AN

INTRODUCTION

TO

THE

STUDY

OF

SOME

LIVING

RELIGIONS

OF

THE

EAST

STUDIES

IN

THEOLOGY.

Christianity
M.A.,
The D.D.

and

Ethics.

By

ARCHIBALD

13.

D.

ALEXANDER,

Environment Ph.D.

of

Early

Christianity.

By

S.

ANGUS,

M.A.,

History
BRIGGS.

of

the

Study

of

Theology.

Vol.

I.

By

Dr.

C.

A.

History
BRIGGS.

of

the

Study

of

Theology.

Vol.

II.

By

Dr.

C.

A.

The

Christian

Hope.
and Social

By

W.

ADAMS

BROWN, By

Ph.D.,
WILLIAM

D.D.

Christianity

Questions.
D.Sc.

HAM, CUNNING-

F.B.A.,
The

D.D.,
of

Justification

God. By
to

By

Rev. A.

P. E.

T.

FORSYTH.

Christian A Critical BUCHANAN

Apologetics.
Introduction

Rev.

GARVIE.

the D.Litt.

Old

Testament.

By

GEORGE

GRAY, By

D.D.,
WILLIAM

Gospel
Faith

Origins.
and its

WEST

HOLDSWORTH,
R.

M.A. D.D.

Psychology.
and Sin.

By By
ROBERT

WILLIAM

INGE,

Christianity
Protestant

MACKINTOSH,

D.D. C.

Thought
D.D. of the

before

Kant.

By

A.

MCGIFFERT,

Ph.D.,
The

Theology
D.Litt.

Gospels.

By

JAMES

MOFFATT,

D.D.,

History
CALDWELL The

of

Christian

Thought
D.D.

since

Kant.

By

EDWARD

MOORE,
of and the

Doctrine

Atonement.

By By JAMES

J.

K.

MOZLHY,
D.D.

M.A.

Revelation A Critical
SAMUEL

Inspiration.
to

ORR,

Introduction

the

New

Testament.

By

ARTHUR

PEAKE,
and D.C.L.

D.D.

Philosophy (Oxon),
The The

Religion. (Durham). By
T. of

By

HASTINGS

RASHDALL,

D.Litt.

Holy

Spirit.
Ideas M.A. and Canon D.Litt.

REES,
the Old

M.A.

(Lond.),

B.A.

(Oxon).
H.

Religious
ROBINSON,

Testament.

By

WHEELER

The

Text

of

the

New

Testament.

By

ALEXANDER

SOUTER,
Christian

Thought
D.Litt. of the

to

the

Reformation.

By

HERBERT

B.

WORKMAN,
The

Theology
D.D.

Epistles.

By

H.

A.

A.

KENNEDY,

D.Sc.,

The

Pharisees LL.D.

and

Jesus.

By

A.

T.

ROBERTSON,

A.M.,

D.D.,

The

Originality MACKINTOSH,

of

the

Christian D.Phil.

Message.

By

H.

R.

D.D.,

AN

INTRODUCTION STUDY
OF SOME

TO

THE

LIVING OF THE

RELIGIONS EAST

BY

SYDNEY
PRESIDENT

CAVE,
CHESHUNT

D.D.
CAMBRIDGE

OF

COLLEGE,

LONDON

DUCKWORTH
3

" STREET,
COVENT

CO.
GARDEN

HENRIETTA

BL
o.

First

published
rights

in

1921

All

reserved

TO

E.

J.

C.

PREFACE

THIS
as a

book

has

been

written
to

in

the

hope
of the

that
more

it may

serve

beginner's Living
have it

guide

the

study
East.

