(Basics) PDF

Networking Basics
2009, Velocis Systems
How a LAN Is Built
Local-Area NetworkLAN
What is a LAN?
A collection of computers, printers, and other devices that can communicate with each other in a small area.
What are the components?

Computers, operating system (OS), network interface card (NIC), and hubs
How is a LAN controlled?

ProtocolsFormal descriptions of sets of rules and conventions that govern how devices on a network exchange information
Networking Fundamentals 2009, Velocis Systems 1-3
Local-Area Networks
LANs are designed to:
Operate within a limited geographic area Allow multi-access to high-bandwidth media Control the network privately under local administration Provide full-time connectivity to local services Connect physically adjacent devices
Networking Fundamentals
1-4
Network Operating System (OS)
Software that allows communicating and sharing of data and network resources Examples:
AppleTalk NetWare Win NT
PC or Workstation Loaded with NOS
1-5
Network Interface Card

Amplifies electronic signals Packages data for transmission Physically connects computer to transmission media (cable)
Connector Port
PC or Workstation Loaded with NOS
Network Interface Card (NIC)

1990sGlobal Internetworking
19921 major backbone, 3,000 networks, 200K computers 1995Multiple backbones, hundreds of regional nets, tens of thousands of LANs, millions of hosts, tens of millions of users
Doubling every year!

The OSI Model

OSI Layer is meant for Networking manufacturers and developers to provide them a standard based on which they can make their products. All OSI Layers are independent from each other, which makes introducing changes easier as no other layers are effected. Ease of Troubleshooting.
The Layered Model
Why a Layered Network Model?

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
Reduces complexity (one big problem to seven smaller ones) Standardizes interfaces Facilitates modular engineering Assures interoperable technology Accelerates evolution Simplifies teaching and learning
1-10
Devices Function at Layers

7 6
NIC Card
Application Presentation Session
4 3 2 1
Transport Network Data Link Physical

Hub
1-11
Host Layers
7 6 5 4 Application Presentation Session Transport Network 3 Data Link
Host layers: Provide

accurate data delivery between computers
Physical
1-12
Media Layers
7 6 5 4 Transport 3 2 1 Network Data Link Physical Application Presentation Session
Host layers: Provide

accurate data delivery between computers
Media layers: Control

physical delivery of messages over the network
1-13
Layer Functions
7 Application
Provides network services to application processes (such as electronic mail, file transfer, and terminal emulation)
1-14
Layer Functions
7 6 Application Presentation Network services to applications Data representation Ensures data is readable by receiving system Format of data Data structures Negotiates data transfer syntax for application layer
1-15
Layer Functions
7 6 5 Application Presentation Session Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between applications
1-16
Layer Functions
7 6 5 4 Application Presentation Session Transport Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability
Concerned with data transport issues between hosts Data transport reliability Establishes, maintains, and terminates virtual circuits Fault detection and recovery Information flow control
1-17
Layer Functions
7 6 5 4 3 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability Addresses and best path
Provides connectivity and path selection between two end systems Domain of routing
1-18
Layer Functions
7 6 5 4 3 2 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability Addresses and best path Access to media
Provides reliable transfer of data across media Physical addressing, network topology, error notification, flow control
Layer Functions
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Network services to applications Data representation Inter-host communication End-to-end connection reliability Addresses and best path Access to media Binary transmission Wires, connectors, voltages, data rates
2009, Velocis Systems 1-20
Peer-to-Peer Communications
Host A 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical Segments Packets Frames Bits Host B Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
1-21
Application Layer
This is where users communicate to the computer. This is where communication between two users are established. This is a point where user or application interfaces with the protocols to gain access to the network. Examples are WWW, Telnet, FTP, TFTP, E-mail, SNMP, DNS
Presentation Layer
Tasks like Translation, Encryption, decryption, compression, decompression are associated with this layer. It receives the data in native format & converts in standard format or receives data in standard format and converts in native format, ie. EBCDIC to ASCII. It is mainly responsible for how the data is to be presented to the Application Layer. Examples are PICT, TIFF, JPEG, MIDI, MPEG, GIFF etc.
Presentation Layer

login:
Text Data
ASCII EBCDIC Encrypted
Graphics Visual images

PICT TIFF JPEG GIF
Sound
MIDI
Video
MPEG QuickTime
Provides code formatting and conversion for applications

