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ELECTROMAGNETICS
6. AC CIRCUITS POINTS TO REMEMBER
1. The electric current which does not change its magnitude or direction with time is known as direct current. 2. The electric current whose magnitude changes with time and direction reverses periodically is known as alternating current. e = e 0 sin t Where e 0 = BAN is known as peak value of alternating emf Also, e = e 0 sin t and i = i0 sin t Where i0 = peak value of alternating current. 3. Average or mean value: a) It is the steady current (dc) which when passes through a circuit for half time period of AC sends the same charge as done by the AC in the same time. b) The average value of AC for the complete cycle is zero. c) The average value of AC for the half cycle of AC is given by. 2I I avg = 0 = 0.636I 0

Similarly, Eavg is also

2E 0

for half cycle of AC

4. RMS value or Virtual value or Effective value : The RMS value of AC is the steady current (DC) which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as produced by the AC when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.

E0 = 0.707E0 2 2 RMS value of AC for half cycle is also same as above 5. AC through a pure resistor ; E = E 0 sin t and I = I 0 sin t Where E0 and I0 are the peak values of voltage and current of AC respectively.
IV = I0 = 0.707I 0
and

EV =

Since the emf and current raise or fall simultaneously they are in phase with each other. 6. AC through a pure inductor: E E = E 0 sin t and I = 0 sin t L 2 The term L has the units of resistance and it is called as resistance of the inductor or inductive reactance (XL) E I = 0 sin t I = I 0 sin t XL 2 2 Where I0 is the peak value of current. Hence the current is lagging behind emf or emf is leading current by a phase difference of 7. AC Through a pure capacitor: E E = E 0 sin t and I = 0 cos t 1 c

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1 is called capacitive reactance where it has the dimensions of C resistance. It is also called resistance of capacitor. E I = 0 sint + I = I0 sin t + Where I0 is peak value of AC XC 2 2
The term

2 8. AC through LR circuit : Let VL and VR be the instantaneous voltages across the inductor and resistor respectively. VL = IX L = IL And VR = IR Where XL is the inductive reactance when AC flow through a pure resistor,
E = I R 2 + (L )
2
2

Hence current leads emf or emf is lagging behind current by

L R This is the phase angle by which the emf leads the current in L R circuit. z is called impedance of LR circuit. 9. AC through C R circuit : I VC = I X C = And VR = IR Where XC = capacitive reactance C Z = R 2 + ( L )
and

Tan =

2 E = VR + VC2 E =

( IR )
1

I + C

= I

(C )

and

Tan =

VC 1 = VR CR

This is the phase angle by which the emf lags behind the current in C R circuit
1 Here z = R 2 + C
2

is called the impedance of C R circuit.

10. AC through L C R circuit : a) VL = IX L = IL ; VC = IX C =

1 b) E = I R 2 + L C

2

I And VR = IR . C

1 is called the impedance of L C R circuit. c) Z = R 2 + L C

d)

1 L V L VC C Tan = = VR R

This is the phase angle by which the emf leads the

current. e) If L =

1 , then Tan = 0 or = 0 and hence emf and current are in phase. The C circuit in this condition behaves like a pure resistor circuit. This condition is called resonance condition.

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www.sakshieducation.com f) At resonance, L =
= 2 n =
1 LC

1 C

Or 2 = 1
1 2 LC

LC

n =

11. Advantages of AC over DC : a) The generation of AC is more economic than DC b) AC voltages can be easily stepped up or stepped down using transformers. c) AC can be transmitted to longer distances with less loss of energy. d) AC can be easily converted into DC by using rectifiers. 12. Disadvantages : a) AC is more fatal and dangerous than DC b) AC always flows on the outer layer of the conductor (skin effect) and hence AC requires stranded wires. c) AC cannot be used in electrolysis like electroplating etc. LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Ans. Derive expression for impedance and current of an a.c. circuit containing (i) inductance and resistance in series and (ii) capacitance and resistance in series. AC through LR circuit : 1. Consider a source of alternating emf connected to a series combination of an inductor L and a resistor R.
L VL R VR

2. 3.

