Chap 1. Stress-Strain Analysis

11
CHAP 1. STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSIS

Stress and strain are fundamental concepts in mechanical analysis and design. The
safety of a structure is often evaluated based on stress that the structure carries on. If
stress is great than a limit value, then the structure fails and, possibly, collapses. Thus,
stress is often used as criteria for mechanical design.

When loads are applied to the deformable structure, it generates internal forces
(stress) against the loads. In order to generate the internal force the structure must deform
its shape, which is related to strain. Consider a simple spring example, as shown in Figure
1.1. If a force F is applied to a spring, it generates a counterforce (or internal force) by
deforming its length to l. In this case, the internal force corresponds to stress, and the
deformation corresponds to strain. The internal force and deformation are related by
F K l =
where K is called the spring constant. The relation between the internal force and
deformation is linear, which is a simple case of linear elasticity.

F
l l

Figure 1.1 Deformation of a spring under axial force

1.1. Stress
Surface Traction (Stress Vector)
Surface traction or stress vector is defined as a force intensity acting on a plane.
Consider a deformable body that is in equilibrium under external forces (see Figure
1.2(a)). To see the effect of the internal surface traction, we imaginarily cut the structure
12 Finite Element Analysis and Design

by a plane whose normal vector is n through a point P, as shown in Figure 1.2(b). In
order for the left half of the structure to be in equilibrium, there must be internal forces
transmitted across the cutting plane. Such a distributed force is called the surface traction
or stress vector. The stress vector T
(n)
acting at the point P on a plane whose normal is n
is defined as

( )
0
lim
A
A

n
F
T (1.1)
In Eq. (1.1), the right superscript (n) is used to denote that this stress vector is defined on
a plane whose normal is n. In addition, the stress vector is defined at a point by reducing
the surface area. It is clear from Eq. (1.1) that the dimension of stress is force per unit
area (pressure). In addition to the information of a force, the stress vector contains the
information of a surface on which it is defined.

F
n
f
1

f
2

f
3

f
1

f
2

f
3

f
4

f
6

f
5

(a) (b)
x
y
z
P
A

Figure 1.2 Surface traction acting on a plane

Example 1.1
Consider a truss component with the cross-sectional area A = 0.2 m
2
, as shown in
Figure 1.3. If an axial force F = 100 N is applied to the truss, determine the stress vector
on the cross-section.

Chap. 1 Stress-Strain Analysis 13

F
F
F
A
n T
(n)

Figure 1.3 Equilibrium of the truss component under the axial force

To simplify analysis, let us assume that the surface traction is equally distributed on
the cross-section of the truss. In fact, this is the fundamental assumption of truss. The
force on the cross-section A is obtained by integrating the constant stress vector T
(n)
over
the cross-sectional area. In this simple example, the stress vector T
(n)
is in the direction of
n. Thus, the magnitude of stress can be obtained by T = T
(n)
n. Since the truss component
is in the equilibrium status, the internal force must be the same with F in magnitude, i.e.,

( )
A A
F dA T dA TA = = =

n
T n

2 2
100N N
500 500Pa
0.2m m
F
T
A
= = = =
Note that Pascal (Pa) = N/m
2
is used for the stress unit, which is the same as the unit for
the pressure. In fact, the pressure is a special situation of stress in which the magnitude of
stress is the same in every direction.
Normal Stress and Shear Stress
The stress vector T
(n)
does not act in general in the direction of n. Thus, we can
separate the stress vector into the one that is parallel to n and the one that is orthogonal to
n.

n
normal stress stress component parallel to n
n
shear stress stress component orthogonal to n

From Figure 1.4, normal stress can be calculated by
n
= T
(n)
n, and shear stress can be
calculated from the following relations:

2
( ) 2 2
n n
= +
n
T

2
( ) 2
n n
=
n
T (1.2)

n

T
(n)

n
P

Figure 1.4 Normal and shear stresses at a point P
Example 1.2
When the stress vector at a point is
( )
{3, 4, 5}
T
=
n
T on the plane whole normal is
parallel to the z-coordinate, calculate the normal and shear stresses.

( )
2
( ) 2 2 2
2
3 0 4 0 5 1 5
3 4 5 50
50 5 5
n
n
= = + + =
= + + =
= =
n
n
T n
T

Rectangular or Cartesian Stress Components
Decomposing the stress vector into the normal and shear components can be further
generalized to a three-dimensional cube whose sides are parallel to the coordinate system.
Once we have found the components of the stress vectors acting on the coordinate planes
we will relate these to the components of T
(n)
.

In order to represent stress components in the Cartesian coordinate system, an
infinitesimal cube whose edges are parallel to the x, y, and z axes is taken from inside of
the structure in Figure 1.2, as shown in Figure 1.5. Three sides of the edge have a length
of x, y, and z. In order for the cube to be in equilibrium, each side of the cube has
internal forces on the plane. For example, consider a plane in the positive x-direction
whose area is A
x
= yz. The internal force on the plane A
x
can be represented using
x-y-z coordinate system, as

x y z
F F F = + + F i j k (1.3)
where i, j, and k are unit vectors in the x, y, and z directions, respectively. Using the
decomposition in Eq. (1.3) and the definition of the stress vector in Eq. (1.1), the stress
vector on the plane A
x
can also be decomposed in three Cartesian components as

( )
xx xy xz
= + +
i
T i j k
where in this case i is the normal vector to the plane, and

0
0
0
lim
lim
lim
x
x
x
x
xx
A
x
y
xy
A
x
z
xz
A
x
F
A
F
A
F
A
(1.4)
are three components of the stress vector. A special notation is used in representing the
components of stress vector. In
xx
, for example, the first subscript indicates the face on
which the stress is acting and the second subscript indicates its direction. When two
subscripts are the same it is normal stress, otherwise it is shear stress. Note that in each
plane one normal stress and two shear stresses exist. If the same procedure is carried out
for the planes in the positive y- and z-axis, then a total of nine stress components can be
defined, whose explanation is summarized in Table 1.1. The same stress components are
defined for the planes in the negative coordinate directions.