PROTOCOLS OF PRESENTATION LAYER

PICT: This is picture format used by Macintosh or power PC program for transferring quick draw graphics. TIFF: Tagged image file format is a standard graphic format for high resolution, bitmapped images. JPEG: the joint photographic express group brings this photo standard to us. MIDI: the musical instrument digital interface is used for digitized music. Other standard guide movies and sound: MPEG: the moving picture experts groups standard for the compression and coding of motion video for the CDs increasingly popular. It provides digital storage and rates up to 1.5 Mbps. Quick time: this for use with Macintosh or PowerPC programs; it manages audio and video application.
Session Layer
Session Establishment Establishes a session between two devices before actual transmission of data. Dialog Control Simplex Half Duplex Full Duplex
1-26
Session Layer
Simplex Data travels only one way. Radio transmission is the best example of this.
Half Duplex Both way but one at a time. By default all LAN Cards (NICs) work on Half Duplex.
Full Duplex Both way at the same time.
1-27
Session Layer
Network File System (NFS) Structured Query Language (SQL) Remote-Procedure Call (RPC) X Window System AppleTalk Session Protocol (ASP) DEC Session Control Protocol (SCP)
Service Request Service Reply
Coordinates applications as they interact on different hosts

SESSION LAYER PROTOCOLS

Network File System (NFS): Was developed by Sun Microsystems and used with TCP/IP and Unix workstations to allow transparent access to remote resources. Structured Query Language (SQL): Was developed by IBM to provide users with a simple way to define their information requirements on both local and remote systems. Remote Procedure Call (RPC): A board client/server redirection tool used for disparate service environments. Its procedure are created on client and performed on servers. X Windows: Is widely used by intelligent terminals for communicating with remote Unix computers, allowing them as though they were locally attached monitors. Apple Talk special Protocol (ASP): Is another client /server mechanism, which both establishes and maintains session talks between apples talk client and sever machines. Digital Network Architecture Session control protocol (DNA SCP): Is DEC net session layer protocol
Transport Layer
Segments upper-layer applications Establishes an end-to-end connection Sends segments from one end host to another Optionally, ensures data reliability
1-30
Transport Layer
Transport Layer never actually transports the data but only prepares for transporting. Uses Socket to define the services running on a particular node, the data is associated with. Responsible for the following : Segmentation End-to-end Communication Flow Control Error Control Multiplexing of Applications TCP, UDP and SPX work at this layer
Socket
Socket is a software component and points to a particular service running on a particular node. Structure of a socket IP Address + Port Address Each service has a unique Port address Max. Port Addresses can be 65,536 Port address 1-1023 is reserved for specific Services like WWW FTP SMTP 80 21 25
Port Addresses are reserved for standardization purpose.

Port Numbers
Application Layer
F T P
T E L N E T
23 TCP
S M T P
D N S
T F T P
S N M P
R I P
21 Transport Layer
25
53
69
UDP
161
520
Port Numbers
1-33
Segmentation
This is a mechanism wherein the data is divided into multiple segments and sent over the network. By doing this different segments can use different links for travelling across the network. If one segment is lost the only segment is required to be re-sent and not the entire data. Once all segments reach to the destination the received segments have to be sequenced back, which is also done at this layer.
1-34
Transport Layer
Sends Segments with Flow Control
Transmit
Sender Receiver
Stop
Not Ready
Buffer Full Process Segments
Go
Ready Resume Transmission
Buffer OK
1-35
Flow Control
Used while connection oriented communication It helps to have a control on over flow of Buffer. Advantages are: The segments delivered are acknowledged if received Any segment not acknowledged are retransmitted segments are sequenced back upon their arrival Congestion, Overloading and data loss are avoided To achieve all this it uses the technique of Sliding window or Windowing
Transport Layer
Establishes Connection
Sender
Receiver
Synchronize Negotiate Connection Synchronize Acknowledge
Connection Established
Data Transfer (Send Segments)
1-37
End-to-End Communication
Connection Less Transmission
UDP is used Not reliable Faster
Connection Oriented Transmission

TCP or SPX is used Reliable Slower
Connection Oriented Protocol

These protocols relies on Acknowledgement. Positive acknowledgement means data has been received. Negative acknowledgement means data is lost no further data is sent till positive acknowledgement is received. It is slow but Reliable. Eg. TCP and SPX
Transport Layer
Reliability with Windowing
Window Size = 1 Send 1
Sender
Receive 1 Ack 2 Receive 2 Ack 3 Window Size = 3

Receiver
Send 2
Sender
Send 1 Send 2 Send 3 Send 4
Receive 1 Receive 2 Receive 3 Ack 4
Receiver
1-40
Transport Layer
An Acknowledgement Technique
Sender
Receiver
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Send 1 Send 2 Send 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Ack 4 Send 4 Send 5 Send 6 Ack 5 Send 5 Ack 7

Connection Less Protocol

They do not provide acknowledgement neither sequence numbers. It is faster but not reliable Eg. UDP
1-42
Network Layer
It is responsible for communicating Networks It recognizes Networks with the help of Netwok Addresses Network Address is a logical address like IP Address or IPX Address It is common for a group of computers It works only with Network IDs and has got nothing to do with host Ids. Path determination or Routing is performed at this layer. Router works at this layer.
1-43
Network Layer: Path Determination
Which Which Path? Path?
Layer 3 functions to find the best path through the internetwork

