CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

In this chapter the writer wants to review the theories. They are considered as the significant references concerning the topic being discussed which include morphology, word formation process, sociolinguistics, jargon, co-text, Autoweek magazine and previous study underlying this study.

2.1. Morphology Morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangement in forming word (Nida, 1946, p.1). Crystal (2004, p.301) also stated that morphology is the branch of grammar, which studies structure or form of words, primarily through the use of the morpheme construction. The writer concludes that morphology is morphemes that have the structure and it can shape the words. She also concludes that morphemes consist of minimal meaningful units, and the minimal meaningful units may constitute of words or a part of word.

2.2. Word Formation Process Word formation process is the process of creating new words as stated by Yule (1996, p.65). So, people start making new words undergoing with their ability to modify new structure from old words. Yule also added the statement that we can very quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word (Yule, 2006, p. 52). In other

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words, by word formation process the writer will be able to apply these new words and spread the use of it in a society. Yule in his book entitled The Study of Language (2006) classifies word formation processes into 13 processes namely, etimology, coinage, borrowing, compounding, blending, clipping, backformation, conversion, acronyms, derivation, prefixes and suffixes, infixes, and multiple processes. Furthermore, Brown and Attardo in their books entitled Understanding Language Structure, Interaction and Variation (2005 p. 29) states that English language has roughly 500,000 words, but new words are being invented every day to match the ever changing needs of the speakers . They classify word formation process into 9 (nine) processes they are, derivation, compounding, clipping, acronym, blends, backformation, invention, borrowing and calques. Based on both theories above, it is found that 8 (eight) processes by Brown and Attardo (derivation, compounding, clipping, acronym, blends or blending, backformation, invention or coinage, and borrowing) are also mentioned in Yules theory. The only differences are that 5 (five) processes (conversions, prefixes, infixes, multiple processes and calque) are not found in Brown and Attardos theory. The table of similarities and differences in both theories can be seen in table 2.1

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Table 2.1 Word Formation Processes WORD FORMATION PROCESSES Brown and Attardo Understanding Language Structure, Interaction and Variation (2005) Derivation Compounding Clipping Acronym Blends Backformation Invention Borrowing Calque -------------------------Yule The Study of Language (2006) Derivation Compounding Clipping Acronym Blending Backformation Coinage Borrowing Borrowing as Loan Translation Etimology Conversion Prefixes and Suffixes Infixes Multiple Processes

After comparing the differences and the similarity of both theories on the table 2.1, the writer combines George Yules theory (2006) and Brown and Attardos theory (2005). Therefore, the writer uses derivation, compounding, clipping, acronym, blends or blending, backformation, invention or coinage, borrowing, calque or borrowing as loan translation, etymology, conversion, prefixes and suffixes, infixes, and multiple processes as word formation processes in her study. The descriptions will be explained as follow: 2.2.1 Derivation Derivation is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words (Yule, 2006, p. 57). According to Brown and Attardo (2005, p.30), derivation is creating new words by using derivational

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morphemes, for example the word happy becomes happiness. It is from the root happy added by derivational morpheme ness. So, it becomes an adjective happiness.

2.2.2 Compounding Compounding is a joining of two separate words to produce a single form (Yule, 2006, p. 54). While Brown and Attardo (2005 , p. 30) state that compounding is putting two old words together to make a new one. For examples, bookcase and wallpaper. From those theories, the writer concludes that compounding is the merger of two words that can make a new meaning.

2.2.3 Clipping Yule (2006, p. 55) states that The element of reduction that is noticeable in blending is even more apparent in the process described as clipping. While Brown and Attardo 2005, p. 30) state that clipping are new words which can be constructed by shortening a longer word. For instance, ad from the word advertisement. The writer infers that clipping is omitting the one syllable of word to be a shorter.

2.2.4 Acronym Based on Yule (2006, p. 57), the definition of acronym is new words formed the initial letters of a set of other words . According to Brown and Attardo (2005, p.30) acronym is the practice of using the initial letters of a set of words as in NAFTA, NFL, NASA, and PTA. In those subtopics, the writer chooses Yules theory because it has clearer explanation about acronym.

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2.2.5 Blending Blending or blends is a combining two separate forms to produce a single new term. Blending is the combination of two separate forms to produce a single new term is also present in the process (Yule, 2006, p. 55). According to Brown Attardo (2005, p. 30), blend is the blending of two existing words. For instance, smoke and fog become smog. Based on both theories above, the writer can conclude that blending is joining two words and produce a new word.

