Radiation

By
Nitin Oke
For Safe Hands
 Flow of heat
• Net Heat flow is from body with more heat
temperature to body at less heat temperature
• Flow of heat can take place in three ways
– Conduction
– Conviction
– Radiation
 Facts about flow-
Heat flow

Conduction Conviction Radiation

No Motion of Motion of Electro

particle particle magnetic wave

Slowest Moderate Fastest

Most Moderate Least

efficient efficient efficient
Cosmic rays
Facts about Radiation-
Gamma rays
Heat flow
UV rays
Conduction Conviction Radiation
Visible rays
No Motion of Motion of Electro
particle particle magnetic wave
IR rays
Slowest Moderate Fastest

Micro
Mostwaves Moderate Least
efficient efficient efficient
Radio waves
More about Electromagnetic
spectrum
 Properties of heat radiation:
• Heat radiation have properties similar to light
radiation.
• Heat radiation travels in a straight line.
• Heat radiation travel with the velocity of light
equal to 3 x 108 m/s.
• Heat radiation obeys inverse square law i.e. the
intensity at a point is inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between the point
and the point source of radiation.
 Properties of heat radiation:
• It exhibits the phenomena of reflection,
refraction, interference, diffraction and
polarization.
• Heat radiations can travel through vacuum and
other transparent media.
• Heat radiations do not affect the medium through
which they pass.
• Heat radiation consists mostly of infrared rays,
which are electromagnetic waves whose wavelength
range from 8 x 10 –7m to 4 x 10 –4m.
 Facts about Radiation-
• Heat radiation is with wave length ranging
between 10-6m to 10-3m in reality the
wavelength of heat radiation ranges from
8 x 10 –7 m to 4 x 10 –4 m where as the wave
length of visible light ranges from 4 x 10 –7m
to 8 x 10 –7m.
• These waves are invisible to human
• Frequency ranges from 1011Hz to 1014Hz
 What means a, r, t
• If Q amount of hest is Q
incident on surface.
• QR is reflected
• QA is absorbed
• QT is transmitted Q
QRA
T
• By law of conservation of
energy Q = QR+ QA+ QT
QA QR QT
a= ,r = ,t =
Q Q Q
 Classification based on a, r and t
• If t = 1 then substances are called as
diathermanous.
• Examples of substances which are transparent to
heat radiation are—
– Quartz, glass, Rock salt, dry air, O2 , H2, NaCl,
CCl4, CHCl3
• If t = 0 then substances are called as
athermanous.
• Examples of substances which are transparent to
heat radiation are—
– Water, Wood, C6H6, R-OH, Cu, Iron
 Classification based on a, r and t
• If r = 1 then substances are called as perfect
reflector.
• Bright polished surface may be called as perfect reflector.
• If a = 1 then substances are called as perfect black
bodies or perfect absorbers.
• Examples of substances which absorbs heat radiation are—
– Lamp black ( absorbs nearly 96%)
– Platinum black ( absorbs nearly 98%)
– Ferry's black body ( absorbs nearly 100%)
Construction of Ferry's Black body
• A Copper sphere is taken.
• It is covered by another
non conducting concentric
sphere of larger radius.
• The outer sphere is
evacuated.
• An aperture is made to
both spheres and slightly
off the line a conical
elevation is created.
• Inner part of inner sphere
is coated with lamp black,
and conical elevation is
polished surface.
 Facts about Radiation-
• To detect these waves Crook’s radiometer or Boy’s
radiometer are used.
• Energy of radiation can be measured by “Bolometer”
• Heat Radiations spectrum was studied graphically by
“Langley” ( Not black body spectrum )
• Spectrum of Black body was studied at different
temperatures by Lummer and Prigsheim
• The black body used was constructed by Fery
• Wien found relation between temperature and maximum
corresponding wavelength.
• Stefan and Boltzman related area under the curve
means total heat and T4
• The graph was explained by Max Plank using Quantum
theory.
Study of graph of radiation

T3
T2
T1
 Observations of graph
• When radiations of Black body were studied at
different temperatures by Lummer and
Prigsheim the observations were as follows—
– The graph is different at different temperature
– As temperature increases the graph shifts up
– The graphs maxima shifts backward as temperature
increases.
– The area under the curve, means total energy per
unit area per unit time means emissive power is
proportional to T4 (Stefan’s law)
– The Emax is proportional to T5
– The wavelength corresponding to Emax is inversely
proportional to T. λmax.T = b The value of b is
0.2892 x 10-2mK ( Wien’s displacement law).
Prevost theory of heat exchange
• Every body continuously radiates heat
energy at all temperatures except absolute
zero.
• The amount of radiant energy emitted per
unit time depends only on absolute
temperature of body and NOT on
surrounding temperature.
Heat exchange is as --

More Hot Less Hot

Hot Hot
 Kirchhoff’s Law of radiation
• The coefficient of absorption is same as coefficient of
emission.
• Theoretical proof of Kirchhoff’s law
Theoretical proof of Kirchhoff’s law