Network Layer: Communicate Path
2 4 1 3
5 6 8
9 10 7
11
Addresses represent the path of media connections
1-45
Protocol Addressing Variations

General Example
Network 1 Node 1
TCP/IP Example
Network 10.
Host 8.2.48 (Mask 255.0.0.0)
Novell IPX Example

Network 1aceb0b.
Node 0000.0c00.6e25
Network Layer Protocol Operations

X
A A C C
Each router provides its services to support upper layer functions
1-47
Routed Versus Routing Protocol

Routed protocol used between routers to direct user traffic Examples: IP, IPX, AppleTalk Routing protocol used only between routers to maintain routing tables Examples: RIP, IGRP, OSPF
Static Versus Dynamic Routes

Static Route Uses a protocol route that a network administrator enters into the router
Dynamic Route Uses a route that a network protocol adjusts automatically for topology or traffic changes
1-49
Static Route Example
A A
Point-to-point or circuit-switched connection
Only a single network connection with no need for routing updates
B B Stub network
Fixed route to address reflects administrators knowledge

1-50
Adapting to Topology Change
A A
B B
D D
C C
Can an alternate route substitute for a failed route?

A A
B B
X
D D C C
1-52
A A
B B
X
D D C C
Can an alternate route substitute for a failed route? YesWith dynamic routing enabled Yes
Data Link Layer

It uniquely identifies each device in the Network. It translates data from Network Layer into bits for the Physical layer to transmit. It formats the messages into Data Frames Adds a customized header containing Source and Destination hardware address This layer works with Frames This layer is logically divided in two sub-layers: LLC (Logical Link Control) MAC (Media Access Control)
DATA LINK LAYER
1) 2) 3) 4)
FUNCTIONS OF ETHERNET Arbitration: CSMA/CD algos Addressing: 6 byte-long MAC address Error detection: FCS in Ethernet trailer Identify the type of packet inside the frame
1-55
Physical Layer
Electrical and Mechanical settings are provided at this layer. Transmits data in the form of bits. This layer communicates directly with actual communication media. At this layer DCE & DTE are identified DCE (Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment) Located at Service Providers side DTE (Data Terminal Equipment) The attached device at customer Place eg. Modem Services available to a DTE is most often accessed via a Modem or Channel Service Unit (CSU) Data Service Unit (DSU). HUBs & REPEATERS are working at this layer. Max. troubleshooting occurs at this layer.
DOD MODEL
The DoD
Model
The Process / Application Layer The Host-to-Host Layer The Internet Layer The Network Layer
The DoD & OSI

DoD Model Application Host-to-Host Internet Network Access
OSI Model Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
Process/Application Layer
The Process / Application layer defines protocols for node-to-node application communication and also controls userinterface specification. A vast array of protocols combine at this layer of DoDs Model to integrate the activities and duties of upper layer of OSI. Examples for this layer are : Telnet, FTP, TFTP, NFS, SMTP, SNMP, DNS DHCP, BootP etc.
Host-to-Host Layer
The Host-to-Host layer parallels the functions of the OSIs Transport layer It performs the following: Defining protocols for setting up the level of transmission service for Applications It tackles issues like creating reliable ene-to-end communication. It ensures the error free delivery of data It handles packet sequencing and maintains data integrity.
Internet Layer
Internet Layer corresponds to the OSIs Network Layer. It performs the following: Designating the protocols relating to the logical transmission of packets over the entire network. It takes care of the addressing of hosts by giving them an IP address. It handles routing of packets among multiple networks.
Network Access Layer

This layer is equivalent of the Data Link and Physical Layer of OSI model. It performs the following It monitors the data exchange between the host and the network. Network Access Layer overseas hardware addressing and defines protocols for the physical transmission of the Data. Lets have a look on how TCP/IP Protocol suit relates to the DoD model layers.
TCP/IP Protocol Suit at DoD

DoD Model Process / Application Host-to-Host
ICMP Telnet TFTP
TCP/IP Protocol Suit

FTP SMTP TCP BootP IP
Ethernet Fast Ethernet Token Ring
LPD NFS
SNMP X Window UDP
ARP
RARP
Internet Network Access

FDDI
Ethernet
Introduction
Ethernet is a methodology for accessing a media It allows all hosts on a network to share the same bandwidth of a link. It is popular because : It is easy to implement & Troubleshoot It is easy to add new technologies like Fast Ethernet and Gigabit Ethernet to existing infrastructure. Ethernet uses Data Link Layer and Physical Layer Specification It uses something called
CSMA/CD
Ethernet Operation
A B C D
1-67
Ethernet Operation
A B C D
D
Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
1-68
Ethernet Operation
A B C D
D
B and C
1-69
Ethernet LANs: How do they work?

