INDIAN LITERATURE

The story of Indian literature extends back over more than 5 !!! years" It includes the reli#ious classics of $induism %uddhism &ainism and 'ikhism( literature from the courts of Indian monarchs( oral )oetry and son#( and modern verse and )rose ex)ressin# contem)orary ideas" Althou#h each successive #eneration has added its o*n contribution to Indian literature the ancient texts are still influential" Until modern times literature usually reached its audience throu#h )erformance and recitation" Reli#ious texts and stories often of enormous len#th *ere memori+ed and handed do*n orally from one #eneration to the next" 'o althou#h about half the )o)ulation of southern Asia are unable to read or *rite the culture of the re#ion is hi#hly develo)ed" The literature of the Indian subcontinent falls into three )eriods, the ancient period dominated by 'anskrit -lastin# u) to about A"D" .!!!/(the medieval period from about A"D" .!!! to the early .0!!1s -durin# *hich time the re#ional lan#ua#es develo)ed/( and the modern period *hich has been influenced by Euro)ean culture" In the first t*o )eriods most literature *as in verse or in the form of an e)i#ram -a short clever )oem/ thou#h )rose *as also used" In the modern )eriod the use of )rose has become fully develo)ed" Indian literature has been *ritten in many lan#ua#es" Each lan#ua#e has made its o*n contribution and ex)ressed its uni2ueness" %ut throu#hout the history of Indian literature there have been inter3 lan#ua#e translations and a sharin# of themes forms concerns directions and movements" The literature of a )articular lan#ua#e has its o*n s)ecial form symbols and nuances" Therefore it is more lo#ical to say that there are as many literatures in India as lan#ua#es *hich have flo*ered into literature" The like3minded res)onse of India1s creative *riters in many lan#ua#es to common )roblems and similar ex)eriences is unmistakably clear" ')oken 'anskrit is the fountain from *hich the lan#ua#es of Aryan India had ori#inally s)run# ( the )rinci)al )art of their vocabulary and their inflexional system bein# derived from this source" Even the Dravidian lan#ua#es *hich have a considerably different mor)holo#ical structure are indebted to 'anskrit in the realms of vocabulary and )honolo#y *ith the )artial exce)tion of Tamil" Next to 'anskrit comes Tamil *ith reference to the anti2uity of literature" Urdu has only a herita#e of about five centuries" $indi has a )re3eminent )lace in the national set3u) as the official lan#ua#e of the Union of India and that of six states"

A %RIE4 $I'T5R6 54 $INDI LITERATURE The $indi lan#ua#e com)rise of a number of dialects of *hich those used for literary com)osition are 7hariboli Ra8asthani 9aithli %ri8bhasha and A*adhi" The early )eriod of $indi literature *hich is called Adikala is accepted as the period upto mid-14th century " The main #rou) of trend setters in this )eriod *ere,

./ the 'iddhas :/ the &ain )oets ;/ the Natha)anthis and </ the heroic )oets" The 'iddhas belon#ed to the later %uddhistic cult called =a8rayana" The Natha)anthis adhered to a cult in *hich the $atha yo#a *as )racticed" The *orks of the heroic )oets are kno*n as Rasau )oems" The second )eriod *hich consists of the mid3.<th to mid3.>th century is dominated by devotional )oetry -%hakti 7avyas/" The $indi bhakti )oetry1s consists of t*o streams, ./ Nir#una the )oets *ho believed in a formless ?od or abstract name and :/ 'a#una the )oets *ho believed in sin#in# about a ?od *ith attributes" 7abir -.;@03.5.0/ is the most im)ortant )oet in the Nir#una 'chool" $e )reached the universal reli#ion of man above and beyond $indu and 9uslim orthodoxy and com)osed a lar#e number of son#s and )oems" ?uru Nanak -.