significant
purpose,
as

of the
it will

Religions
its value
as

of the
much the

If it fulfils its what it omits

from student

from
may

what

includes. the

Thus
many and

of
its

Hinduism

ignore,
needs shads
power, the
to

for

time,

phases appreciate
which
are

of

history,
like the

but

he

understand the

books,
have
to

Upanicreative

and

Bhagavadgltd,
references reader
classic may

still such

and

detailed the their lived and

given
from

books

hi base

hope study

that
on

learn,

the

first, to

his

passages. years of
ever

The with make

writer

for
saw

some

in

intimate and

association Buddhism that

the
to to
are

Hindus,
it

enough
him
are

Islam
to to

impossible
which

for

forget
retain

these

living religions,
of
many
not

still able
and he has

allegiance
deal

modern
as

men,

sought

with but
as

them,

subjects
still

for

antiquarian
in the world

research,

spiritual By
be the made
some

forces

operative
with the

^to-day.
may

familiar
that of
more

East,

the

complaint
have
been

well
to

prominence spirits
But it
seems

should forms
so

given
a

fear

evil

which

conspicuous
is

part
out with-

of

popular

religion.
and
to

understanding
better the the task

impossible beginner
elements of Eastern

sympathy,
first be

that nobler
contact

the

should of
non-

taught

appreciate
Besides,
made the

Christian Western
to

religions.
culture has

with

of
and

relating Christianity imperative,

and,
if

non-Christian task
is to

religions urgent
end
in
more

such

than
7

profitless recrimination,

PREFACE

it the

must

be

the

ideal ventured

alone
to

that

is
to
no

considered. relate
one

Elsewhere of these
is
ligions re-

writer
to

has

try

Christianity.1
that for readers
in it without this

Here

such
was

attempt

made,
in the

but first
some

he

trusts

book,

which

prepared
serve

instance

theological
to

students,

may

to

inspire
and
to

of

its

explore
which

Christianity
we

anew,

rediscover

elements which

in

the is

West

readily
to
non-

ignore,
the

but

Christianity expressed
in
some

inadequate phases
of

spiritual

aspirations

Christian
In the in
an

religions.
transliteration of
manual
to

Eastern of
the

words this

it

has
not

seemed
to
use

best,

elementary
marks,
but

kind,

diacritical
nearest

render

consonants

by
are

their in

English
familiar

equivalents.
form. In
in

Names

of

places
the in

given
vowel

their
is

other
the
case

foreign
of
are e

words,
and
o

long

indicated,
words writer

except
where

Sanskrit

and

Pali The

these has
to

vowels
express

invariably
thanks
to
now

long.
one

his

of

his

students,
for
to

the

Rev. in

D.

E.

Jarvis,
the

B.A.,

of the

Gravesend,
press,

his Mr. his

help
F. W.

revising
Buckler,

manuscript
of of

for

and

M.A.,

Trinity
the

Hall,

Cambridge,
dealing
with

for Islam.

suggestive

criticisms

chapters

In

his first

Redemption,
half of

Hindu

and

Christian II-IV of the

(Oxford
section

University
on

Press,
are

1919),

on

the

which,

Chapters

Hinduism

partly

based.

CONTENTS

I."

HINDUISM
PAGE

I.

THE

RELIGION

OF

THE

RIGVEDA
. .

.13

II.

THE

BEGINNINGS

OF

BRAHMANIC

SPECULATION

23

III.

ESSENTIAL
ISHADS

HINDUISM,
.......

STUDY

IN

THE

UPAN30

IV.

POPULAR

HINDUISM

AND

THE

SONG

OF

THE

LORD

39

V.

SOME

FURTHER

DEVELOPMENTS

OF

HINDUISM
.

47

VI.

SOME

MODERN

RELIGIOUS

MOVEMENTS
. .

55

II."

ZOROASTRIANISM

I.

THE

LIFE

AND

TEACHING

OF

ZOROASTER
.

64
.

II.

THE

RELIGION

OF

THE

LATER

AVESTA
. .

74

III.

THE

FURTHER PARSIS

HISTORY

OF

ZOROASTRIANISM

"

THE 83

HI."

BUDDHISM

I.

INTRODUCTION
......

89

II.

THE

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA
. . .

.93

III.

THE

TEACHING

OF

THE

BUDDHA
.

.114
.

IV.

THE

ORDER

129

V.

THE

FURTHER

HISTORY

OF

BUDDHISM

IN

INDIA
.

132

VI.

BUDDHISM

IN

CEYLON,

BURMA,

SIAM,

AND

TIBET

140

10

CONTENTS

IV."

THE

RELIGIONS

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN
PAGE

I.

THE

ANCIENT

RELIGION

or

CHINA
.

.147

II.

CONFUCIANISM
. . . .

.154
.

III.

TAOISM

159

IV.