Multiple workstations are connected to a segment Each station has to take turns sending traffic All stations listen to all traffic on their segment Stations can only send data (Ethernet Frames) when no one else is sending
Ethernet LANs: MAC Addresses

0000.0c12.3456
0000.1018.321a
0000.0c12.1111
Every workstation has a Network Interface Card (NIC) Every NIC has a unique MAC address Stations use MAC addresses to send Ethernet Frames to a specific station
1-71
Ethernet LANs: Unicast Frames

0000.0c12.3456
Frame To: 0000.0c12.3456
0000.1018.321a
0000.0c12.1111
Ethernet frames contain the MAC address of the station that the frame was sent to These are called unicast frames All stations receive the Ethernet frame, but ignore the frames that are not addressed to their MAC address
Ethernet LANs: Broadcast Frames

0000.0c12.3456
Frame To: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF
Some Ethernet frames are sent to all stations These are called broadcast frames All stations process this frame
0000.1018.321a
0000.0c12.1111
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Ethernet LANs: Broadcast Frames

0000.0c12.3456
Frame To: FFFF.FFFF.FFFF
Some Ethernet frames are sent to all stations These are called broadcast frames All stations process this frame
0000.1018.321a
0000.0c12.1111
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Ethernet Collisions
Collision!
Packe Frame Packe Frame t t
Frame
Packet
Frame
Packet
Sometimes stations transmit simultaneously Two frames on the same segment collide Collisions require each station to wait and resend
1-75
Ethernet Reliability
A
Figure 1
A
Figure 2
Collision
A B C D
Collision
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
1-77
A B C D
Collision
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
JAM
Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD)

CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD stands for Carrier Sense Multiple Access / Collision Detect.
It is used by all NICs in Ethernet Networking
In this method all NICs first sense whether the cable is free or not.
If it is free the request is sent otherwise it waits.

Half Duplex Ethernet

It is defined in 802.3 Ethernet specifications It uses only one wire pair for signals running in both direction. CSMA/CD is used to prevent collision. Half Duplex typically 10base T is 50-60 % efficient. (In CISCO views) In a large 10 base T network you only get 3 to 4 MBPS at most.
Full Duplex
Full Duplex Ethernet uses two pairs of wires. It uses Point-to-Point connection There is no collision in Full Duplex Full Duplex is suppose to offer 100% efficiency in both direction Means you can get 20 MBPS in 10 MBPS or 200 MBPS in Fast Ethernet running Full Duplex.
Ethernet Addressing
Ethernet Addressing uses MAC Address MAC addresses are burned on every NIC It is a 48-bit address It is written in the same format even if different LAN Technologies are used. 24 bits 24 bits
Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI) (Assigned by IEEE)

Ethernet Addressing using MAC Addresses
Vender Assigned
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Ethernet and IEEE 802.3
Benefits and background

Ethernet is the most popular physical layer LAN technology because it strikes a good balance between speed, cost, and ease of installation Supports virtually all network protocols Xerox initiated, then joined by DEC & Intel in 1980
Revisions of Ethernet specification

Fast Ethernet (IEEE 802.3u) raises speed from 10 Mbps to 100 Mbps Gigabit Ethernet is an extension of IEEE 802.3 which increases speeds to 1000 Mbps, or 1 Gbps
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Ethernet and IEEE 802.3
Several framing variations exist for this common LAN technology
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Ethernet Frames
Frames are used at the Data Link Layer to encapsulate packets coming down for transmission on a type of Media Access Types of Media Access
Contention (Ethernet) Token Passing (Token Ring or FDDI)
We will be covering only Contention, as rest all are beyond the scope of our course.
1-85
LAN FUNDAMENTALS
Ethernet It is a LAN protocol. Given by Xerox in early 1970s. Three companies modified it as E (II) DEC, Intel & Xerox (DIX). IEEE made it standard as 802.3 Header of Ethernet 8bytes 6byts 6byts 2 byts variable 4byts
Flag DA SA TYPE DATA Flag
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MAC SUB-LAYER
MAC Layer - 802.3
# Bytes 8 6 6 2 Length Variable Data 4 FCS Preamble Dest add Source add
0000.0C
IEEE assigned
xx.xxxx
Vendor assigned
Ethernet II uses Type here and does not use 802.2.
MAC Address
Preamble
It allows the receiving devices to lock the incoming bit stream. The Peamble is used to indicate to the receiving station that the data portion of the message will follow.
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Destination Address (DA)

DA is used by receiving stations to determine if an incoming packet is addressed to a particular node. Uses LSB (Least Significant Bit) first Destination can be individual, multicast or broadcast
Broadcast will be all 1s or Fs and will be sent to all. Multicast will be sent to the specific subnet
Source Address (SA)
SA is a 48 bit MAC Address supplied by the transmitting device. Broadcast and Multicast address formats are illegal within the SA fields. It uses LSB (Least significant bit first)
Length or Type Field
802.3 uses length field where as Ethernet frame uses type field to identify the network layer protocol.
802.2 can identify upper-layer protocol and must be used with 802.3 frame.
1-91
Data
This is the packet sent down to the Data Link Layer from the Network layer.
The size can vary from 46-1500 bytes.