<A@3.5;0/ the founder of 'ikhism is also acce)ted as an outstandin# )oet of this school" The 'a#una stream is related to =aishnava )oets *ho belon# to the t*o cate#ories those *orshi))in# 7rishna and those *orshi))in# Rama" 'urdas *hose )oems have been com)iled under the title 'ursa#ara *as a #reat )oet of 7rishna )oetry" =idya)ati *as also a versatile com)oser of $indi )oems" The #reat cham)ion of Rama )oetry is Tulsidas -.5<;3.A:;/ *hose Ramacharitamanasa is considered as an im)ortant classic by all $indi lovers" $e has command over all the im)ortant styles of com)osition 3 narrative e)ic lyrical and dialectic" $e has #iven a human character to Rama )otrayin# him as an ideal son husband brother kin# and so on" The third )eriod is s)oken as the Ritikavyakal" It is also referred to as the Ritism#ara 7avya" Riti refers to a s)ecial form in *hich the erotic element is )re)onderant" $indi is very rich in both these cate#ories of )oetry" Durin# this )eriod $indi had also a #ood collection of devotional and historic )oetry" In the %hakti )eriod there *ere many e)ics and lon# narrative )oems com)osed in the dialects of $indi" The modern )eriod of $indi literature commences *ith the second half of the .@th century" %haratendru $arishchandra -.05!30</ *as the )ioneer *ho ushered in the modern era" 5ther im)ortant *riters of this formative )eriod are 9aithli 'haran ?u)ta -.00A3.@A</ R"N"Tri)athi -.00@3.@A:/ and ?o)ala 'arana 'inha -.0@.3.@A!/" 9aithli 'aran revived the e)ic tradition" The romantic u)sur#e s)oken as Bhayavad is an im)ortant element of this )eriod" &ayashankara Crasad 'uryakant Tri)athi Nirala and 'umitra Nandan Cant are the leadin# luminaries of this )eriod" 7amayani -.@;A/ by &ayashankar is hailed as a ma#num o)us" It is the )sycho3 biolo#ical 8ourney of a man throu#h time and s)ace" 9ahadevi =arma is one of the ma8or )oets of the Bhayavad school" In the second )hase of the modern )eriod *hich is referred to as the D*ivedi yu# the leadin# fi#ure obviously *as 9ahavir Crasad D*ivedi" Coetry drama novel short story and the essay flourished on account of the *estern im)act" Drama in $indi has a lon# history from the .<th century" %ut the )rose3drama develo)ed only to*ards the close of the .@th century" %haratendru and &ayashankar Crasad have *ritten 2uite a fe* )lays" In the field of fiction the #reat stal*art is Cremchand" $is novel ?odan has been translated into many lan#ua#es Indian and forei#n" %y his novels and short stories Cremchand raised $indi literature from the )lane of entertainment to one of contem)orary realism" 5ther im)ortant novelists of the contem)orary )eriod are &ainendra 7umar Chanesh*ar Nath Renu and 'atchidananda =atsyayan"

&ainendra 7umar in his novels 'unita and Tya#a)atra concentrated on human )syche" Renu #ave a ne* dimension to novel *ritin# by introducin# the re#ional novel the classical exam)le bein# his 9aila Anchal" =atsyayan -A8neya/ is the initiator of a ne* trend in $indi literature called Crayo#avad -ex)erimentalism/" 'ekhar Ek &ivani -.@<./ has been ackno*led#ed as his most im)ortant novel" Dharma =ir %harati ?iri8a 7umar 9athur 9uktiboth and Lakshmi 7ant =erma are other distin#uished ex)erimentalists of the )ost3Inde)endence )eriod" Munshi Premchand (1880-1936 Cremchand *as the )en name ado)ted by the $indi *riter Dhan)atrai *ho *as born on ;. &uly .00! at Lamati near =aranasi" $is early education *as in a madarasa under a 9aulavi *here he learnt Urdu" Dhen he *as studyin# in the ninth class he *as married much a#ainst his *ishes" $e *as then fifteen" In .@.@ *hile he *as a teacher at ?orakh)ur he )assed his %"A" *ith En#lish Cersian and $istory" $e had a second marria#e *ith 'hivarani Devi a child3*ido* *ho *rote a book on him Premchand Gharmein' after his death" Cremchand1s literary career started as a freelancer in Urdu" In his early short stories he de)icted the )atriotic u)sur#e that *as s*ee)in# the land in the first decade of the )resent century" Soz-e-Watan, a collection of such stories )ublished by Cremchand in .@!> attracted the attention of the %ritish #overnment" In .@.< *hen Cremchand s*itched over to $indi he had already established his re)utation as a fiction *riter in Urdu" Cremchand *as the first $indi author to introduce realism in his *ritin#s" $e )ioneered the ne* art form E fiction *ith a social )ur)ose" $e *rote of the life around him and made his readers a*are of the )roblems of the urban middle3class and the countryFs villa#es and their )roblems" $e su))lemented ?andhi8iFs *ork in the )olitical and social fields by ado)tin# his revolutionary ideas as themes for his literary *ritin#s" Cremchand *as a )rolific *riter" $e has left behind a do+en novels and nearly :5! short stories" Seva Sadan *as his first novel" $e believes in the )rinci)le, Ghate the sin and not the sinner"F $is best kno*n novels are Sevasadan, Rangamanch, Ghaban, Nirmala and Godan. Three of his novels have been made into films" %esides bein# a #reat novelist Cremchand *as also a social reformer and thinker" $is #reatness lies in the fact that his *ritin#s embody social )ur)ose and social criticism rather than mere entertainment" Literature accordin# to him is a )o*erful means of educatin# )ublic o)inion" $e believed in social evolution and his ideal *as e2ual o))ortunities for all" Cremchand died in .