BUDDHISM

161

V.

THE

POPULAB

RELIGION

OF

CHINA
. .

169

VI.

THE

CONTRIBUTION
OF

OF

SHINTO

TO

THE

RELIGION 173

JAPAN
......

VII.

THE

CONTRIBUTION RELIGION
OF

OF

BUDDHISM

TO

THE

JAPAN
. . .

.181

VIII.

THE

CONTRIBUTION RELIGION
OF

OF

CONFUCIANISM

TO

THE

JAPAN
. .

.191

V."

ISLAM

I.

MUHAMMAD

AND

HIS

MISSION
. .

.194

II.

THE

FOUNDATIONS

OF

ISLAM
.
.

.215

III.

THE

FAITH

AND

PRACTICAL

DUTIES

OF

ISLAM
.

219

IV.

THE

SECTS

OF

ISLAM
.....

228

V.

THE

ASCETIC

ELEMENT

IN

ISLAM
.

237
. .

BIBLIOGRAPHY
. . . .

.241
.

INDEX
.

249

ABBREVIATIONS

USED

Ana.
. . .

Analects.

A.V.
.

Atharvaveda.
. "

Br.
. . .

Brdhmana.

Brih.

Up.
. .

Brihaddranyaka
Up.
.

Upanishad. Upanishad.
Classics,
edited and
lated trans-

Chhdnd.

Chhdndogya
The Chinese

C.C.
. . .

by
E.R.E.
. .

Legge. of
Religion
and Ethics.

Encyclopaedia Up.
. .

Kaih.

Kdthaka

Upanishad.
Hindu and Christian.

R.H.C.
.
.

Redemption, Rigveda.
. . .

R.V.

S.B.E.
.
.

Sacred

Books

of
Brdhmana.

the

East.

Sat.

Br.
. .

Satapatha
Surah.
. . .

S.

Svet.

Up.
. .

Svetdsvatara

Upanishad.

Vdd.
.

Vendlddd.
.
.

W.B.T.
.
.

Warren,
Yasna.
.
.

Buddhism

in

Translations.

Y8.
.

Yt.

Yasht.

AN TO LIVING THE

INTRODUCTION

STUDY

OF OF

SOME THE

RELIGIONS

EAST

I HINDUISM

I."

THE

RELIGION

OF

THE

RIGVEDA

Introduction. WHAT
much

Hinduism
one

is,
as

it

is
a

impossible

to

say.

It

is

not

so

religion
no

conglomeration
and

of lacks As
a one

religions.
authoritative modern
because Hindu

It

has

had

historic of the

founder
or

standards,
writer says,
a

either
"

belief

conduct.
are a common

Muhammadans

they
and the

have

common are one

religion,
because
;

and

law;
at

Christians of
nor

they
the

have

least

one

point
faith,

faith

in

common nor

but
to

Hindus

have

neither from

practice,
some

law,
of

distinguish
it

them

others."1 Hinduism

Yet
is

unity
on

thought
in

has.
and

Essential has process, devotion. with

the

based

the

belief from

karma,
the
or

for

its

chief
may in
our

concern

redemption
either

karmic

which

be

won

by knowledge
we

by
first
in
to

So,

brief

sketch,
of
this

shall

deal Hinduism
pass
on

the

tions presupposiand
the

essential and
then

Rigveda Upanishads,
an

Brdhmanas,
1

the

where
interesting
makes
a

Mr.

Srinivasa

symposium
man a

by
?
"

lyengar, in twenty-five Hindus

Essentials
on

the

difficult

8, of Hinduism, p. question,
"

What

Hindu

13

14

HINDUISM

[i

the doctrine

of knowledge, redemption by means first taught, and to the Song of the Lord, where are the of another of redemption is proclaimed way way devotion to a God. Then, after a hasty glance at some further developments, we shall look for a little at some
"

of karma, and

modern

movements

in Hinduism
or

due

to

the

attraction

or

repulsion of
The

Western

Christian

thought.

Religionof the Rigveda.