xx

yy

zz

xy

xz

yx

yz

zx

zy

x
y
z
x
y
z
F

Figure 1.5 Stress components in Cartesian coordinate system


Table 1.1 Description of stress components
Stress Component Description

xx
Normal stress on the x face in the x direction

yy
Normal stress on the y face in the y direction

zz
Normal stress on the z face in the z direction

xy
Shear stress on the x face in the y direction

yx
Shear stress on the y face in the x direction

yz
Shear stress on the y face in the z direction

zy
Shear stress on the z face in the y direction

xz
Shear stress on the x face in the z direction

zx
Shear stress on the z face in the x direction

As shown in Table 1.1, a knowledge of the nine components is necessary in order to
determine the components of the stress vector T
(n)
acting on an arbitrary plane with
normal n.

Sign convention of stress components is quite different from that of regular force
vectors because stress components contain information of the surface on which they are
defined. A stress component is positive when both the surface normal and the stress
component are either in the positive or in the negative coordinate direction. If the surface
normal is in the positive direction and the stress component is in the negative direction,
then the stress component has a negative sign. For example, the signs of
xx
and
xy
can be
determined by

sgn( ) sgn( ) sgn( )
sgn( ) sgn( ) sgn( )
xx x
xy y
F
F
=
=
n
n

Normal stress is positive when it is a tensile stress and negative when it is compressive.
Shear stress acting on the positive face is positive when it is acting in the positive
coordinate direction. The positive directions of all the stress components are shown in
Figure 1.5.
Stress Components on an Arbitrary Plane through a Point
If the components of stress at a point are known, it is possible to determine the
traction or stress vector acting on any plane passing through that point. Let n be the unit
normal to the plane on which we want to determine the stress vector. The normal vector
can be represented in a similar way in Eq. (1.3), as

x
x y z y
z
n
n n n n
n

= + + =
`

)
n i j k

Figure 1.6 shows a coordinate system at a point P and a tetrahedron PABC where the
normal to the face ABC is n. If A is the area of the triangle ABC, then the areas of
triangles PAB, PBC, and PAC are given by An
z
, An
x
, An
y
, respectively. Let the
perpendicular distance from point P to the plane ABC be h and let the surface traction
acting on the face ABC be given by
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
x y z
T T T = + +
n n n n
T i j k .

x
y
z
B
A
C
zz

zx

zy

yy

yz

yx

xx

xz

xy

T
(n)

n
P

Figure 1.6 Stress vector and stress components acting on faces of an infinitesimal
tetrahedron, cutting from the body in Figure 1.2

From the definition of stress vector in Eq. (1.1), the force on the surface can be
calculated by multiplying stress with the surface area. Since the whole structure is in
equilibrium, the forces applied to the tetrahedron in Figure 1.6 are also balanced. Force
balance in the x-direction yields

( )
0
x x xx x yx y zx z
F T A An An An = =
n

If the size of the tetrahedron is not small enough, then the stress component on the plane
is not constant. Since we are interested in the stress component at a point, the size of the
tetrahedron is infinitesimal (i.e. h 0) and, thus, the above equation holds true. After
dividing the above equation with the area A, we obtain the following relation:

( )
x xx x yx y zx z
T n n n = + +
n
(1.5)
This is nothing but a summation of x-directional stress components, and their
contribution is proportional to area ratio. Similarly, force balance in the y- and z-
directions yields

( )
( )
y xy x yy y zy z
z xz x yz y zz z
T n n n
T n n n

= + +
= + +
n
n
(1.6)

From Eqs. (1.5) and (1.6), it is clear that the stress vector acting on the surface whose
normal is n can be determined if nine stress components are available. Using matrix
notation, we can write these equations, as

( )
[ ] =
n
T n (1.7)
where
[ ]
xx yx zx
xy yy zy
xz yz zz

(
(
=
(
(

(1.8)
is the stress matrix. We use [] symbol to denote a matrix. [] is often called a stress
tensor. From Eq. (1.2), the normal stress and shear stress on plane ABC can therefore be
expressed as

( )
2
( ) 2
[ ]
n
n n

= =
=
n
n
T n n n
T
(1.9)
Example 1.3
The state of stress at a particular point relative to xyz coordinates is given by the
following stress matrix:

3 7 7
[ ] 7 4 0
7 0 2
(
(
=
(
(

Determine the normal and shear stresses on a surface intersecting the point and parallel to
the plane given by the equation of 4 4 2 2 x y z + = .

In order to determine the surface traction T(n), it is necessary to determine the unit
normal vector to the plane. From the elementary geometry, the plane normal is in the
direction of d = {4, 4, 2}
T
. and 6 = d . Thus, the unit normal vector is

2 2 1
{ , , }
3 3 3
T
= n
The surface traction can be obtained as

( )
3 7 7 2 5
1
[ ] 7 4 0 2 2
3
7 0 2 1 4
(

(
= = =
` `
(

(
) )
n
T n
Since the surface traction and the unit normal vector is available, the remaining
calculation is similar to that of Example 1.2, 12

( )
2
( ) 2 2 2
2
( )
2 2 1 2
5 2 4
3 3 3 3
5 2 4 45
4 401
9 3
n
n
= = =
= + + =
= =
n
n
n
T n
T
T

