remove the e&cess gas. 2he effect of carbon dio&ide built up is an increase in the earth?s avera#e temperature . 2his phenomenon is called #lo%al !armin#. +ver the last $%% years# the level of carbon dio&ide emission has been increasing rapidly. Iapid industriali,ation and urbani,ation result in the accelerated burning of fossil fuels. 2he problem is worsened by the clearing of forests for farming# industries and building of roads.

Effects of global warming

3 decrease in crop yields world wide) areas that are currently covered by vegetation may become deserts. A2he melting of polar ice caps and glaciers. 2his will cause the levels of oceans to rise and flood low-lying countries such as the *etherlands. 3 rise of $% cm is predicted by $%5%. 2here will be drastic changes in global climate like floods# droughts and heat waves. 91uatorial countries such as ?ingapore will probably e&perience more rain# but countries in *orth 3merica and 9urope will probably suffer drought. 2his would result in serious food shortages.

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

4%

2he rapid evaporation of water from the earthHs surface. Ghen this happens carbon dio&ide dissolved in the oceans will be driven out into the atmosphere. 2his adds further to the greenhouse effect.

Preventing Global Warming

2he only practical plan at the present is to reduce the amount of carbon dio&ide being released into the atmosphere. :ere are some ways this can be done: Ieducing the use of fossil fuels. +ne can save on energy consumption by switching off lights and airconditioners when they are not needed# taking public transport instead of driving to work# and reducing waste by reusing and recycling materials. Generate electricity using alternative sources of energy including wind# tidal# hydroelectric and solar power. 9ncourage the use of electric cars instead of petrol-driven cars. 3n agreement set up by different countries to curb carbon dio&ide emissions is the Jyoto Crotocol. 2oday some 4B4 countries have agreed to cut their greenhouse emissions to 5" below 4!!% levels by $%4$. Unfortunately# the worldHs top polluter K the United states- has not signed up to the treaty.

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

44

Additional Reading and Enrichment - Water

Water from natural sources such as rivers, lakes and reservoirs contains dissolved substances like oxy en, mineral salts and or anic matter !ollutants, such as metal com!ounds, se"a e, nitrates and !hos!hates from fertilisers, and !hos!hates from deter ents#

Environmental Effects of Dissolved Substances

1. !. eneficial effects $issolved oxy en in "ater is needed to sustain and su!!ort a%uatic life# $issolved minerals is needed by a%uatic life to !erform various life !rocesses# $issolved minerals are also essential for the develo!ment of the human body# &ur bodily fluids, such as blood and saliva, contain many biolo ically im!ortant solutes dissolved in "ater# "armful effects

$issolved !ollutants cause health ha'ards# (xam!les are) *eavy metals Wastes from chemical !lants and industries usually contain heavy metals# +om!ounds of lead, cadmium and mercury are highl# to$ic and !ose a dan er to human health if consumed throu h drinkin "ater# ,ercury !oisonin and lead !oisonin may lead to death# -itrates -itrates come mainly from untreated se"a e and fertilisers used in farmland# .he t"o effects of nitrate !ollution are) 1# -itrate !oisonin # -itrates !revent haemo lobin in the blood from trans!ortin oxy en around the body !ro!erly# -itrates may cause blue baby syndrome and may lead to cancer# 2# (utro!hication -itrates !romote ra!id ro"th of al ae in "ater sources# When the al ae die, they are decom!osed by aerobic bacteria that use u! dissolved oxy en for their res!iration# .hus, the oxy en su!!ly in the "ater is slo"ly de!leted and this causes death of a%uatic or anisms# .his !rocess is called eutro%hication , and the "ater becomes smelly and inca!able of su!!ortin life# /nother effect of eutro!hication is that the lar e amount of al ae ro"n cover the surface of "ater and decrease the amount of sunli ht enterin the "ater# .his decreases the rate of !hotosynthesis of under"ater !lants and also the oxy en su!!ly# /s a result, anaerobic bacteria be in to flourish and they decom!ose or anic matter to !roducts 0methane, * 2S1 "hich ive off a bad smell# 2hos!hates Sources of !hos!hates include fertilisers and deter ents and "ashin !o"ders# 2hos!hates act as bri hteners in deter ents and "ashin !o"ders to im!rove the "hiteness of cotton and linen fabrics# Phos%hates in water also cause eutro%hication. Water !ollution can be !revented by !ro!er dis!osal of se"a e and industrial "astes# .hese !ollutants should be treated and rendered harmless before they are dischar ed into the rivers or seas#