• As thermal equilibrium is achieved the heat

emitted per unit time per unit area of
ordinary body equals heat gained per unit
time per unit area by it.
• E = a.Eb
• e=a
 Ritchie’s Experiment

aAEb 1xAE

aAEb = 1.A.E
a =E/Eb = e
Ritchie’s Experiment
 Stefan’s Law and its applications
• The radiant energy emitted by perfectly
black body per unit area per unit time is
directly proportional to forth power of
absolute temperature.
• The constant of proportionality is called as
Stefan’s constant and denoted by σ.
• The value of σ is 5.67 x 10-8 J/m2.s.K4 (W/m2K4)
Q
= σT 4
Q = A.t.σ.T 4

A.t
Rate of heat radiation by black body
dQ
= A.σ.T 4
dt
Rate of heat radiation by surounding
dQ 4
= A.σ.T0
dt
Rate of loss of heat radiation by body
dQ
dt
(
= A.σ. T 4 − T04 )
 Generalization of Stefan’s Law
• Using Kirchhoff’s law Stefan’s Law can be generalized
as—
• Emissive power: The amount of heat radiation emitted
by a body per unit time per unit area is called as
emissive power of the body.
• If above body is black body then it is left hand side of
Stefan’s law.
• Coefficient of emission or emissivity of a body is ratio
of emissive power of a body and perfectly black body
at same temperature. Denoted by e. e = E/Eb
• As a = e Hence E = a. Eb = a .σ.T4
• For ordinary bodies Stefan’s Law will be
• Q = a(A.t.σ.T4)
 Newton’s lawofofcooling
Newton’slaw heat
• The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly
proportional to the excess temperature of the
body over the surrounding.
• Please note that the law was stated quite earlier
than Stefan’s law and Provost's theory.
dQ
dQ dQ dθ
k.(θ
α=(θ − θ−0 )θ0 ) but = m.s.
dt
dt dt dt
dθ
m.s. = K(θ
k(θ − θ0 )
dt
Newton’s law as approximation of Stefan’s Law

• Latter on when new theory was developed the Newton’s

law was obtained as approximation of Stefan’s Boltzman
Law.
• Assuming T = T0 + x and using binomial expansion and the
fact that T0 > > > x we get
• Obviously we need to use T-T0 = θ - θ0
dQ
= k.(θ − θ0 )
dt
 Solar constant
• The solar constant is the amount of radiant energy received
per second per unit area by a perfect black body placed on
the Earth with its surface perpendicular to the direction of
radiation from the Sun.
• Solar constant is different for different planets as their
distance is different from Sun.
• Value of Solar constant is 1.388 x 103W/m2
• Instrument used to measure Solar constant is
“Pyro heliometre”
• Simplest of all is Angstrong’s Compensation pyro heliometre
Temperature of Sun Using Solar Constant
• If R is distance between Sun and Earth and
• r is radius of Sun then
Q
S= hence Q = 4πR tS
2

4πR t
2

By Stefan's Law Q = 1.4πr .σt(T )

2 4

hence 4πr σtT = 4πR tS

2 4 2

1 1
1 11 1
R S 414.848 x10  1390  4
T=( )   =(
2
)  2
−8 
= 5730K
r σ 6.928 x10 8
 5.67 x10 
 Temperature of Sun Using Wien’s Law
• If λ is wavelength of radiation for
which Solar radiation is maximum
( 4900 x 10-10m) then
Using Wien's law λ max .T = 0.002892
0.002892
T= −10
= 5902K
4900 x10
 Note the following—
• If two bodies are of surface area A1 and A2
coefficient of absorption a1 and a2 at
temperature T1 and T2 then rate of emission
of heat radiation is –
 dQ 
 
 dt 1 a1A 1T1
= If they are of same material then a1 = a2
 dQ  a 2 A 2 T2
 
 dt  2 A T If they are of same material then a1 = a2
= 1 1
A 2T2 and are at same temperature T1 = T2
A 1 r12 If they are of same material then a1 = a2
= = 2
A 2 r2 and are at same temperature T1 = T2 and
spherical in shape.
 Note the following—
• If two bodies of mass m1 & m2 ,surface area
A1 & A2 coefficient of absorption a1 and a2 at
temperature T1 & T2 specific heats s1 and s2
and densities ρ1& ρ2 then rate of cooling is –
 dθ   a1A 1T1 
   
 dt 1  m1s1  a1A 1T1m2s2 If they are of same material
= =
 dθ   a 2 A 2 T2  a 2 A 2T2m1s1 then a1 = a2 and s1 = s2
   
 dt  2  m2s 2 
A 1T1m2 In addition if are at same
= temperature T1 = T2 and
A 2T2m1
2 4
spherical
r1 ( πr2 )ρ2
3
A 1m2 3 r
= = = 2
A 2m1 r 2 ( 4 πr 3 )ρ r1
2 1 1
3