Symmetry of Stress Matrix and Vector Notation
The nine components of the stress matrix can be reduced to six using the symmetric
property of the stress matrix. Figure 1.7 shows an infinitesimal component (ll) of the
structure with shear stresses. The stress matrix at a point can be obtained as l
approaches to zero. The positive direction of the shear stress
xy
in surface BD is in the
positive y-direction, while in surface AC it is in the negative y-direction. When the
structure is in the equilibrium status, the forces and moments are

( ) 0
xy yx
xy yx
M l

= =
=

In order to satisfy the requirement of M = 0 the shear stress components acting on
perpendicular faces and in directions perpendicular to the line of intersection of the faces
must be equal in magnitude and directed relative to each other. Thus, in a similar way the
following relations can be derived:

xy yx
yz zy
xz zx

=
=
=
(1.10)
Equation (1.10) implies that the stress matrix is symmetric and that only six components
are enough to fully represent the stress at a point. Thus, instead of the 33 stress matrix
the following 61 stress vector notation is often used:

{ }
xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
zx

=
`

)
(1.11)

xy

yx

x
y
xy

yx

O
l
l
A B
C D

Figure 1.7 Moment equilibrium of shear stress at a point

Principal Stresses
As shown in the previous section, the stress vector at a point has different
components in different planes. If we find a plane on which the stress vector only has
normal stress, then the normal stress is called the principal stress and the normal direction
of the plane is called the principal direction. It was stated earlier that the stress vector
acting on different planes through a point can be different. In other words, the stress
vector acting on this plane is along the normal vector to the plane. It will be shown that
there are three such planes and three corresponding principal stresses. These stresses are
the extreme values (maximum or minimum) of stress at the point.

When the normal to a plane is the principal direction, the surface normal and the
stress vector are in the same direction (T
(n)
// n). Thus, the stress vector on a plane can be
represented by the production of a scalar and the normal vector, as

( )
=
n
T n (1.12)
Combining Eq. (1.12) with Eq. (1.7) for the stress vector, we obtain
[ ] = n n (1.13)

Equation (1.13) represents the eigenvalue problem, where is an eigenvalue and n is an
eigenvector. Equation (1.13) can be rearranged as
( ) [ ] [ ] = I n 0
where [I] is a 33 identity matrix. In component form, the above equation can be written
in the following form:

0
0
0
xx yx zx x
xy yy zy y
xz yz zz z
n
n
n

(
(
=
` `
(

(
) )

(1.14)
Note that n = 0 satisfies the above equation, which yields a trivial solution. The above set
of linear simultaneous equations will have a non-trivial solution only if the determinant
of the coefficient matrix is zero, i.e.,
0
xx yx zx
xy yy zy
xz yz zz

(1.15)
Expanding this determinant, we obtain the following cubic equation:

3 2
1 2 3
0 I I I + = (1.16)
where

1
2 2 2
2
2 2 2
3
2
xx yy zz
xx yy yy zz zz xx xy yz zx
xx yy zz xy yz zx xx yz yy zx zz xy
I
I
I

= + +
= + +
= +

are three invariants of the stress matrix [], which is independent of coordinate systems.
Three roots of cubic Eq. (1.16) correspond to the three principal stresses. We will denote
them by
1
,
2
, and
3
. Such a cubic equation can be solved using numerical methods
such as the Newton-Raphson method or an analytical method.

The numerical method for solving the cubic equation (1.16) can be found in the
literature [3]. The analytical method is explained as follows. Consider a cubic equation of
the form:

3 2
0 y py qy r + + + =

A general analytical solution for the above cubic equation can be written as

1
2
3
cos
3 3
2
cos( )
3 3
4
cos( )
3 3
p
y g
p
y g
p
y g

=
+
=
+
=

where

3
2
3
cos
2 27
2 3
1
(3 )
3
1
(2 9 27 )
27
b
a
g a
a q p
b p pq r
= +

It can be shown that eigenvalues of a real symmetric matrix is always real (not
imaginary). Since the stress matrix is symmetric it implies that the principal stress values
calculated will be real or in other words, one can always compute three real (not always
unique) principal stresses at any point in a solid.
Example 1.4
For the stress matrix give below, determine the principal stresses.

3 1 1
[ ] 1 0 2
1 2 0
(
(
=
(
(

From Eq. (1.15), the determinant of the coefficient matrix becomes

3 1 1
1 2 0
1 2

Even if the above cubic equation can be solved using the method explained above, here
we solve the cubic equation using factor analysis. By expanding the determinant, we
obtain

2
2
(3 )( 4) ( 2) (2 )
( 3)( 2)( 2) 2( 2)
( 2)[ ( 3)( 2) 2]
( 2)( 5 4)
( 2)( 1)( 4) 0

+ +
= + + +
= + +
= + +
= + =

Three solutions of the above equation are three principal stresses. Thus,

1 2 3
4, 1, 2 = = =
Principal Directions
Once the principal stresses have been computed, we can substitute them one at a time
into Eq. (1.14) to obtain the linear system of matrix equation that have three unknowns
n
x
, n
y
, and n
z
. For example if the first principal stress
1
is replaced by , then we obtain

1
1
1
1
1
1
0
0
0
xx yx zx x
xy yy zy y
xz yz zz z
n
n
n

(
(
=
` `
(

(
)
)
(1.17)
Corresponding to each principal value, we will get a principal direction that will be
denoted as n
1
, n
2
, and n
3
. In Eq. (1.17),
1 1 1
, , and
x y z
n n n are components of n
1
. The above
equations are three linear simultaneous equations with three unknowns. However, since
the determinant of the matrix is zero (i.e., the matrix is singular), they are not
independent. Thus, an infinite number of solutions exist. We need one more equation to
find a unique value for the principal directions n
i
. We can find a unique values for these
vectors by assuming that they are unit vectors so that

2
2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) 1, 1, 2,3
i i i i
x y z
n n n i = + + = = n (1.18)

It can be shown that the planes on which the principal stresses act are mutually
perpendicular. Let us consider any two principal directions n
i
and n
j
, with i j. If
i
and
j
are the corresponding principal stresses, then they satisfy the following equations:

[ ]
[ ]
i i
i
j j
j
=
=
n n
n n

Multiplying the first equation by n
j
and the second equation by n
i
, we obtain

[ ]
[ ]
j i j i
i
i j i j
j
=
=
n n n n
n n n n

Subtracting the first equation from the second and considering [] = []
T
, we obtain
( ) 0
i j
i j
= n n
This implies that if the principal stresses are distinct, i.e.,
i

j
, then
0
i j
= n n
which means that n
i
and n
j
are perpendicular. The three planes on which the principal
stresses act are mutually perpendicular.