@;A and has since been studied both in India and abroad as one of the #reatest *riters of the century" A !"#$% &#'()"* )% MA"A(&# +#($"A(,"$ 9arathi lan#ua#e *as derived from the 9aharashtri A)abhramsha" The history of 9arathi literature can be divided into six )eriods , ." The 6adava )eriod ..0@3.;:! A"D" :" The %ahamani )eriod .;:!3.A!! A"D" ;" The 9aratha )eriod .A!!3.>!! A"D" <" The Cesh*a )eriod .>!!3.05! A"D"

5" The %ritish )eriod .05!3.@<> A"D" A" Bontem)orary )eriod .@<> on*ards" >" Durin# the first t*o )eriods 9arathi literary #enius occu)ied itself chiefly *ith reli#ious and )hiloso)hical ex)ression chiefly in verse" =iveka 'indhu -sea of kno*led#e/ by 9ukundara8 a yo#i of Natha Cantha is acce)ted as the first ma8or *ork" The ori#in of 9arathi )rose is also to be found in the 6adava )eriod" The credit for it #oes to another reli#ious sect called the 9ahanuvbhavas" They made 9arathi a vehicle for the )ro)a#ation of reli#ion and culture" An extremely effective revolt a#ainst $indu orthodoxy came from &nanadev" &nanaesh*ari commentary on %ha#vat ?ita and Amritanubhav are his t*o master)ieces" 'aintly sin#ers s)ran# u) in all castes and communities" Namdeva *ho *as a tailor became a disci)le of &nanadev" $e became a #reat )oet )ro)a#atin# a devotional cult called =arkari Canth" ?ardeners )otters #oldsmiths and such other )eo)le extolled %ha#*at Dharma in acce)table verse" In the %ahamani )eriod conversion to Islam took )lace on a mass scale" The flame of $indu reli#ion *as ho*ever ke)t u) *ith considerable +eal" The *orks of Eknath are to be s)ecially remembered in this connection" $e *as a #reat saint and a social reformer" $is %havarth Ramayana brou#ht the messa#e of %ha#vat cult to the )eo)le *ith #reat )o*er" &ainism too enriched 9arathi in this a#e" Dhen *e )ass on to the third )eriod the most notable as)ect is the contribution of Bhristian missionaries in ?oa" 4ather 'e)hens -.5<@3.A.@/ *ho came to India studied 9arathi lan#ua#e so *ell that he could com)ose charmin# verses in it" $is 7rista Curana is considered a classic on the model of &nanesh*ari" The da*n of .>th century *as most eventful in the )olitical and literary history of 9aharashtra" Tukaram -.A!03<@/ the #reatest saint )oet of the lan#ua#e contributed in such measure to devotional )oetry that he is remembered *ith #reat veneration even today" A shudra by birth he *rote ;!!! Abhan#as" Their a))eal is timeless" $e *as follo*ed by Ramadas" Bomin# to the Cesh*a )eriod 7rishnadayarnava and 'ridhara are the leadin# )oets" Ne* literary forms *ere successfully ex)erimented *ith durin# the )eriod and classical styles *ere revived es)ecially the 9ahakavya and Crabandha forms" A )eriod of transition follo*ed in the first half of the .@th century" In .0.0 9aharashtra lost its freedom to the %ritish" 7eshavasut the father of modern 9arathi )oetry )ublished his first )oem in .005" The years in bet*een *itnessed a #reat chan#e in the literary scene" Infact modern 9arathi literature took sha)e durin# this )eriod" As in other Indian lan#ua#es the Bhristian missionaries )layed an im)ortant role in the )roduction of scientific dictionaries and #rammars" Ceriodicals slo*ly became )o)ular startin# *ith Di#darshan in .0<! about the same time Dar)an the daily ne*s)a)er also came into bein#" 9odern 9arathi )rose flourished throu#h various ne* literary forms like the essay the bio#ra)hies the novels )rose drama etc" Bhi)lunkar1s Nibandhmala -essays/ N"B"7elkar1s bio#ra)hical *ritin#s novels of $ari Narayan A)te Chadke and ="'"7handekar and )lays of 9ama =arerkar and 7irloskar1s are )articularly *orth notin#" A)te1s novel Can Lakshat 7on ?heto *hich deals *ith the )oi#nant ex)erience of a child *ido* has been translated into many Indian lan#ua#es" 'imilarly 7handekar1s 6ayati *hich has *on for him the &nan)ith A*ard is a very note*orthy novel" =i8ay Tendulkar and B"T"7hanolkar have *ritten and )roduced a #ood number of )lays *hich have earned a re)utation beyond the border of 9aharashtra durin# the last 2uarter of a century" %"'"9ardhekar *rote the first stream of conciousness novel in 9arathi vi+" Ratricha Divas -.@<:/ and it *as a #reat success" Ratha Bhakra -chariot *heel .@A:/ by '"N"Cendse ex)lores the relationshi) bet*een )hysical environment and mental life"