2.2.6 Backformation Backformation is a specialized type of reduction process. Yule (2006, p. 56) says that backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process . While Brown and Attardo (2005, p.30) state that the phenomenon of back formation is also known as reanalysis. For example, the word babysit from the word babysitter.

2.2.7 Coinage Coinage or invention is the words that come from a new brand and people who adopt these words to generalize all terms. According to Brown and Attardo (2005, p.30), invention is when speakers want, they can always invent new words from scratch. Yule (2006, p. 53) also add the definition about coinage, that is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for commercial products that become general terms. For example, Xerox (in photocopy machine). Moreover invention is created totally new words or terms from scratch.

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2.2.8 Borrowing Borrowing is the taking over of words from other language (Yule, 2006, p. 65), for example, boss from Dutch and piano from Italy. The writer concludes that borrowing is a process of taking words without changing the forms of the words.

2.2.9 Calque or Borrowing as Loan Translation In borrowing, there is a special type of borrowing that describes as loan translation or calque. According to Brown and Attardo (2005, p. 32), calque is special kind of loan. For example in America concept the word boyfriend is a borrowing, with sound modification, into Japanese as boyifurendo. 2.2.10 Etymology George Yule (2006, p. 53) said that etymology is the study of the origin and history of a word . The etymology process only exist in Yules theory in 2006. In other word etymology is the process of investigating words based on the origin and the histories and also the changing and forming of those words. For instance, cop or copper is sometimes used as slang for a police officer. It seems to be derived from the latin word capere meaning to take or to seize, the same root used in the English word capture.

2.2.11 Conversion Conversion is a change in the function of a word, for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction is generally known as conversion (Yule, 2006, p. 56). For instance a number of nouns, paper can be a

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sentence; shes papering the bedroom walls. So it can be concluded that conversion is the words which have different meaning without changing the shapes of the words.

2.2.12 Prefixes and Suffixes Yule (2006, p.58) says that prefixes are affixes which have to be added to the beginning of the word (e.g. un-) like unlucky. Suffixes are other affixes that have to be added to the end of the word (e.g. ish) like foolish.

2.2.13 Infixes Infixes are the elaboration of English words and function to express various feeling. This statement is supported by Yule (2006, p. 58) on his statement that there is a third type of affix, not normally used in English, but found in some other language. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances. For instance the word Unfuckinbelievable!. This is one of aggravation feeling.

2.2.14 Multiple Processes It is possible to trace the operation of more than one process at work in the creation of a particular word that is called multiple processes (Yule, 2006, p.58). For example the term deli seems to have become a common American English expression via a process of first borrowing delicatessen (from German) and then clipping that borrowed form. The writer will elaborate the process of words using both of theories above and examine the words formation processes that are found in Autoweek magazine published on February, 18th 2013.

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2.3. Sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationships between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how language function in communication; the equivalent goal in the sociology of language is trying to discover how social structure can be better understood through the study of language (Wardaugh, 2006, p.13). In general terms, sociolinguistics deals with the interrelationship between language and society. It has strong connections to anthropology, through the investigation of language and culture, and to sociology, through the crucial role that language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions (Yule, 1996, p.239). The statement above is supported by Wardaugh (2006, p. 13) who says that sociolinguistics is concerned with investigating the relationship between language and society with the goal being a better understanding of the structure of language and of how language function in communication. From those expert statements, the writer concludes that Sociolinguistics deals with how language is used by the society to communicate with others. Language is used as the media for society to deliver message to other people. Besides, people use language as their personal identity when they make communicate.

2.4. Jargon Jargon is technical words and expression used by a group of people that are difficult for others to understand. It is supported by Brown and Attardo (2005, p. 118) who say that jargons are some special terms that refer to activities of

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occupational varieties. They also give additions that jargons are used for purposes of not letting others understand, to show off or to establish in group membership (Brown and Attardo, 2005, p.118). It can be concluded that jargon is the word which is used in one community and have certain words which is mostly difficult for others to catch the meaning and also show the identity from that groups. Palmer says in her book entitled Element of General Linguistics (1962, p. 155) jargon is a set of special vocabulary items used by members of some professions or specialized group. In other words, jargon shapes special identity from each characteristic in community. There are two characteristics of jargon: 1. Jargon is only understood by people who are in the in-group. Jargons are used by people who become members of community. It means that when a person who does not belong to community, they cannot understand about what the meaning of words is. Those statement validated by Palmers theory, that is Jargons are only understood by those who are in the group. 2. Jargon shapes new words and new terms. Jargon shapes new terms and new words; it means that in jargons there are many new words that give additional variation of language. Moreover, from jargons each of characteristics in certain group can be shown. Based on the experts explanation above, the writer concludes that jargon is words used by certain community with certain words and also can create special identity from the community. Besides, a person who does not belong to the group will face the difficulty to understand and catch the meaning of the jargon.