There are three cases for principal directions:

a)
1
,
2
, and
3
are distinct principal directions are three unique mutually orthogonal
unit vectors.
b)
1
=
2
and
3
are distinct n
3
is a unique principal direction, and any two
orthogonal directions on the plane that is perpendicular to n3 are principal directions.
c)
1
=
2
=
3
any three orthogonal directions are principal directions. This state of
stress corresponds to a hydrostatic pressure.
Example 1.5
Calculate the principal direction corresponding to
3
= 2 of Example 1.4.

By substituting = 2 into eigenvalue problem in Eq. (1.14), we obtain the following
simultaneous equations:

5 0
2 2 0
2 2 0
x y z
x y z
x y z
n n n
n n n
n n n
+ + =
+ + =
+ + =

Even if there are three equations and three unknowns, one cannot solve it because three
equations are not independent. In fact, the second the third equations are identical. This
situation happens because the principal stresses are chosen in such a way that the matrix
equations are dependent each other. As a result, two independent equations exist with
three unknowns. Thus, we cannot obtain a unique solution. Let solve the second equation
for n
x
, yielding
2( )
x y z
n n n = +

Substituting into the first equation yields
9( ) 0
y z
n n + =
Thus, any n
y
and n
z
that satisfy n
y
= n
z
can be a solution to the original eigenvalue
problem. A unique solution can be obtained if the condition in Eq. (1.18) is imposed, as

0 0
1 1
1 , 1
2 2
1 1

= =
` `

) )
n or n
Transformation of Stress
Let the state of stress at a point be given by the stress matrix []
xyz
where the
components are expressed in terms of the xyz coordinate as shown in Figure 1.8. What
are the components of stress at the same point, when expressed in terms of a different
coordinate system xyz (i.e., []
xyz
)? It will be shown that the stress matrix []
xyz
can be
obtained by rotating the stress matrix []
xyz
using a transformation matrix that is obtained
from direction cosines.

x
y
z
x
y
z
d
1
d
2
d
3

Figure 1.8 Coordinate transformation of stress

Let us define xyz coordinates system whose unit vectors are given in the xyz
coordinate system, as

1 2 3
1 1 1
1 1 2 2 3 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
3 3 3
, ,
d d d
d d d
d d d

= = =
` ` `

) ) )
d d d
For example, d
1
= {1, 0, 0}
T
in xyz coordinates, while
1 1 1 1
1 2 3
{ , , } d d d = d in xyz coordi-
nates. In fact, these three unit vectors are direction cosines of xyz coordinates with

respect to xyz coordinates. Using these vectors, let us define the rotational transformation
matrix as

1 2 3
1 1 1
1 2 3 1 2 3
2 2 2
1 2 3
3 3 3
[ ] [ ]
b b b
b b b
b b b
(
(
= =
(
(

N b b b (1.19)
The matrix [N] transforms a vector in the xyz coordinates into a vector in the xyz
coordinates, while its transpose [N]
T
transforms a vector in the xyz coordinates into a
vector in the xyz coordinates. For example, a unit vector a
xyz
= {1, 0, 0}
T
in xyz co-
ordinates can be represented in the xyz coordinates as

1
1
1 1
2
1
3
[ ]
xyz x y z
b
b
b

= = =
`

)
a N a b

Transformation of the stress matrix is more complicated than transformation of a
vector. The representation of stress vector in Eq. (1.7) is

1 2 3
( ) ( ) ( ) 1 2 3
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
xyz xyz xyz
= =
b b b
T T T b b b N (1.20)
Equation (1.20) represents three stress vectors on the planes perpendicular to b
1
, b
2
, and
b
3
in the xyz coordinates system. However, each stress vector is defined in the xyz
coordinates system. Thus, by multiplying the transposed matrix [N]
T
the stress vectors
can be represented in the xyz coordinates. The stress matrix in the new coordinate
system can be obtained by
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
T
x y z xyz
= N N (1.21)
In Eq. (1.21), matrix [N] is used twice to transform the stress matrix. The first one is used
to transform plane information, while the second is used to transform force information.
Example 1.6
The state of stress at a point with respect to the xyz coordinates is

2 1 0
[ ] 1 2 0
0 0 2
(
(
=
(
(


Determine the stress matrix relative to the xyz coordinates.

x
y
z, z
x
y
45
o

Figure 1.9 Coordinate transformation of Example 1.6
Since the z-direction is the same as the z-direction, the coordinate transformation is
basically the same as two-dimensional rotation. Let cos45 sin45 1/ 2 a = = = , then the
transformation matrix becomes

0
[ ] 0
0 0 1
a a
a a
(
(
=
(
(

N
Multiplying its transpose with the stress matrix yields

0 2 1 0 3 3 0
[ ] [ ] 0 1 2 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2
T
a a a a
a a a a
( ( (
( ( (
= =
( ( (
( ( (

N
Finally, the stress matrix at the transformed coordinates becomes

2
2
3 3 0 0 6 0 0 3 0 0
[ ] [ ][ ] 0 0 0 2 0 0 1 0
0 0 2 0 0 1 0 0 2 0 0 2
T
a a a a a
a a a a a
(
( ( (
(
( ( (
= = =
(
( ( (
(
( ( (

N N
Note that the stress matrix is diagonal after transformation, which means that the xyz
coordinates is the principal directions.
Maximum Shear Stress
Maximum shear stress plays an important role in the failure criteria of the material.
Let
1
,
2
, and
3
be the three principal stresses at a point such that
1
7
2
7
3
. The stress
status at this point can be described using the Mohrs circle as in Figure 1.10.