Veda, the Sacred

Scripture of Hinduism, is a vast and turies cenheterogeneous compilation representing many culture. Its oldest part, the mantra of religious or the Rigveda,the Sdmaveda, songs, exists in three collections, of hymns and consists formulae the Yajurveda, and and with the sacrifices to the gods. A fourth largelyconnected the Atharvaveda, is a collection of magic spells collection, which later obtained only much recognition. To these the Brdhmanas, four verse added collections were tions exposithe in prose of the meaning of the sacrifices and these, to are Appended writings of a more hymns. parts mystic kind, of which the ritualistic and allegorical are usually called Aranyakas, Forest Books,1 and the philosophic parts, Upanishads. It is impossible to state what books confidence with to belong. any ages these We give as tentative dates : may
The
1. The Period

of the of the
?
B.C.

Rigveda, 1500
Atharvaveda

?-1000 and the

B.C.

2. The

Period
?-600

Brdhmanas,
B.C.

1000 3. The The

Period

of the
consists

Upanishads,
of The
more

600

?-

Rigveda arranged in ten

after books which
two

than

a was

thousand

books.
to

first book
Latest

hymns compiled clearly

tenth

nine.

of all is the
some

book,
which
in

embodies
age

with of the
they

earlier Brdhmanas

hymns
and

hymns

reflect the
i

will be

dealt with
of the forest.

So called because

were

to

be

studied

in the seclusion

i]
the
next

THE

RIOVEDA

chapter.
to

The

of religion

the

Rigveda

is in marked

hymns are the expressionof the simple pastoralworship of the Aryan invaders of India, who as yet had only penetrated to the Yet it is impossible with of India. north-west corner Max Miiller to speak of their "primaeval simplicity."1 the childish age of the human mind," They reveal not centuries of religious but an age which had behind it many of the earliest hymns culture ; and, although some may without reference to to the gods, made be genuine prayers the sacrificial cult,very many, possiblymost, are not fresh but works of art and composed by ingenuous songs, tions rhymesters to be used as incantahighly paid professional of a theurgy. Yet the hymns in the service as a whole are primitiveto make it possibleto trace sufficiently the development of natural phenomena into personified from that of later deities, and, different as is their religion India, they have not entirelylost their influence in the No one, who has listened to the chanting world. modern
contrast

the

Hinduism

of later

times.

Its

"

of these
with

ancient

songs,
are

can

fail to

mark

the

veneration

which been

they
the

to have

still in

daily use.
to

regarded. The Rigvedic age is held of these prayers golden age, and some are Morning by morning the devout Hindu
:

prays
"

Savitar

May
So

we

attain he

that

excellent
our

glory
"

of

Savitar, the God

may

stimulate

prayers

;2

important of modern the reform movements, Arya-Samaj, goes back to the and cultured Hindus of every Rigveda for its inspiration, school quote lines from these hymns with affection and
we one reverence.

whilst,as

shall see,

of the most

give, even Rigvedic gods

1

To

in is

of all the outline, an account impossible in the space at our disposal. meagre
can

India

What

it teach

us

1899

edit., pp. 108,

109.

R. V., Ill, 62. 10.

Quotations from

Griffiths' translation.

16

HINDUISM

[i

brieflyby a few examples the With God offthese hymns. one general character only shall we deal at any.Jength with Varuna, the sublimest and most of Vedic deeply religious conceptions. In the next chapter we shall describe, with such fulness as our speak of that permits, those later hymns which space and quest for the unknown only God, which led in the of end to those conceptions of the infinite,characteristic
"

It must

suffice to indicate

classic Hinduism. The have realms earliest commentator

on

the

Rigveda

of whom
the

we

knowledge,1

classifies the

Vedic

deities into

three

of earth, and

air,and
may

this classification, we Gods

bright heaven. Adopting the chief gods thus : arrange

the

of the

Earth

Agni, Soma, Yama,

Gods

Brihaspati.

of

the Air

Indra, Vayu,
Gods

the

Maruts, Rudra.
:

of the Bright Heaven

her sons, of whom
the

Savitar, Surya, Ushab, Pushan,

chief
are

Vishnu Varuna

Aditi
and

and

Mitra.