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

4$

Water &reatment
?ource Screenin# and stora#e< Gater is pumped from a water source and allowed to pass through a screen which removes larger bits of rubbish. 2he water is then stored in a reservoir.

Sedimentation Iaw water is pumped from the reservoir to the raw water mi&ing chamber. 2wo chemicals are added: 4. aluminium sulfate or alum is added so that small particles coagulate to form larger solid lumps. $. calcium hydro'ide or lime is added to react with any metal ions present in water# such as magnesium ions# forming lumps of solid metal hydro&ides. 8arger lumps of solid settle to the bottom of the settling tank. 2his process is known as sedimentation. Adsorption %y slurry car%on /arbon in the form of activated charcoal removes unpleasant taste and odours effectively. 2he carbon is then removed along with other solids in the sand filter. (iltration 0iltration of water through different layers of sand %eds to remove remaining fine solid particles. )isinfection 3ddition of chlorine in controlled amounts to kill all harmful bacteria. 2his process of disinfection is called chlorination. +I 3ddition of o,one to kill harmful bacteria. 2his process is known as o,onation. (luoridation@:ater softenin# 3ddition of fluoride compound 'sodium silicofluoride( to help prevent tooth decay 3ddition of lime and soda ash 'sodium carbonate( which reduces the acidity and hardness of the water.

:ome

Desalination
SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

43

/lthou h the earth3s surface is nearly 415 covered by "ater, most of this "ater is salty is salty ocean "ater# .he amount of fresh "ater available on the !lanet for drinkin , bathin and a riculture is less than 1 5 of the total# Scientists have tried to sou ht "ays to remove salts from sea "ater in order to increase the su!!ly of fresh "ater for drinkin # &he %rocess of removing salts from sea water or salt water is called desalination. .he t"o main methods of desalination are) distillation and reverse osmosis Distillation .he oldest method of convertin sea "ater to !otable "ater# .his !rocess involves eva!oratin sea "ater and then condensin the !ure "ater va!our# $istillation is costly and attem!ts have been made to use solar ener y to su!!ly the heat re%uired for distillation# Reverse 'smosis 6t uses the reverse a!!lication of osmotic !ressure# When salt "ater and fresh "ater are se!arated by a semi7!ermeable membrane, normal osmosis occurs# .he "ater molecules flo" from a re ion of hi her "ater concentration 0fresh "ater1 to a re ion of lo"er "ater concentration 0salt "ater1# .he semi-%ermeable membrane allo"s the !assa e of "ater molecules but not of the ions dissolved in "ater#

$smosis

.o !revent osmosis, the !ressure needed is called osmotic !ressure# 6f a !ressure reater than osmotic !ressure is a!!lied to the salt "ater, reverse osmosis occurs# .he hi h !ressure forces the "ater to flo" from a more concentrated solution 0salt "ater1 to a less concentrated one 0fresh "ater1 throu h a semi7 !ermeable membrane# .his !rocess is kno"n as reverse osmosis#

/ssignment - "#drogen and '$#gen Answer all the questions in the spaces provided. When you have finished, check with answers printed on the last page. SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

4B

Section A 1# / sam!le of air is slo"ly !assed throu h a%ueous sodium hydroxide and then over heated co!!er# What ases are removed by this !rocess8 9: ;<= / carbon dioxide and nitro en + nitro en and oxy en ( oxy en and "ater va!our 2# > carbon dioxide and oxy en $ nitro en and "ater va!our 0 1