1

3

2

max

Figure 1.10 Maximum shear stress

In the above diagram, any point (, ) located in the shaded area represents a plane
through the point that has and as the normal and shear stress components,
respectively. The maximum shear stress is

1 3
max
2

=
Note that
1
is the maximum principal stress and
3
is the minimum principal stress (
1
7
2
7
3
), and
1

3
is the diameter of the largest circle.
1.2. Strain
Tensile (Normal) Strain
When a force is applied to the structure, it deforms its shape. The deformation of the
structure is quantitatively measured by strain. Strain is defined as the elongation per unit
length. For example, the length of the rectangular component in Figure 1.11(a) increases
from x to x + u
x
. Also, the height in Figure 1.11(b) increases from y to y + u
y
. In
both cases, the tensile (normal) strains in x- and y-directions are defined by

0
0
lim
lim
x x
xx
x
y y
yy
y
u u
x x
u u
y y

= =

= =

(1.22)


P
P
P
x
u
x

y
u
y
u
x
u
y

1

(a) (b) (c)
/2
12

Figure 1.11 Definition of strain

Because normal strain is the ratio of two lengths, it is a dimensionless quantity; that
is, it has no units. Thus, strain is expressed as a pure number, independent of any system
of units.
Shear Strain
In general, however, the deformation of the structure cannot fully be represented with
two tensile strains. The distortion of the structure, as shown in Figure 1.11(c), can be
represented by shear strain. Shear strain is defined as the tangent of the change in angle
between two originally perpendicular axes. Since in linear elastic material the amount of
deformation is very small, the angles in Figure 1.11(c) can be approximated by

1 1
2 2
tan
tan
y
x
u
x
u
y

Using
1
and
2
, the change of angle can be measured as

1 2
0 0
lim lim
y y
x x
xy
x y
u u
u u
x y x y

= + = + = +

(1.23)
The angle
xy
is a measure of the distortion, or change in shape, of the component and is
called the shear strain. The units of shear strain are radians. Instead of shear strain in Eq.
(1.23), the following definition of shear strain is often used:

1 1
2 2
y
x
xy xy
u
u
x y

| |
= = +
|

\ .
(1.24)

Equations (1.22) and (1.24) indicate that the strain components depend linearly on the
derivatives of the displacement components. It is important to emphasize that our
derivation for the normal and shear strains is valid under the assumption of small
displacement derivatives. Thus, the strain measure in this class is limited for small strains
and small rotations.

Shear strain in a component is positive when the angle between two positive (or two
negative) faces is reduced. The strain is negative when the angle between two positive (or
two negative) faces is increased. Thus, the shear strain in Figure 1.11(c) is positive and
positive shear stresses produce positive shear strains.

In general three-dimensional case, the strain matrix can be defined as
[ ]
xx xy xz
yx yy yz
zx zy zz

(
(
=
(
(

As is clear from the definition in Eq. (1.24), the strain matrix is symmetric. Same as the
stress vector, the symmetric strain matrix can be represented using a vector notation as
{ }
xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
zx

=
`

)

where
xy
,
yz
, and
zx
are used instead of
xy
,
yz
, and
zx
.
Deformation (or Displacement) Field
The deformation of a solid can be described by specifying the displacement at every
point in the solid. Let u(x, y, z) be the displacement vector at a point P(x, y, z). Since this
vector is a function of spatial coordinates x, y, and z, it represents a vector field that is
referred to as the deformation field or the displacement field. The new position of the
point after deformation can be computed as
= + r r u
where r is the position vector of the original location of point P and r id the location of
the final position of the point after deformation has occurred (see Figure 1.12).


r
r
u
y
z
n
P
x

Figure 1.12 Deformation and strain

Assuming n is an arbitrary unit vector, the component of displacement along this
direction is

n
u = u n
The normal strain in the direction of n can be defined as

n
nn
u
n

If the state of strain is known at a point, the normal strain at that point in the direction of
n can be computed as
[ ]
nn
= n n
Transformation of Strain
Let the state of strain at a point be given by the strain matrix []
xyz
where the
components are expressed in terms of xyz coordinates shown in Figure 1.8. What are the
components of strain at the same point, when expressed in terms of a different
coordinates system xyz (i.e., []
xyz
)?

Let b
1
, b
2
, and b
3
be unit vectors along the axes x, y, and z, respectively, represented
in xyz coordinates. The strain matrix expressed with respect to the xyz coordinates
system is
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
T
x y z xyz
= N N
which is the same transformation with the stress matrix as in Eq. (1.21).

Principal Strains
Principal strain is the extensional strain on a plane, where there is no shear strain. The
principal strains and their directions can be computed as the eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the following eigenvalue problem:
[ ] = n n
where n is the eigenvector of matrix []. Same as the stress matrix, the above eigenvalue
problem has three solutions
1
,
2
, and
3
in general, which are called the principal strains.

If the principal strains
1
,
2
, and
3
are known, then the maximum shear strain can be
computed as

1 3
max
2

=
where
1
7
2
7
3
are the principal strains.
Stress vs. Strain
Stress and strain in the previous two sections share many similar properties. Table 1.2
summarizes these common properties between stress and strain.