Frame Check Sequence (FCS)
FCS is a field at the end of the frame that is used to store the cyclic redundancy check.
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Data Link Layer Functions (cont.)

802.2 (SNAP)
# Bytes 1 1 1 or 2 3 2 Variable
Dest SAP Source SAP Ctrl OUI Type ID AA AA 03
Data
OR
# Bytes 1 1
802.2 (SAP)
1 or 2 Variable
Dest SAP
Source SAP
Ctrl
Data
Preamble Dest add Source add Length
Data
FCS
MAC Layer - 802.3

802.2 Frame
802.2 Frame has two new fields
DSAP (Destination Service Access Pointer) SSAP (Source Service Access Pointer)
802.2 frame type is nothing but 802.3 frame with LLC information Because of the LLC information we know what upper layer protocol is.
SNAP Frame
The SNAP Frame has its own protocol field to identify the upper layer protocol. To Identify SNAP Frame: DSAP and SSAP fields are always AA to indicate that this is a SNAP header coming up. it is an LLC data unit (sometimes called a Logical Protocol Data Unit (LPDU)) of Type 1 (indicated by 03) The SNAP header then indicates the vender via the Organisational Unique Identifier (OUI) and the protocol type via the Ethertype field CISCO uses SNAP frame with their proprietary protocol CDP (CISCO Discovery Protocol)
EXAMPLE - SNAP
In the example above we have the OUI as 00-00-00 which means that there is an Ethernet frame, and the Ethertype of 08-00 which indicates IP as the protocol.
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ETHERNET CABLING
Network Cabling
Media connecting network components
NIC cards take turns transmitting on the cable LAN cables only carry one signal at a time WAN cables can carry multiple signals simultaneously
Three primary types of cabling

Twisted-pair (or copper) Coaxial cable Fiber-optic cable
Twisted-Pair (UTP and STP)

STP only: Shielded Insulation to Reduce EMI Twisted-Pair Outer Jacket Color-Coded Plastic Insulation
Speed and throughput: Relative cost: Maximum cable length:

10/100 Mbps Least costly 100 m
RJ-45 Connector
Media and connector size: Small
1-100
Coaxial Cable
OuterJacket Braided Copper Shielding Plastic Insulation Copper Conductor
BNC Connector
Speed and throughput: Relative cost: Media and connector size: Maximum cable length:
10/100 Mbps More than UTP, but still low Medium 200/500 m
Fiber-Optic Cable
Outer Jacket Kevlar Reinforcing Material Plastic Shield Glass Fiber and Cladding
Speed and throughput: Average cost per node: Media and connector size: Maximum cable length:
100+ Mbps Most expensive Small Up to 2 km
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UPPER LAYER PROTOCOLS
What Is TCP/IP?
A suite of protocols Rules that dictate how packets of information are sent across multiple networks Addressing Error checking
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TCP/IP Protocol
The Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) suit was created by the Department of Defense (DoD). The Internet Protocol can be used to communicate across any set of interconnected networks. TCP/IP supports both LAN and WAN communications. IP suite includes not only Layer 3 and 4 specifications but also specifications for common applications like email, remote login, terminal emulation and file transfer. The TCP/IP protocol stack maps closely to the OSI model in the lower layers.
The DoD & OSI

DoD Model Application Host-to-Host Internet Network Access
OSI Model Application Presentation Session Transport Network Data Link Physical
TCP/IP Protocol Suit at DoD

DoD Model Process / Application Host-to-Host
ICMP Telnet TFTP
TCP/IP Protocol Suit

FTP SMTP TCP BootP IP ARP LPD NFS UDP RARP SNMP
Internet Network Access

Ethernet
Fast Ethernet
Token Ring
FDDI
TCP/IP Applications
Application layer
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) Remote Login (Telnet) E-mail (SMTP)
Transport layer
Transport Control Protocol (TCP) User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Network layer
Internet Protocol (IP)
Data link & physical layer

LAN Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, etc. WAN Serial lines, Frame Relay, X.25, etc.
Internet Layer Overview
Internet Internet Protocol Protocol (IP) (IP)