A %RIE4 $I'T5R6 54 ?U&ARATI LITERATURE ?u8arati lan#ua#e evolved from one of the dialects of the standard ?ur8ara A)abhramsha and #ot a distinctive form by the .:th century" The history of ?u8arati literature falls into four broad )eriods, 1 1-.0-14.6/ - 14.6-16.0/ 3 16.0-18-. and 4 18-.-190.1 %y about .:5! ?u8arat became an individual )olitical unit *ith considerable achievements in art and literature" 'anskrit *as cultivated and libraries *ere established in the monasteries" 'aivism became stron#" $eroic romance historical chronical and the romantic tales are the )rinci)le narrative forms of the early )eriod" Rasa ori#inally a folk dance *as converted into a melodious dramatic )oetry by &ain authors" Cha#u a more lyrical and shorter )oem became )o)ular" &ina)admasuri Ra8shekharasuri and &ayashekharasuri -all of the .<th century/ *ere im)ortant )oets *ho )o)ulari+ed Cha#u" Romantic tales in verse *ere also in vo#ue" The &ain scholars took to *ritin# in )rose *hich *as ele#ant and sim)le" Crithvichandra -.<::/ by 9aniksundarasuri is a re)uted *ork of )oetical )rose" In the second )eriod $induism takes the )lace of &ainism at the source of literary ex)ression" The e)ics and )uranas flo* into ?u8arati" The #reat )oets of the )eriod are Narsimha and 9irabai" Narsimha 9ehta-.<.<3.<0!/ thou#h not the first ?u8arati )oet is considered to be the father of ?u8arati )oetry" $is ?ovinda ?amana and 'udama Bharita are very *ell kno*n" 9irabai -.<@@3.5<>/ is the most celebrated *oman )oetess of India" $er bridal devotion to Lord 7rishna has a rin# of )urity and is a fine exam)le of the sublimation of the sex element" After that comes %halana -.<;<3.5.</ the #reat scolar and artist *ho has ada)ted 7adambari Nalakhyana and Ramabalacharita" %alanas )rose *ork 7adambari has been rendered in a versified form" Nakara -.5!!3.5>5/ and =ishnudasa -.5A<3.A;:/ enriched the Akhyana literature"The Ramayana the 9ahabharata and the Curanas *ere brou#ht in an assimilable form by them" Akho -.5@.3.A5A/ of Ahmedabad *as the cham)ion of =edantic )oetry" Thus *e come to the third )eriod *hen Akbar formed the )rovince of ?u8arat se)aratin# it from 9arvad" Cremanand is the finest )oet of this )eriod" $e brou#ht the Akhayana techni2ue to )erfection" The .Ath century *as rich in romantic tales *hich *ere *ritten both by &ain and non3 &ain )oets alike" De thus come to the modern )eriod *here the im)act of the *est is clearly seen in the literary )roductions" Dal)atram -.0:!3.0@0/ and Narmad -.0;;30A/ *ere the leaders of this ne* a#e" Namdashankara1s 7arana ?helo -.0AA/ is the first novel in ?u8arati" %ut the most celebrated novel 'aras*atidhandra -.00>3.@!./ in four volumes came from the )en of ?ovardhanram Tri)athi" It is considered to be one of the #reat classics of modern India" It is a love story *ith social and s)iritual relevance" In the field of fiction *e have the stal*art 7"9"9unshi" $e is the author of several historical and social novels and a master of ?u8arati )rose" Bomin# to the contem)orary )eriod ?u8arati flourished in all #enres of literature the most outstandin# )oets are 'undaram and Umashankar &oshi" 7avyaman#ala and 6atra are considered ma8or collections of 'undarams )oetry" &oshi1s =ish*ashanti is a lon# )oem on the life and *orks of ?andhi8i" E2ually *ell kno*n is his last collection of )oems entitled 'a)ta)adi -.@0./" B"B"9ehta is a veteran in the field of drama" $is A#a#adi is considered a landmark in ?u8arati literature" 7aka 7alelkar1s autobio#ra)hy 'marana 6atra is a ma#nificent form of *ritin#" E2ually fascinatin# are the short stories of ?ulabdas %roker"