Table 1.2 Comparison of stress and strain
[] is a symmetric 33 matrix [] is a symmetric 33 matrix
Normal stress in the direction n is
[ ]
nn
= n n
Normal strain in the direction n is
[ ]
nn
= n n
Transformation of stress
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
T
x y z xyz
= N N
Transformation of strain
[ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]
T
x y z xyz
= N N
Three mutually perpendicular principal
directions and principal stresses can be
computed as eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the stress matrix as [ ] = n n
Three mutually perpendicular principal
directions and principal strains can be
computed as eigenvalues and eigenvectors
of the strain matrix as [ ] = n n
1.3. Stress-Strain Relationship
An applied load to the structural component develops distributed stress within the
component to satisfy force equilibrium. However, this stress can only be generated by
changing the shape of the component, which is defined as strain. Thus, intuitively, there
must be a relationship between stress and strain. Even if the actual relation between stress
and strain is complicated, it is often simplified to meet engineering purposes. Linear

elastic relationship is the simplest and most dominantly used one in the engineering
applications, which is the topic of this section.
Uni-axial Stress
A cylindrical test specimen is loaded along its axis as shown Figure 1.13. This type
of loading ensures that the specimen is subjected to uni-axial state of stress so that if the
z-axis is along the axis of the specimen
zz
= F/A, and all other components of stress are
zero. Here F is the axial force applied to the specimen and A is the cross-sectional area of
the specimen. For small values of the applied load F, the specimen deforms elastically so
that the specimen returns to its original length after the load is released. In this range of
deformation, the deformation of the specimen varies linearly with the load so that stress-
strain relation is linear, i.e.,

zz zz
E = (1.25)
where proportional constant E is the Youngs modulus of elasticity.

F
F

Figure 1.13 Uniaxial Tension Test

For uni-axial loading (one-dimensional stress) when the specimen extended in the z-
direction due to the applied load, it also shrinks in the x- and y-directions because the
total volume of the structure remains constant. The ratio between the tensile strain in the
z-direction and the shrinking in x- and y-directions is called the Poissons ratio. Since the
dimensions in x- and y-axes decrease,
xx
and
yy
are negative and defined by

xx yy zz
= =
where is the Poissons ratio.

If the stress-strain relation of the uni-axial tension test in Figure 1.13 is plotted, then a
typical ductile material may show a behavior as in Figure 1.14. The explanation of terms
in the figure is summarized in Table 1.3.


Table 1.3 Explanations of uniaxial tension test
Terms Explanation
Proportional
limit
The greatest stress for which the stress is still proportional to the
strain
Elastic limit The greatest stress without resulting in any permanent strain on
release of stress
Yield stress The stress required to produce 0.2% plastic strain
Strain hardening A region where more stress is required to deform the material
Ultimate stress The maximum stress the material can resist
Necking Cross section of the specimen reduces during deformation
Fracture Material failure

Proportional
limit
Yield stress
Ultimate
stress
Strain
hardening
Necking
Fracture

Figure 1.14 Stress-strain diagram for a typical ductile material in tension

Since after the material yields the shape of the structure permanently changes, many
engineering applications are involved in designing the structure so that the maximum
stress is smaller than the yield stress of the material. Under this range of the stress, the
stress-strain relation can be approximated by linear relation.
Linear Elastic Relationship (Generalized Hookes Law)
The one-dimensional stress-strain relation in the previous section can be extended to
the three-dimensional state of stress. When the stress-strain relation is linear, the
relationship between stress and strain can be written as
{ } [ ] { } = C (1.26)
where

11 12 13 14 15 16
21 22 23 24 25 26
31 32 33 34 35 36
41 42 43 44 45 46
51 52 53 54 55 56
61 62 63 64 65 66
{ } , [ ] , and { }
xx xx
yy yy
zz zz
xy xy
yz yz
xz
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c
c c c c c c

(
(
(
(

= = =
` (
(
(
(
(
)
C
xz

`

)

The [C] is called the stress-strain matrix. For isotropic materials the 36 constants in the
matrix [C] is reduced to two. Thus, it can be shown that

1 0 0 0
1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1
1 0 0 0
1 1
(1 )
[ ]
1 2
(1 )(1 2 )
0 0 0 0 0
2(1 )
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2(1 )
1 2
0 0 0 0 0
2(1 )
E

(
(

(
(
(

(
(
(
=
(
+
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

C
where E is the Youngs modulus and is Poissons ratio. Alternately, strain can be
written as a function of stresses as follows:

( )
( )
( )
xx
xx yy zz
yy
yy xx zz
zz
zz xx yy
xy
xy
yz
yz
xz
xz
E E
E E
E E
G
G
G

= +
= +
= +
(1.27)

where G is the shear modulus defined by

2(1 )
E
G
=
+

Example 1.7
The stress at a point in a body is

3
5 3 2
[ ] 3 1 0 10 psi
2 0 4
(
(
=
(
(

Determine the strain components in the x-, y-, and z-direction if E = 1010
6
psi, and =
0.3. From Eq. (1.27),

3 4
6
3 4
6
3 4
6
4
6
6
4
6
1
[5 0.3( 1 4)] 10 4.1 10
10 10
1
[ 1 0.3(5 4)] 10 3.7 10
10 10
1
[4 0.3(5 1)] 10 2.8 10
10 10
2(1 0.3)
3000 7.8 10
10 10
2(1 0.3)
0 0
10 10
2(1 0.3)
2000 5.2 10
10 10
xx
yy
zz
xy
yz
xz
= + =
= + =
= =
+
= =
+
= =
+
= =

Simplified Laws for Two-Dimensional Analysis
The general three-dimensional stress-strain relation in Eq. (1.26) can be simplified
when the stress or strain is limited. One-dimensional stress-strain relation has been
studied in Eq. (1.25). Two-dimensional stress-strain relation can be categorized into two
cases: plane stress and plane strain.