Application Transport Internet Data-Link Physical
Internet Internet Control Control Message Message Protocol Protocol (ICMP) (ICMP) Address Address Resolution Resolution Protocol Protocol (ARP) (ARP) Reverse Reverse Address Address Resolution Resolution Protocol Protocol (RARP) (RARP)
In the OSI reference model, the network layer corresponds to the TCP/IP Internet layer.
1-109
Internet Protocol
Provides connectionless,best effort delivery routing of datagrams. IP is not concerned with the content of the datagrams. It looks for a way to move the datagrams to their destination.
IP Datagram
Bit 1 0
Version (4) Header Length (4)
Bit 15 Type of Service (8)
Bit 16 Total Length (16) Flags (3)
Bit 31
Identification (16) Time-to-Live (8) Protocol (8)
Fragment Offset (13) Header Checksum (16) 20 Bytes
Source IP Address (32) Destination IP Address (32) Options (0 or 32 if Any) Data (Varies if Any)
IP Datagram
Version Currently used IP version Header Length Datagram header length TOS Level of importance assigned by a particular upper-layer protocol Total Length- Length of packet in bytes including Data and Header Identification Identifies current datagram (Sequence Number) Flags Specifies whether the packet can be fragmented or not Fragment Offset Used to piece together datagram fragments TTL It maintains a counter that gradually decreases, in increments, to zero Protocol It indicates which upper-layer protocol receives incoming packets Header Checksum Calculated checksum of the header to check its integrity Source IP Address Sending node IP Address Destination IP Address Receiving node IP Address Options It allows IP to support various options like security
Data Upper layer information (maximum 64Kb)
1-112
Protocol Field
Transport Layer
TCP 6
UDP 17 IP Protocol Numbers
Internet Layer
Determines destination upper-layer protocol

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

ARP works at Internet Layer of DoD Model It is used to resolve MAC address with the help of a known IP address. All resolved MAC addresses are maintained in ARP cache table is maintained. To send a datagram this ARP cache table is checked and if not found then a broadcast is sent along with the IP address. Machine with that IP address responds and the MAC address is cached.
Address Resolution Protocol

I need the Ethernet address of 176.16.3.2.
172.16.3.1
172.16.3.2
IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 = = ??? ???
1-115

I need the Ethernet address of 176.16.3.2. I heard that broadcast. The message is for me. Here is my Ethernet address. 172.16.3.1 172.16.3.2
IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 = = ??? ???
1-116

IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 = = ??? ??? IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 Ethernet: Ethernet: 0800.0020.1111 0800.0020.1111
1-117

IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 = = ??? ??? IP: IP: 172.16.3.2 172.16.3.2 Ethernet: Ethernet: 0800.0020.1111 0800.0020.1111
Map IP
Ethernet
DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
The DHCP server dynamically assigns IP address to hosts. All types of Hardware can be used as a DHCP server, even a Cisco Router. BootP can also send an operating system that a host can boot from. DHCP can not perform this function. Following information is provided by DHCP while host registers for an IP address: IP Address Subnet mask Domain name Default gateway (router) DNS
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Internet Control Message Protocol

ICMP messages are carried in IP datagrams and used to send error and control messages.
Application Transport
1
ICMP Internet
Destination Unreachable Echo (Ping) Other
Data-Link Physical
1-120
ICMP Ping
1-121
Transport Layer Overview
Application Transport Internet Data-Link Physical
Transmission Transmission Control Control Protocol Protocol (TCP) (TCP) User User Datagram Datagram Protocol Protocol (UDP) (UDP)
ConnectionOriented Connectionless
1-122
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

TCP works at Transport Layer TCP is a connection oriented protocol. TCP is responsible for breaking messages into segments and reassembling them. Supplies a virtual circuit between end-user application.
TCP Segment Format

Bit 0 Source Port (16) Bit 15 Bit 16 Destination Port (16) Bit 31
Sequence Number (32) Acknowledgment Number (32)

Header Length (4)
20 Bytes
Reserved (6) Code Bits (6) Checksum (16) Options (0 or 32 if Any) Data (Varies)
Window (16) Urgent (16)
1-124
TCP Segment Format

Source port Number of the calling port Destination Port Number of the called port Sequence Number Number used to ensure correct sequencing of the arriving data Acknowledgement Number Next expected TCP octet Header Length Length of the TCP header Reserved Set to zero Code Bits Control Functions (setup and termination of a session) Window Number of octets that the sender is willing to accept Checksum Calculated checksum of the header and data fields Urgent Pointer Indication of the end of the urgent data Options One option currently defined (maximum TCP segment size) Data Upper layer protocol data
Port Numbers
T E L N E T
S M T P
D N S
T F T P
S N M P
R I P
Application Layer
T P
21 Transport Layer
23 TCP
25
53
69
UDP
161
520
Port Numbers
1-126
TCP Port Numbers

Source Source Port Port Destination Destination Port Port
Telnet Z
Host A Host Z
SP 1028 1028
DP 23 23
Destination port = 23. Send packet to my Telnet application.
1-127
TCP Three-Way Handshake/Open Connection