Let E be the instantaneous emf and I be the instantaneous current in the circuit. Let VL and VR be the instantaneous voltages across the inductor and resistor respectively. And VR = IR VL = IX L = IL Where XL is the inductive reactance when AC flow through a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase unit each other which are represented along OX when AC flows through a . Since L and R are in series, the current I 2 is same in both and VL is represented along OY both and VL is represented along OY. If OA and OB represents the magnitudes of VR and VL then OC represents the effective value of emf in the circuit therefore,
2 + VL2 OC = OA2 + OB2 = VR

pure inductor, voltage leads the current by phase

4.

= E = I
Y VL B VL

( IR )

+ ( IL )
2

R 2 + (L )

VR

A
2

VR

Z = R 2 + ( L )

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www.sakshieducation.com Where z is called impedance of LR circuit. Also from the diagram OB VL IX L X L L = = = Tan = Tan = OA VR IR R R This is the phase angle by which the emf leads the current in L R circuit. C R circuit : 1. Consider a source of alternate emf connected to a series combination of a capacitor C and a resistance R. I VC = I X C = And VR = IR C

2. 3.

Where XC=capacitive reactance When AC flows through a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase with each other which are represented along OX. When AC flows through a pure capacitor, the emf is logging behind current by a phase which is represented along OY.
Y VL O

VR

A VR I X

VC B Y C E
2 2

OC = OA + OB

2 E = VR + VC2 E =

( IR )
+
2

I + C

= I

(C )

1 Here z = R 2 + C

is called the impedance of C R circuit.

1 CR

Also, from the diagram, Tan = V C =

VR

This is the phase angle by which the emf lags behind the current in C R circuit 2. Ans. Obtain an expression for impedance and current in series LCR circuit. Deduce an expression for the resonating frequency of an LCR series resonating circuit. An e.m.f e = E0 sin wt be applied to a circuit consisting of R, C and L in series. As shown in figure let i be the current and q be charge at any instant time t. q di and across inductor is L , both opposite The potential difference across capacitor is C dt applied e.m.f. www.sakshieducation.com

www.sakshieducation.com Hence net e.m.f is Ldi q E0 sin t dt C According to Ohms law, this net e.m.f is equal to iR. di q E0 sin t L = Ri dt C di q We have L + Ri + = E0 sin t dt C The current i is given by i = i0 sin(t ) 1 , we have i = i0 sin(t + ) If L > C 1 If L < , which is at low frequencies C I 0 is maximum current given by E0 I0 = 2 1 R2 + L C

E 1 Impendence ( Z ) = 0 = R 2 + L C I0 At a particular frequency, the total reactance of the circuit is zero, 1 i.e. L = 0 under this condition impedance Z = R C 1 Z = R2 + L C 1 Z = R L = C At this frequency, impedance of series LCR circuit is minimum and is equal to R. at this frequency current is maximum. This frequency is called resonant frequency ( f 0 ) . At resonance, L
2

1 or = LC 1 2 f 0 = LC 1 f0 = 2 LC The frequency response curve of LCR is shown in figure.

2 =

1 =0 C 1 LC

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Sol: Explain instantaneous, maximum, and rms values of a current. i) The strength of the current at any instant of timet is known as instantaneous current. It is given by, I = I 0 sin t ii) In the above equation I 0 is known maximum current. While is angular velocity. iii) Root mean square (R.M.S) value:

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www.sakshieducation.com The RMS value of AC is the steady current (DC) which when flowing through a given resistance for a given time, produces the same amount of heat as produced by the AC when flowing through the same resistance for the same time. Discus the flow of a.c. through a pure resistor. Consider a pure resistance of resistance R(zero inductance) is connected to a source of an alternate emf .The instantaneous value of alternating emf is given by, E = E 0 sin t The current through the resistance at any instant is given by, R E E I = I 0 sin t Q I = = 0 sin t R R Where E0 and I0 are the peak values of voltage and current of AC respectively.
Y E I
I E (or) I