Plane stress problem can be applied to a structure whose dimension of one axis is
very small compared to other two dimensions, for example, a thin sheet metal. In such a
structure, the load and stress in z-direction are zero. Thus, the following constraints are
applied to the general stress-strain relation:
0, 0, 0
zz xz yz
= = =

From the relation in Eq. (1.26), it is clear that
xz
=
yz
= 0. In addition, from the relation
of
zz
= 0 the normal strain
zz
can be calculated. Thus, a simplified relation for stress-
strain can be obtained for the plane stress problem as

2
1 0
{ } 1 0
1
0 0 (1 ) / 2
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
E

(

(
= =
` `
(

(

) )
(1.28)

Plane strain problem is similar to the plane stress problem. However in this case, the
strain in the z-direction is assumed to be zero. This situation corresponds to a structure
whose deformation in the z-direction is constrained (i.e., u
z
= 0), so that the following
relation holds:
0, 0, 0
zz xz yz
= = = (1.29)
In the plane strain problem, a different stress-strain relation can be obtained by applying
the constraints in Eq. (1.29) into Eq. (1.26), to obtain

1 0
1
(1 )
{ } 1 0
(1 )(1 2 ) 1
1 2
0 0
2(1 )
xx xx
yy yy
xy xy
E
(
(

(

(
= =
` `
(
+

(
) )
(
(

Note that the normal stress
zz
is not zero in the plan strain problem, but can be calculated
from
xx
and
yy
.
Equilibrium Equations
Consider the equilibrium of a differential element represented in two-dimension by a
square (see Figure 1.15) whose center is (x, y) and its sides are dx and dy, respectively.


x
y
2
dx
xx
x
+
2
dx
xx
x
2
dy
yy
y
+
2
dy
yy
y
2
dy
yx
y
+
2
dy
yx
y
2
dx
xy
x
+
2
dx
xy
x

Figure 1.15 Stress variations in infinitesimal components

Equilibrium in the x-direction yields the following equation:

2 2
2 2
0 dx dx
dy dy
xx xx yx yx
x x
y y
dy dy dx dx
+
+
| | | |
| | | |
+ =
| |
| |
\ \ . .
\ \ . .
(1.30)
If the first-order Taylor series expansion is used to represent stresses on the surface in
terms of stresses at the center, the first two terms in Eq. (1.30) can be approximated by

2 2 2 2
xx xx xx
dx dx
xx xx xx xx
x x x x
dx dx
dy dy dy dy dxdy
x x x

+
| | | | | | | |
= + =
| | | |
\ \ . . \ \ . .

Similarly, the last two terms can be approximated by

2 2
2 2
yx yx yx
dy dy
yx yx yx yx
y y y y
dy dy
dx dx dx dx dxdy
y y y

+
| | | | | | | |
= + =
| | | |

\ \ . . \ \ . .

By substituting these two equations into Eq. (1.30), we obtain an equilibrium equation in
the x-direction as
0
yx
xx
x y
+ =

(1.31)
Similarly, equilibrium in the y-direction yields the following equation:
0
xy yy
x y

+ =

(1.32)

Equations (1.31) and (1.32) are the equilibrium equations for a solid subjected to two-
dimensional state of stress. We can similarly derive the equations for a three-dimensional
state of stress, by considering the equilibrium of a three-dimensional differential element
to obtain,

0
0
0
yx
xx zx
xy yy zy
yz
xz zz
x y z
x y z
x y z

+ + =
+ + =

+ + =

(1.33)
Equation (1.33) is obtained by considering force equilibrium in the x-, y-, and z-
directions. As has been shown in Eq. (1.10), moment equilibrium yields symmetry of
stress matrix.
Boundary Value Problem
Consider an arbitrary body subjected to the certain forces and constraints are shown
in Figure 1.16. The deformation of this object under applied loads can be fully
determined by solving the deformation field.
( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , ) ( , , )
x y z
x y z u x y z u x y z u x y z = + + u i j k

Boundary
condition
Applied
loads
{} = [C] {}

Figure 1.16 Boundary value problem

The deformation behavior of a solid is governed by the equations that were described
in the previous sections and the knowledge of the applied forces and boundary
conditions. Such a problem, defined by partial differential equations and boundary
conditions is called a boundary value problem.


a) Equilibrium equation in Eq. (1.33)

b) Constitutive equations (stress-strain relation) in Eq. (1.26)

c) Strain definitions (Section 1.2)

d) Loads and boundary conditions (applied forces and displacement constraints)
Example 1.8
The displacement field for the thin beam shown in Figure 1.17 considering bending
only is

2
3
2 3
2
( , ) ( )
2 6
( , ) ( ) ( )
2 2 6
x
y
P x P
u x y Lx y y
EI EI
P P Lx x
u x y L x y
EI EI
=

where P is the applied force at the tip, I is the area moment of inertia about bending axis,
and L is the length of the beam. Determine the entire stress field.

x
y
L
P

Figure 1.17 Cantilever beam bending problem

Since the thickness of the beam is small, we can assume the plane stress condition
along the z-direction. From the definition of strain,

2 2 2 2
( )
( )
( ) ( ) 0
2 2 2 2
x
xx
x
yy
y
x
xy
u P
L x y
x EI
u P
L x y
x EI
u
u Py P x P x Py
Lx Lx y
x y EI EI EI EI
= =

= =
( (
= + = + =
( (

Substituting into Eq. (1.28) yields the stress field:

2
2
2
( ) ( ) ( )
1
( ) ( ) 0
1
0
xx
yy
xy
E P P P
L x y L x y L x y
EI EI I
E P P
L x y L x y
EI EI
(
= =
(

(
= + =
(

=

1.4. Exercise
1.1 A vertical force F is applied to a two-bar truss as shown in the figure. Let cross-
sectional areas of trusses 1 and 2 be A
1
and A
2
, respectively. Determine the area
ratio between trusses 1 and 2 in order to have the same magnitude of stress.

l
C B
A
45
F

1.2 Find the principal stresses and the orientation of the principal axes of stresses for
the following cases of plane stress.