/n ;0 cm 3 sam!le of air is tra!!ed in a syrin e# .he air is slo"ly !assed over heated iron in a tube as sho"n in the dia ram until there is no further decrease in volume# 9: ?1=

When cooled to the ori inal tem!erature, "hat volume of as remains8 / 1@ cm 3 3# > 2A cm 3 + 32 cm 3 $ A; cm 3 ( @A cm 3 0 1

/ ball of steel "ool "as !laced inside the end of a small test7tube# .he test7tube "as then inverted in a beaker of "ater, tra!!in air inside as sho"n in the dia ram# 9-ov ?1=

Which letter sho"s the level of the "ater after several days8 A# Which as is the main cause of dama e to stone"ork on buildin s8 / carbon dioxide > carbon monoxide <# Which of the follo"in / ar on @# > nitro en + methane $ sulfur dioxide

9-ov ?0= 0 1

ases is least common in air 8 + carbon dioxide $ hydro en 0

9-ov ;;= 1 9-ov ;1= 1

Which one of the follo"in !airs of rea ents can be used to !re!are hydro en 8 / iron and dilute hydrochloric acid + co!!er and dilute nitric acid > lead and dilute sulfuric acid $ 'inc and hot "ater 0

4#

.he table belo" sho"s the results obtained "hen "ei hed sam!les of five com!ounds, /, >, +, $ and (, "ere heated in streams of hydro en as# Bresh sam!les of the five com!ounds "ere then heated in oxy en as# Which of the com!ounds could have been co!!er 0661 oxide8 9: ;4= ,ass after heatin hydro en $ecrease $ecrease Same in ,ass after heatin oxy en $ecrease Same $ecrease in

/ > +

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

45

$ (

Same same

Same 6ncrease 0 1

Section 1# .he element oxy en exists in t"o forms, & 2 and &3# >oth form are ases# 9:?<= a1i1 &'one molecules, & 3, decom!ose "hen heated into &2 molecules#, +onstruct a balanced chemical e%uation "ith state symbols for this decom!osition# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC ii1 What volume of oxy en, & 2, is formed "hen A0#0 cm 3 of o'one, &3, is decom!osed, both volumes bein measured at the same tem!erature and !ressure8

b1

&'one is an oxidisin a ent# $escribe the colour chan e you ex!ect to see "hen o'one is bubbled into a%ueous !otassium iodide# (x!lain your ans"er# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

2#

*ydro en, reactin "ith oxy en, is used as a fuel for some s!ace rockets# What do you observe "hen a1 the t"o ases are mixed and then i nited, CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC b1 a Det of hydro en is i nited in the air8 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC c1 6n other rockets, hydra'ine 0-2*A1 and hydro en !eroxide are used# When these react to ether, nitro en and "ater va!our are !roduced# i1 +onstruct a balanced chemical e%uation for this reaction# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC ii1 *o" many moles of "ater "ould be !roduced from 32#0 reaction8 of hydra'ine in this

3#

.he ty!ical com!osition of the exhaust ases from a motorcar is iven in the table# Substance /r on +arbon dioxide +arbon monoxide *ydrocarbons *ydro en Eead com!ounds -itro en oxides &xy en Water va!our a1 Su 2ercenta e 0#< ;#0 <#0 0#3 2#0 0#001 0#2 A#< ?#0

est the source of the ar on in the exhaust ases#

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

4=

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC b1 .he total !ercenta e of the exhaust ases in the table does not add u! to 1005# What is the main com!onent of the exhaust as that is missin from the table8 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC c1 Which t"o substances in the table are the !roducts of incom!lete combustion of !etrol 8 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC d1 Sho" ho" you "ould attem!t to sho" the !resence of i1 carbon dioxide ii1 "ater va!ourF in the exhaust as from a motorcar# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC e1 +alculate the number of moles of "ater, *2&, !resent in A0#0 dm3 of motor car exhaust as 0measured at r#t#!1 "ith the com!osition described in the table#