Gods

of the

Earth.

popular of Vedic Agni ranks with Indra as the most the conception is much gods. Agni is fire,and however with the it always remains in close connection personified the wood the altar. flame that burns Agni is the upon Men friend. ask his blessingfor the bride that domestic she may have in her new home happiness and abundant offspring. Ancient as is his work, he yet is the youngest of the gods for new morning is he born on earth every is the messenger the sacrificial fire. He between as gods and men beg him to bring the gods hither to the ; men feast their sacrifices have hymn it is provided. In one
1

Yaska,

about

500

B.C.

See Kaegi, The

Rigveda,Eng.

trans., p. 7.

i]
said make best that him he grew

THE

RIOVEDA

17

weary continue, had

of his
to

labours, and
the

the

gods, to
last and them

promise

first and

from

to to him sacrifice.1 Men of every pray be the effect of sin that their lives may
:

free

happy

and

prosperous
"

Chasing
on

with
us

light our
our

sin away, sin away.

Agni,

shine

thou

wealth

J[May
For

his

light chase
;

goodly
to

for fields,

pleasant homes,
our

for wealth,

we

sacrifice

thee

May
Men

his

light chase
him

sin

away."2
him
call the him
names

praise
Varuna.3
is the

functions
even

of the

by assigning to other gods. They

and and

Indra,

drink delightedin by gods and intoxicating Its cult is closelyconnected with that of Agni, the men. feel themselves sacrificial fire. Drinking the Soma, men from ill ; to the gods it is equally immortal, and immune Indra the better slays his invigorating. By its power, the for Soma dragon, and in return gives men enemy, hundred Over riches. a hymns, including all the ninth to this god. book, are devoted Soma Gods

of

the Air.
is the

Indra than
a

chief of Vedic of the

gods, and

to

his

praise more

live No one can hymns are devoted. the supreme long in India without realising importance of the monsoon there on which the prosperity of the people chiefly depends. Indra's task is to slay the dragon Vritra who keeps the waters locked up in the clouds, so that the rain may fall and make the earth fertile. The hymns with which he, the thunder praise him for the prowess wielder, smites in pieces the evil Vritra.4 Indra is more

fourth

than

force of nature
1
3

to

which

men

pray.

He
1.2.

is

thought

R.V.,X.51.
e.g. R.V., II. 1.

" "

R.V.,1.97,

Cp. R.V.,

I. 32.

18

HINDUISM

[i

god, a genialhero, the friend of the Aryans, personal foes. Into his and their helper against their dark-skinned this as its is put a half -tipsy boastful mouth song with the Soma I not drunk refrain : Have juice ? '31 Dearly he loves the Soma drink, and is lavish to those that give it him, but to the miserly he is stern in vengeance. Of Vayu, or Vdta, the Wind-God, there is no need to of some interest as are being so speak. The Maruts who nature pany accomgods. They are the Storm-Gods clearly
of
as a
"

Indra,
thunder,
the
monsoon as

and

assist

him

with

their

battle-axe that

and

he

strives
rain.
as

against the dragon,

of the Maruts

holds back
is
two

Chief the

is

Rudra, who
of the

importance great gods of

of

prototype of Siva,
Hinduism.

one

Rigveda hides his nature, and calls him propitious (siva)yet, even savage is deprecated, and his grace is extolled, his anger when his bright arrow jured uninmen may pass them pray that by and that he will inflict no evil on their progeny.2
modern The
"
"

Gods

of the Bright Heaven.

itself, Dyaus,
of the

Heaven time

Rigveda, and littlecelebrated in hymn

associated
is made
are

importance by the become a dim figureof antiquity, With him is generally or sacrifice.

had

lost his

Earth, who, as his consort, the pair fruitful by the impregnating rain, and
as

Prithivi,the Mother
the

gods to whom sages times had assigned precedence.3 Savitar repreof ancient sents the more and spiritual, Surya the more physical, was worshipped. Savitar is the aspect in which the sun in the morning quickener,the enlivener,who brings to men the good gift of brightness, and in the evening, rest and the kindly night. He is the golden-eyed, the goldening handed, the golden-tongued. Surya is depicted as followeach man a maid, Ushas, the morning, as a young is portrayed the sudden lovely goddess, in whom splendour
great parents
1

hailed

of the

R.V.,

X.

119.

R.V., VII.

1C.

R.V., VII.

53.

i]
of the go, and but Indian dawn.