2. Sol:

~
E
E T/2 3T/4 t T/4

= t
0 X

Since the emf and current raise or fall simultaneously they are in phase with each other There is no phase difference between the E.m.f. and current in a resistor. Obtain an expression for the current in a inductance when an a.c. e.m.f is applied. Consider a pure inductor which has no resistance connected to a source of emf E. The instantaneous emf is given by E = E 0 sin t dI be the rate of change Let I be the current through the circuit and dt of current in the circuit at any instant. The net emf in the circuit is given by LdI LdI E =0 E= dt dt Since there is no resistance in the circuit there is no P.D. in the circuit. LdI E= dt E E or dI = dt = 0 sin t dt L L Integrating the above equation, E dI = L0 sin t dt E I = 0 ( cos t ) L E I = 0 sin t 2 L The term L has the units of resistance and it is called as resistance of the inductor or inductive reactance (XL) E I = 0 sin t I = I 0 sin t XL 2 2

3. Ans.

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www.sakshieducation.com Where I0 is the peak value of current. Hence the current is lagging behind emf or emf is leading current by a phase difference of
4. Ans.

Obtain an expression for the current in a capacitor when an a.c. e.m.f. is applied. Consider a capacitor of capacity C connected to a source of alternating emf E. The instantaneous emf is given by. E = E 0 sin t
C

The net emf in the circuit is given by, q q E = 0 (or) E = C C (or) q = EC = CE 0 sin t
E dq I = = CE 0 cos t (or) I = 0 cos t 1 dt c 1 is called capacitive reactance where it has The term C dimensions of resistance. It is also called resistance of capacitor. E I = 0 sint + I = I0 sin t + 2 XC 2 Where I0 is peak value of AC

~
E

the

Hence current leads emf or emf is lagging behind current by

VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS

1. Ans. What is the r.m.s value of the voltage in an A.C. circuit? r.m.s. value (or effective or virtual value) of A.C. Voltage (erms ) : It is the square root of the average of squares of all the of all the instantaneous values of voltage over one complete cycle. e Here e0 = maximum or peak value of A.C. in one complete cycle. erms = 0 = 0.707 e0 2 What is the phase difference between a.c. e.m.f. and current in the following? Pure resistor, pure inductor and pure capacitor: a) In pure resistor a.c. circuit, there is no phase difference between a.c. e.m.f. and current.

2. Ans.

b) In pure inductor a.c. circuit, current lags behind the e.m.f c) In pure capacitor a.c. circuit, current leads emf by
3. Ans.

radian.

radian.

What is the impedance in the following series circuits? i) L and R ii) C and R

i) In L-R series circuit, impedance Z = R 2 + ( L ) 2 Where L is inductive reactance ( X L )

1 ii) In C-R series circuit, impedance Z = R + C 1 is capacitive reactance ( X c ) where C

2

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4. Ans. State the expression for the reactance of (i) an inductor and (ii) a capacitor. i) Inductive reactance ( X L ) = L 1 ii) Capacitive reactance ( X C ) = C The equation of an alternating emf is e =100 sin (100 ) t. Find the peak value of its emf and

SOLVED PROBLEMS
1. its frequency. e = 100sin (100 t )

Sol:

Comparing it with e = e0 sin t

Frequency f =
2.

100 = 50 Hz 2 The equation of the alternating voltage supplied to our houses is e = ( 311sin100 t ) volt. A hot

e0 = 100V = 100 rad/s 2 f = 100

Sol:

wire instrument is used to measure the alternating voltage. What reading does it show? peak voltage e0 = Rms voltage, E = . 2 2 Comparing e = 311sin100 t with e = e0 sin t , we get

3. Sol:

e0 = 311 V e 311 e= 0 = = 219.9 V. 2 2 Write the equation of an alternating emf of 120 V, 60 Hz. 120 V represents the rms emf i.e., e = 120 V
The peak emf, e0 = 2 e = 2 120 = 169.7 V

= 2 f = 2 ( 60 ) = 120 rad/s
e = (169.7 sin120 t ) volt.