A#

.he exhaust ases of a motor car contain several !ollutants, amon them carbon monoxide and oxides of nitro en# .he flo" chart belo" sho"s the arran ement of a t"o7sta e catalytic converter in a motor car en ine and exhaust system# 9:?A=

air

petro

engine

0irst catalytic converter

?econd catalytic converter

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012 9&haust

gases

6n the first converter, carbon monoxide reacts "ith oxy en# 6n the second converter, nitro en oxides decom!ose into nitro en and oxy en# a1 61 (x!lain ho" carbon monoxide is !roduced in a motor car en ine# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC ii1 Give the name of the as that is !roduced in the first converter# Write a balanced chemical e%uation to sho" its !roduction# -ame) CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC (%uation) CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC iii1 Why is carbon monoxide a !ollutant8 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC b1 ."o oxides of nitro en are nitro en dioxide, -& 2, and nitro en monoxide, -&# i1 Write an e%uation to sho" the decom!osition of one of these oxides# CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC ii1 Why are oxides of nitro en !ollutants8 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

c1

Su

est "hy the catalysts in the first and second converters are different#

CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC CCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCCC

Answers to Assignment Section / 1# > 2# ( 3# $ A# $ <# $ @# / 4# >

Solution to ,+H 2# 20 5 of air "hich is oxy en is used u! by the iron for combustion# *ence ;0 5 of air is left# *ence volume# of air left I ;0/100 J ;0 I @A cm 3# Section > 1a1i1 2&3 0 1 3&2 0 1 ii1 2 mol of &3 ive 3 mol of &2 SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

4>

b1 2#

Since both are ases, 2 cm 3 of &3 ive 3 cm 3 of &2 *ence A0#0 cm 3 of &3 ive A0#0/2 J 3 I @0#0 cm 3 of &2 .he !otassium iodide solution turns from colourless to bro"n# &'one oxidises iodide ions to iodine "hich then dissolves in "ater to form a bro"n solution# a1 b1 c1i1 ii1 *ydro en burns vi orously# / lar e amount of heat is !roduced# *ydro en burns "ith a blue flame# -2*A K 2*2&2 -2 K A*2& -o# of mol of -2*A I 32/02x1A K Ax11 I 1 Brom the e%uation, 1 mol of -2*A ives A mol of *2& /ns) A#00 mol Brom the air as 5 of ar on in air is about 0#? 5# nitro en "ater va!our and carbon monoxide i1 ii1 2ass the as into a%ueous calcium hydroxide# .he as ives a "hite !reci!itate "ith a%# calcium hydroxide if it is carbon dioxide# .est the as "ith dry cobalt 0661 chloride !a!er# 6t should turn !ink if the as is "ater va!our#

3#

a1 b1 c1 d1

e1 A# a1i1 ii1 iii1

Lol# of "ater va!our I ?/100 x A0 I 3#@ dm 3 -o# of mol of "ater va!our I 3#@/2A I 0#1<0 03 si fi 1 6t is formed by the incom!lete combustion of !etrol in car en ines# carbon dioxide 2+& K &2 2+&2 +arbon monoxide is a dan erously !oisonous as# +arbon monoxide reacts "ith haemo lobin to form a stable com!lex kno"n as carboxyhaemo lobin# .his causes the haemo lobin to be unable to absorb oxy en "hich results in headaches and can cause dama e to the brain and heart# 2-& -2 K &2 -itro en is a very !oisonous as# 6t dissolves in rain "ater to form nitric acid and thus cause acid rain "hich can dama e stones and !aints of buildin s# -itro en monoxide is neither !oisonous nor acidicF but it can readily combine "ith the oxy en of the air and form nitro en dioxide# ."o entirely different reactions occur in the t"o converters, in the fist converter oxidation of carbon monoxide and in the second decom!osition of oxides of nitro en# .herefore, t"o different catalysts are used#

b1i1 ii1

iii1

SYK/Sec 3 chem notes/2012

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