THE

RIG

VEDA

19

The

unwearied she

each appears
Hindus. him.

generations of men morning, in undiminished

awake
he
men

come

and

beauty,
is of

to
as

to

their Siva
a

Vishnu

importance

divides

with

of modern
are
"

In the He
is
a

assigned to
three

Rigveda only solar god and

and is
"

youth daily task. the allegiance few hymns

famous

his

steps

"

are

already

celebrated.1

In the
than
"

the other
her

Varuna stand highest heaven Adityas. Aditi, their mother,

sons,
"

Mitra, and
later
the
"

probably
Aditi
as

for, whether
the
"

we

translate
the

conception is abstract, and she is not sufficiently personifiedto have In a famous she stanza to her a specialhymn. addressed is identified with all the gods and men.
infinite
or

untrammelled,"

"

Aditi
Aditi

is the the

heaven,
son.

Aditi

is

mid-air, Aditi is the mother

men,

and

sire and

is all been

gods, Aditi
and

five-classed be born."2

Aditi

all that

hath

born

shall

gods, the Adityas are holy gods, feared, because of their caprice, but because of their allnot seeing righteousness.
Unlike the other
"

These

gods,
eyes,

Adityas, vast, profound

to

and

faithful,with
:

many

fain within the

deceive

Looking
is

behold

wicked, the good and evil

the

near

to

the

kings

even

thing

most

distant."3

Greatest Vedic

of

them

all is

Varuna,

conceptions. Here alone in the the moral In sublimity of Hebraism. Christian reader inevitablysuggest verses
and
1

grandest of all Veda, do we approach

words from that
to

the

the

the Psalms wrong,

through
current
as a

the Book
In three

of Job, he is hailed
three

as

the

punisher of
course

the It.V, the

steps steps
and
"

seem was

to

represent the
strides

of the
that the

sun now

the

regions

of the

world.

It
are

in Brahmanic the

times

that the three myth arose dwarf, tricked the demons, R. V., I. 89. 10.
"

by

which

Vishnu, incarnate

regained the

earth.

B. V., II. 27. 3.

20

HINDUISM

[i
whose anger
men

the when
"

God, almighty and all-seeing they have violated his holy

us

fear

law.1

with those dread which, Varuna, weapons sinner. wound the Asura, at thy bidding, from Let us not Scatter, that we light to exile. pass away who hate us. live, the men may of old, will we O mighty Varuna, now and as hereafter, even Strike

not,

For

speak forth our worship. in thyself,infallible god, thy statutes,

are

ne'er

to be

moved,
me

fixed what

as

on

mountain. I have

Wipe
Full

out

debts

myself
to

contracted

let

not

king, by gain profit,

many
a morn

of others. dawn upon us."2

us

remains
we

in these, O

Varuna,
And
"

while

live, direct

they plead
our own

Not

will

betrayed
lead evil

us,
or

but

seduction, thoughtlessness,
;
even

Varuna,
The old is
near
men

wine, dice,
to to

astray

anger. the younger

slumber

leadeth

doing."3
Varuna from is

Closelyassociated whose worship also

of India. the Mitra

with dates

Mitra, another
the
"

Aditya,
invasion
in

before
name

Aryan

is another devoted sustains

to

for

friend," and,
hailed
as

only hymn kindly sun, who

men

his sole heaven

is praise,

the

and

earth, and

watches
as

with

open

eyes.4

Some

would forth

interpret Varuna
the

the

starry sky, which

were

drew

Kant's

great confession.

If that

so, it would

solemnity
reference

of

Varuna,

be easy but it seems

to understand

quiet
the
the

is in this way, for Varuna night,he is also the god of the waters, who

impossible to limit not only the god of

directs that

the rain.
up

Of

the

thousand

and

more

hymns

make

the

JRigveda, nearly half are directed to Indra and Agni. To It is clear that Varuna only twelve hymns are addressed. his worship is already receding in popular favour, and in
1 "

e.g.

R.V., I. 24 and V., VII, 86. 6.

26.