(a)
xx
= 40 MN/m
2
,
yy
= 0,
xy
= 80 MN/m
2

(b)
xx
= 140 MN/m
2
,
yy
= 20 MN/m
2
,
xy
= 60 MN/m
2

(c)
xx
= 120 MN/m
2
,
yy
= 50 MN/m
2
,
xy
= 100 MN/m
2

1.3 If the minimum principal stress is 7 MN/m
2
, find
xx
and the angle which the
principal stress axes make with the xy axes for the case of plane stress illustrated


x
y
21 MN/m
2

56 MN/m
2

xx

1.4 At a point P in a body, Cartesian stress components are given by
xx
= 8,000
N/cm
2
,
yy
= 4,000 N/cm
2
,
zz
= 4,000 N/cm
2
and
xy
=
yz
=
zx
= 8,000 N/cm
2
.
Determine the traction vector, its normal component and shear component on a
plane that is equally inclined to all three axes.

1.5 Determine the principal stresses and their associated directions, when the stress
matrix at a point is given by

1 1 1
[ ] 1 1 2 MPa
1 2 1
(
(
=
(
(

1.6 Let xyz coordinate system is defined using the three principal directions
obtained from Exercise 1.5. Determine the transformed stress matrix []
xyz
in the
new coordinates system.

1.7 If the displacement field is given by

2 2
2
2
2
2 ( )
2
x
y
z
u x y
u y x y z
u z xy
= +

(a) Write down 33 strain matrix.

(b) What is the normal strain component in the direction of (1,1,1) at
point (1,3,1)?

1.8 For steel, the following material data are applicable: Youngs modulus E = 207
GPa and shear modulus G = 80 GPa. For the strain matrix at a point shown
below, determine the symmetric 33 stress matrix.

0.003 0 0.006
[ ] 0 0.001 0.003
0.006 0.003 0.0015
(
(
=
(
(

1.9 A long, thin plate of width b, thickness t, and length L is placed between two
frictionless rigid walls a distance b apart and is acted on by an axial force P. The
material properties are Youngs modulus E and Poissons ratio .

(a) Find the stress vector in the xyz coordinate system

(b) Find the strain vector in the xyz coordinate system

(c) Find the displacement field

L
P P
y
x
y
z b
t

1.10 Draw nine stress components with their positive directions in the figure below.

x
y
z


1.11 For the stress matrix below, the two principal stresses are given as
3
= 3 and

1
= 2, respectively. In addition, two principal directions corresponding to the
two principal stresses are also given below. The yield stress of the structure is
given as
Y
= 4.5.

1 0 2
[ ] 0 1 0
2 0 2
(
(
=
(
(

,
1
1
5
0
2
5
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

n and
3
2
5
0
1
5
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
(

n
(a) What is the normal and shear stress in the plane whose normal vector is
parallel to (2, 1, 2)?

(b) Calculate the missing principal stress
2
and the principal direction n
2
.

(c) Write stress matrix in the new coordinates system that is aligned with n
1
, n
2
,
and n
3
.

1.12 With respect to the coordinate system xyz, the state of stress at a point P in a
solid is:

[ ]
20 0 0
0 50 0
0 0 50
MPa
(
(
=
(
(

x
y
z
m
1
m
2
m
3
P

(a) m
1
, m
2
and m
3
are three mutually perpendicular vectors such that m
1
makes
45 with both x- and y-axes and m
3
is aligned with the z-axis. Compute the
normal stresses on planes normal to m
1
, m
2
, and m
3
.


(b) Compute two components of shear stress on the plane normal to m
1
in the
directions m
2
and m
3
.

(c) Is the vector n = {0, 1, 1}
T
a principal direction of stress? Explain. What is
the normal stress in the direction n?

(d) Draw an infinitesimal cube with faces normal to m
1
, m
2
and m
3
and display
the stresses on the positive faces of this cube.

(e) Express the state of stress at the point P with respect to the xyz coordinates
system that is aligned with the vectors m
1
, m
2
and m
3
?

(f) What are the principal stress and principal directions of stress at the point P
with respect to the xyz coordinates system? Explain.

(g) Compute the maximum shear stress at the point P. Which plane(s) does this
maximum shear stress act on?

1.13 Figure 1.18 illustrates a thin plate of thickness t. An approximate displacement
field which accounts for displacements due to the weight of the plate is given by

2 2
( , ) (2 )
2
( , ) ( )
x
y
u x y bx x y
E
u x y y b x
E
=
=

(a) Determine the corresponding plane stress field.

(b) Qualitatively draw the deformed shape of the plate.

(c) Determine the rotation of the plate at points A and B.

A B
y
x
a a
b


Figure 1.18 Thin plate under self weight

1.14 The stress matrix at a particular point in a body is

7
2 1 3
[ ] 1 0 4 10 Pa
3 4 5
(
(
=
(
(

Determine the corresponding strain if E = 2010
10
Pa and = 0.3.

1.15 Carry out the tutorial in I-DEAS S/W to create a part shown below. The tutorial
can be found in I-DEAS menu: Help-Help Library-Tutorials. In the tutorial
browser, choose Fundamentals in Design, Part Modeling. In the
Fundamental Skills browser, you have to carry out items 18 and 19 to create a
part shown below. Submit a picture of the part (Color or Black&White) as a
proof of the tutorial.

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CHAP 1. STRESS-STRAIN ANALYSIS

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