Host A
Host B
Send SYN (seq = 100 ctl = SYN) SYN Received SYN Received Send SYN, ACK 2 (seq = 300 ack = 101 ctl = syn,ack)
Established (seq = 101 ack = 301 ctl = ack)
1-128
TCP Simple Acknowledgment

Sender Send 1 Receive ACK 2 Send 2 Receive ACK 3 Send 3 Receive ACK 4
Receiver Receive 1 Send ACK 2
Receive 2 Send ACK 3 Receive 3 Send ACK 4

Window Size = 1
TCP Sequence and Acknowledgment Numbers

Source Source Port Port Destination Destination Port Port Sequence Sequence Acknowledgment Acknowledgment
I just sent number 10
I just got number 10, now I need number 11.
Source Dest. Seq. Ack. 1028 10 1 1028 23 23 10 1 Source Dest. Seq. Ack. 23 1 11 23 1028 1 11 1028 Source Dest. Seq. Ack. 1028 1028 23 23 11 11 2 2 .
1-130
TCP Windowing
Size = 3 Sender Window Send 1 Window Size = 3 Send 2 Window Size = 3 Send 3 ACK 3 Window Size = 2 Window Size = 3 Send 3 Window Size = 3 Send 4 ACK 5 Window Size = 2 Window Size = 3
Receiver
Packet 3 Is Dropped
1-131
UDP (User Datagram Protocol)

A connectionless and unacknowledged protocol. UDP is also responsible for transmitting messages. But no checking for segment delivery is provided. UDP depends on upper layer protocol for reliability. TCP and UDP uses Port no. to listen to a particular services.
1-132
UDP Segment Format

Bit 1 0 Source Port (16) Length (16) Data (if Any) Bit 15 Bit 16 Destination Port (16) Checksum (16) Bit 31 8 Bytes
No sequence or acknowledgment fields
1-133
UDP Segment Format

Source port Number of the calling port Destination Port Number of the called port Length Number of bytes, including header and data Checksum Calculated checksum of the header and data fields Data Upper layer protocol data
1-134
Application Layer Overview

File File Transfer Transfer -- TFTP* TFTP* -- FTP* FTP* -- NFS NFS E-Mail E-Mail -- SMTP SMTP Remote Remote Login Login -- Telnet* Telnet* -- rlogin* rlogin* Network Network Management Management -- SNMP* SNMP* Name Name Management Management -- DNS* DNS* *Used by the Router
Physical
Application Transport Internet Data-Link
1-135
Telnet
Telnet is used for Terminal Emulation. It allows a user sitting on a remote machine to access the resources of another machine.
It allows you to transfer files from one machine to another. It also allows access to both directories and files. It uses TCP for data transfer and hence slow but reliable.
1-136
Simple Network Management Protocol
SNMP enable a central management of Network. Using SNMP an administrator can watch the entire network. SNMP works with TCP/IP. IT uses UDP for transportation of the data.
1-137
DNS (Domain Name Service)
DNS resolves FQDNs with IP address. DNS allows you to use a domain name to specify and IP address. It maintains a database for IP address and Hostnames. On every query it checks this database and resolves the IP.
1-138
WAN Basics
What Is a WAN?
A network that serves users across a broad geographic area Often uses transmission devices provided by public carriers (Pacific Bell, AT&T, etc.)
This service is commonly referred to as plain old telephone service (POTS)
WANs function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model
Physical layer, data link layer, and network layer
WAN Overview
Service Provider
WANs connect sites Connection requirements vary depending on user requirements and cost
What is a WAN?
A WAN is a data communications network that covers a relatively broad geographic area and often uses transmission facilities provided by common carriers, such as telephone companies. WAN technologies function at the lower three layers of the OSI reference model: the physical layer, the data link layer, and the network layer.
1-142
Serial Implementation of DTE versus DCE

Data Terminal Equipment
End of the users device on the WAN link
Data Communications Equipment

End of the WAN providers side of the communication facility DCE is responsible for clocking
Modem CSU/DSU DTE

S S S S S S S S S S
DCE
DTE
DCE
S S
DCE
DTE
1-143
WAN Terminating Equipment

Physical Cable Types
Router
To Corporate Network
EIA/TIA-232 V.35 X.21 HSSI
WAN Provider (Carrier) Network

Modem
Usually on the Customers Premises
DTE
DCE
Data Terminal Equipment

The Customers Equipment
Data Circuit-Terminating Equipment

The Service Providers Equipment
Serial Transmission
WAN Serial connectors use serial transmission Serial transmission uses one bit at time over a single channel. Parallel transmission can use 8 bits at a time, but all WANs use serial transmission. Cisco Routers use a proprietary 60 pin serial connector. Connector at the other end of the cable will depend on your service provider or end device requirements.
LAN/WAN Devices
1999, Cisco Systems, Inc. 2009, Velocis Systems
LAN/WAN Devices
Hubs Bridges Switches Routers
1-147
Hub
Device that serves as the center of a star topology network, sometimes referred to as a multiport repeater, no forwarding intelligence
1-148
Hubs
123 126
124
127
Hub
125
Data
Data
128