The equation of the alternating emf is e = e0 sin t

4. An alternating emf.e =300 sin (100 ) t volt is applied to a pure resistance of 100 . Calculate the rms current through the circuit Comparing the alternating emf., e = 300 sin (100 ) t volt with e = e0 sin t ,

Sol:

5.

Sol:

6.

Sol:

peak emf, e0 = 300 volt. e 300 = 3A The peak current = 0 = R 100 peak current 3 = = 2.121A . The rms current= 2 2 A capacitance of 0.4 F is connected to an alternating emf of 100 cycles/second. What is the capacitive reactance? C = 0.4 F = 0.4 106 F ; f = 100 Hz 1 1 1 XC = = = = 3978 6 C C ( 2 f ) 0.4 10 2 100 An inductor of inductance 2 mH is connected to an alternating emf of 50 Hz. Find the inductive reactance. L = 2mH = 2 103 H ; f = 50 Hz www.sakshieducation.com

www.sakshieducation.com The inductive reactance, X L = L = L ( 2 f ) = 2 103 2 50 = 0.6284

5.

Sol:

An inductance of 1 H, a capacitance of 2 F and a resistance of 20 are connected in series across an alternating emf of 220 V, 50 Hz. Find (i) the impedance of the circuit, (ii) the rms current through the inductance, capacitance and resistance, (iii) the peak current and (iv) the peak emf. rms emf, e = 220V ; f = 50 Hz

i) The impedance of the circuit, Z = R 2 + ( X L X C ) R= 20; X L = L = L ( 2 f ) = 1( 2 50 ) = 314.2

XC = 1 1 1 = = = 1591 6 C C ( 2 f ) 2 10 2 50
2 2

Z = R 2 + ( X L X C ) = 202 + ( 314.2 1591) = 1277 e 220 = = 0.1723 A. Z 1277 iii) The peak current, I 0 = I 2 = 0.2436 A
ii) The rms current I =
6.

Sol:

iv) The peak emf, e0 = e 2 = 220 2 = 311.1V A resistance of 10 , a capacitance of 0.1 F and an inductance of 2 mH are connected in series across a source of alternating emf of variable frequency. At what frequency does maximum current flow? 1 f0 = . 2 LC L = 2mH = 2 103 H ; C = 0.1 F = 0.1106 F

7.

Sol:

1105 = 11.25kHz 2 2 103 0.1106 2.828 When an inductor, a capacitor and a resistor are connected in series across a source of alternating emf, the p.d.s across the inductor, capacitor and resistor are 70 V, 30 V and 30 V respectively. Find the emf of the source. ER = 30V , EL = 70; EC = 30V f0 = 1
=
2 E = ER + ( EL EC ) . Q Z = R 2 + ( X L X C ) 2

E = 302 + ( 70 30 ) = 302 + 402 = 50V .

2

UNSOLVED PROBLEMS
1. Sol: e.m.f. and its frequency. E = 169.7sin(120 t ) V E0 = 169.7 volt = 169.7 V

The equation of an alternating e.m.f. is e = 169.7 sin (120 t ) volt. Find the peak value of its

= 102 rads 1 120 n= = = 60 Hz 2 2

2. Sol: Write the equations of a sinusoidal voltage of r.m.s. value 220V and frequency 50Hz. Vrms = 220V

V0 = Vrms 2 = 220 2V N = 50 Hz w = 2 n = 2 (50) = 100 rad s 1

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V = V0 sin t
3.
V = 220 2 sin(100 )t = 311.1sin (100 t ) volt An alternating e.m.f. of e = 300sin100 t is applied across the terminals of an inductor of inductance 20 mH. Find (i) the inductive reactance, (ii) the peak current and (iii) the r.m.s. current e = 300sin100 t

Sol:

e0 = 300V

; = 100 rads 1

; L = 20mH = 20 103 H

3. Sol:

X L = L = 100 20 103 = 2 = 2 3.14 = 6.284 150 e 300 150 = 7.7 A I0 = 0 = = A= 3.14 X L 2 75 1.414 I 150 I rms = = 33.7 A I rms = 0 = 3.14 2 2 An alternating e.m.f. of e = 200sin100 t is applied across a capacitor of capacitance 2 F . Find (i). The capacitive reactance (ii). The peak current and (iii) the r.m.s current. e = 200sin100 t ; e0 = 200V ; = 10 rads 1 , c = 2 F = 2 106 F

4.