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2.5. Co-text Co-text is another way to interpret the meaning of automotive jargons. By using a co-text, the readers and the outsiders are helped to understand and know about the meaning of automotive jargons by paying attention to the surrounding text of jargons. Yule (2006, p. 114) states that co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. Similar with Yule, Renkema (1993) also states that co-text can be used to refer to verbal context only that denotes the piece of discourse surrounding an element in discourse, for example: a word, a sentence, or a paragraph. From both theories above, it can be concluded that cotext is a very specific text surrounding the particular word, phrase, sentence and paragraph.

2.6. Autoweek Magazine Autoweek magazine is a famous magazine in United States. Autoweek magazine also published in Indonesia. This magazine is published weekly, so it can give more details and updated information about automotive activities internationally. Besides, Autoweek stands out from other car magazines as the trusted source for auto enthusiasts looking for unbiased car reviews on the latest models, hottest trends and innovations in automotive design and performance. Every single week, Autoweek inspires and informs us with insightful articles and amazing photography (DownMagaz, 2013, para. 1). So, by reading Autoweek magazine, readers can improve their knowledge concerning with the latest information about automotive activities supported with insightful photography inside the magazine.

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2.7. Previous Studies The previous studies related to this study are conducted by Maharani (2012) entitled Word Formation Processes of Photography Jargons in Digital Camera World Magazine and by Nuralam (2012) entitled Word Formation Processes in The Jargon Used Among The Members of Kaskus Internet Forum Community. In Maharanis research, she analyzed about the kinds of word formation processes in photography jargons and the meaning of derived words in the photography jargons in Digital Camera World Magazine. Maharanis study used the combination of Akmajian et al (2001) theory and Brown and Attardo (2005) theory in her research. In her study, Maharani (2012) used three articles in Digital Camera World magazine. She focused on the morphological process found in photography jargons. The results of her study showed that there were 37 jargons classified into six types of word formation processes namely acronym, alphabetic abbreviation, clipping, borrowing indirect, derivation and

compounding. The similarity between this study and related study is that both of them discussed word formation processes in jargons of special knowledge found in magazine. The related study was about photography terms. Meanwhile, this study is about automotive jargons found in magazine. The writer was inspired to take one edition as the source of her study, which is a special edition of this kind of magazine. By choosing the special edition of this magazine, the writer assumes that she will find various jargons as in Maharanis study. Additionally, Maharani used the theories of Akmajian et al (2001), Brown and Attardo (2005) in her study. Maharanis study has inspired the writer to use the combination theories in

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her study. In the study, Maharani combined two theories of word formation processes used Akmajian et als theory and Brown and Attardos theory. While, in this study the writer combines two theories of Brown and Attardos and Yules theory. Nuralam (2012) also conducted a similar study entitled Word Formation Processes in The Jargon Used among the Members of Kaskus Internet Forum Community. She used Yules theory (1996). She also focused on word formations process in jargons, but the object was different. Nuralams object was jargons used by the members of Kaskus internet forum community. The result of her study showed that, she found 30 jargons in many activities of Kaskuser occurred in four forums in Kaskus; they were Forum Jual Beli (FJB), Forum Loekeloe, Forum Casciscus, and Forum Kaskus Corner. She also found 22 jargons in the forms of noun and 8 jargons in the forms of verb that give an action about activities in Kaskus. Related to the process of words, she found 6 processes in jargons namely, borrowing, acronym, blending and coinage, and derivation and multiple processes. The most jargons found in Kaskus were taken in the forms of noun and verb and also borrowing. The similarity between this study and Nuralams is to discuss word formation processes. However, Nuralam used the theory of word formation processes from Yule (1996) as the primary theory in her study. Meanwhile, in this study, the writer combines the theories of Brown and Attardo (2005) and Yule (2006). It has inspired the writer to conduct similar study by choosing the latest theory of George Yule in 2006 since this theory gives more details about classification of word formation process. Related to the object of the study,

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Nuralam took the object from social network namely Kaskus while the writer took automotive jargons from magazine. So, both previous studies analyzed jargons containing word formation processes but having different objects. Both researches motivated the writer to do similar study about word formation process. The writer used written or textual analysis from six sub articles in Autoweek magazine published in February, 18th 2013. She assumed that this article contained various automotive jargons which were classified into kinds of word formation process. Moreover the writer combined Yule (2006) and Browns & Attardos (2005) theories to conduct this research in order to know about word formation processes found in automotive jargons of Autoweek Magazine and the meaning of automotive jargons.