Amplifies signals Propagates signals through the network Does not filter data packets based on destination No path determination or switching Used as network concentration point
Hubs Operate at Physical layer
Physical
All devices in the same collision domain All devices in the same broadcast domain Devices share the same bandwidth
Hubs: One Collision Domain
More end stations means more collisions CSMA/CD is used
1-151
Bridge
Device that connects and passes packets between two network segments. More intelligent than hubanalyzes incoming packets and forwards (or filters) them based on addressing information.
1-152
Bridge Example
123 126
124
Bridge
127
Hub
125
Hub
128
Segment 1
Corporate Intranet
Segment 2
More intelligent than a hubcan analyze incoming packets and forward (or filter) them based on addressing information Collects and passes packets between two network segments Maintains address tables
1-153
Switches
Use bridging technology to forward traffic between ports. Provide full dedicated data transmission rate between two stations that are directly connected to the switch ports. Build and maintain address tables called content-addressable memory (CAM).
SwitchingDedicated Media
Workstation
31
10-Mbps UTP Cable Dedicated
Switch
34 35
32
100 Mbps
100 Mbps Corporate Intranet
33
36
Uses bridging technology to forward traffic (i.e. maintains address tables, and can filter) Provides full dedicated transmission rate between stations that are connected to switch ports Used in both local-area and in wide-area networking All types availableEthernet, Token Ring, ATM
Switches and Bridges Operate at Data Link Layer

Data Link
OR
Each segment has its own collision domain All segments are in the same broadcast domain
Switches
Switch
Memory
Each segment has its own collision domain Broadcasts are forwarded to all segments
1-157
Routers
Interconnect Interconnect LANs LANs and and WANs WANs Provide Provide path path determination determination using using metrics metrics Forward Forward packets packets from from one one network network to to another another Control Control broadcasts broadcasts to to the the network network
Network Layer Functions (cont.)

1.1 1.0 4.0 4.1
1.2
1.3 E0
2.1 S0
2.2 S0
4.3 E0
4.2
Routing Table NET INT Metric 0 E0 1 0 S0 2 1 S0 4
Routing Table NET INT Metric 1 S0 1 0 S0 2 0 E0 4
Logical addressing allows for hierarchical network Configuration required Uses configured information to identify paths to networks
Routers: Operate at the Network Layer

Broadcast control Multicast control Optimal path determination Traffic management Logical addressing Connects to WAN services
1-160
Using Routers to Provide Remote Access

Modem or ISDN TA Telecommuter
Mobile User
Branch Office Main Office Internet
1-161
Network Device Domains

Hub Bridge Switch Router
Collision Domains: 1 4 Broadcast Domains: 1

4 1
4 4

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Networking Basics

2009, Velocis Systems

How a LAN Is Built

2009, Velocis Systems

What are the components?

How is a LAN controlled?

2009, Velocis Systems

Network Operating System (OS)

PC or Workstation Loaded with NOS

2009, Velocis Systems

Network Interface Card

PC or Workstation Loaded with NOS

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Doubling every year!

The OSI Model

The Layered Model

2009, Velocis Systems

Why a Layered Network Model?

2009, Velocis Systems

Devices Function at Layers

Application Presentation Session

Transport Network Data Link Physical

2009, Velocis Systems

Host layers: Provide

2009, Velocis Systems

Host layers: Provide

Media layers: Control

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

Graphics Visual images

Provides code formatting and conversion for applications

PROTOCOLS OF PRESENTATION LAYER

2009, Velocis Systems

Full Duplex Both way at the same time.

2009, Velocis Systems

Service Request Service Reply

Coordinates applications as they interact on different hosts

SESSION LAYER PROTOCOLS

2009, Velocis Systems

Port Addresses are reserved for standardization purpose.

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

Buffer Full Process Segments

Ready Resume Transmission

2009, Velocis Systems

Synchronize Negotiate Connection Synchronize Acknowledge

2009, Velocis Systems

Connection Oriented Transmission

Connection Oriented Protocol

Receive 1 Ack 2 Receive 2 Ack 3 Window Size = 3

Send 1 Send 2 Send 3 Send 4

Receive 1 Receive 2 Receive 3 Ack 4

2009, Velocis Systems

Ack 4 Send 4 Send 5 Send 6 Ack 5 Send 5 Ack 7

Connection Less Protocol

2009, Velocis Systems

2009, Velocis Systems

Network Layer: Path Determination