Sol:

1 1 5 103 5000 = = = 1591 c 100 2 106 e 200 Peak current = I 0 = 0 = = A X 0 5000 25 I0 I rms = = A = 0.008889A 2 25 2 An alternating sinusoidal e.m.f. of 220V, 50Hz is connected to circuit of resistance 1 and inductance 0.01H. What is the r.m.s. current and the phase difference between the e.m.f. and the current? E = 220V; n = 50Hz = 2 n = 2 50 = 100 rad s 1 R = 1 L = 0.01 = 102 H
Capacitive reactance = X c =
2 Impedance Z = R 2 + X L = (1) 2 + ( L ) 2

= 11

4.

Sol:

E 220 = = 20 11A = 66.7A Z 11 X 3.14 tan = = = tan = tan 720 = 720 R 1 1 A 0.03H inductor, a 10 resistor and a 2 F capacitor are connected in series. At what frequency will they resonate? What will be the phase difference between the e.m.f. and current at resonance/ L = 0.03H = 3 102 H ; R = 10 ; C = 2 F = 2106 F For resonance, 1 1 L = 2 = LC C 1 1 104 = = = rad sec 1 2 6 LC 6 (3 10 ) (2 10 )
Peak current = I 0 =

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n=

104 = = 649.7 Hz. 2 6 6.28

4.

Sol:

1 L X X Xc c tan = = L = R R R 1 tan = 0 = 00 Since L = c A series LCR circuit has L = 1 mH, C = 0.1 F and R = 10 . It is connected across a source of alternating emf of 5V but of variable frequency. Find (i) the frequency at which the impedance is minimum, (ii) the p.d. across the capacitor, (iii) p.d. across the inductor, (iv) the p.d. across the resistor and (v) the current at resonance. L = 1mH = 103 H ; C = 0.1 F = 107 F ; R = 10 ; E = 5V 1 Impedance is minimum when L = C 1 1 2 = (2 f )2 = LC LC 1 4 2 f 2 = LC 1 1 f= = = 1591Hz 2 LC 2 103 107
Impedance at resonance = Z = R 2 + X 2 = (10) 2 + ( X L X C ) 2 = 10 i) Current at resonance I = ii) P.D. across capacitor

E 5 = = 0.5 A z 10 Vc = IX c = 0.5
1 1 1 = = wc 2 (2 f ) 107
107 = 50V 105 4 2

iii) P.D. across inductor VL = IX L = I ( L) = 0.5 (2 f ) 103

5.

Sol:

1 105 100 = 2 103 = = 50V 2 2 2 iv) P.D. across resistor = VR = IR = 0.5 10 = 5V An inductor, a capacitor and a resistor are connected in series across a source of alternating e.m.f. The p.d.s across the inductor, capacitor, and resistor are 90V, 60V, 40V respectively. Find the e.m.f. of the source. VL = 90V ; VC = 60V ; VR = 40V

E = VR2 + (VL VC ) 2 = 402 + (90 60) 2 = 1600 + 900 = 50V

ASSESS YOURSELF 1. When the emf is maximum how is the current in a pure inductor? Sol: Minimum, since the phase difference between emf and current through a pure inductor is 900 2. When the emf is maximum how is the current in a pure resistor? Ans. Maximum, since the phase difference between emf and current through a pure resistor is 00 . 3. When the emf is minimum how is the current in a pure capacitor? Ans. Maximum, since the phase difference between and current through a pure capacitor is 900 4. In a series LCR circuit, at resonance what is the nature of the circuit? Ans. It behaves like a pure resistor circuit. 5. In a series LCR circuit, what is the relation between the potential difference across the inductor and capacitor?

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Ans.

They are equal and opposite.

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