" *

B.V., II. 28. 7-9. R. V., III. 59.

i]
one

THE

RIO

VEDA to

21

of the
power

his
times

hymns passing into

becomes
"

later

there

seenis

be

reference

to

Indra's
an

hands.1

In

Brahmanic

unimportant god of the waters, and the word asura," with which the Adityas had been not described, is taken to mean mysterious beings but used of the evil spirits, who a-sura," "no-god," and the enemies of the devas, the gods.2 were
Varuna
"
"

"

The

Character

of the Rigvedic Religion.

hymns of the Rigveda reflect on the whole a simple The worship of the objects of nature. gods are, for the most part, kindly. The capriceof Rudra is feared, although the and call him auspicious (siva)to avert his wrath men sublime of the Adityas is deprecated ; righteous anger but, as we have seen, the god most praised is Indra, who is a congenial god for a soldier race, a fighter himself, and kindly to those that gave him the Soma juice he loves. Although the gods, apart from the Adityas, are not of religion are thought of as holy, the baser elements not prominent. Fear of devils there clearlyis, and some of the hymns provide magic spells, the but, on the whole, religionis a healthy, happy system. Neither asceticism neither pessimism nor nor austerity, philosophy, disturbs the sunshine of that early day."3 Life is thought of as a that they and men survive a hundred blessing, pray may at last death When lengthened autumns."4 they comes, that deathless,undecaying,world wherein hope to dwell in the light of heaven is set and everlastinglustre shines/' the land ruled over who now by Yama, the first of men, reigns where joys and felicities combine, and longing
The
" " " "

wishes

are

fulfilled."5 claimed that the under Rigveda, rightly

-

It is sometimes
" *

R.V., X.
For the

124.

datva
3

"

ahura opposite development of the corresponding Iranian words later on see Zoroastrianism, Chap. I. J. X. Farquhar, An Outline of the Religious Literature of India, p. 13. * A V., IX. 113. B.V., X. 18.4.

and

22

HINDUISM

[T

stood,
were

teaches
there

monotheism.
should be the

It

is

hard

to

see

why,
many each and

if

that

so,

worship pantheon

of in

so

gods. god
to

There
has his
"

is,

indeed, separate

no

ordered and

which

permanent
"

function,
the

the

gods
but is
to not

one
"

at

time

are

ascribed
to did it

highest
Miiller's such. but It

attributes

this

kathenotheism,"
nor

use

Max
to

phrase,1
is

monotheism,
the

lead

simpler

describe and

religion
in

as

polytheism
and
stanza

polytheism
become
who

unstable business his sell

decay.

Sacrifices In

prayers
a

have

transaction.
has commanded

one

rhymester,
of

by
to

song his

the

service

Indra,
late

offers the
to to

right
for

for faith of

ten

milch-kine
in that

;2

in

hymn
not

singer
pray the

prays

way The

men

do

need led

in

an

age

faith.3

decay
which last The for

of

polytheism
finds

quest
the

of

unitary hymns
now

principle,
of the

expression
the

in which

speculative
we

book moral

of

Rigveda
of
the

have

to

study.
;

sublimity
was

Varuna

was

forgotten holy
God,

the

quest
of the

unity
the

not

quest
all

of

one

but

infinite,

substrate

of

being.

Op.

tit., p.

147.

R.V.,

IV,

24.

10.

7?.F.,

X,

151.

5.

II."

THE

BEGINNINGS SPECULATION

OF

BRlHMANIC

The
IN
a

Philosophic
late

Hymns
of
in the

of
first

the, book

'

Rigveda.'
of the

hymn

Rigveda,
which

the

poet,
the

after

describing
of the

obscure declares

and in

symbolic
a
:

language

enigma
Hindus
"

universe,
are

stanza

educated

to-day
call him

fond Indra,

of

quoting

They
To what

Mitra,

Varuna,

Agni
they

and

he

is

heavenly
is one,

nobly- winged give sages

Garutman. many
a

title

call

it

Agni,

Yama,
In
some

Matarisvan."1

hymns
is made

of
to

the find

last

books

of

the

Rigveda
the
the

the
are

endeavour thus the

this

One,

of whom
is

gods Hymn
and

manifestations.
The

Very
describes when

famous
the

of
un-

Creation.

poet

primaeval being
Desire The
: nor

differentiated

chaos,

neither One

not-being
breathed
and
cludes con-

existed,

but
own

only
nature."
this
a

"

that In

Thing,
void
was rose

breathless,

by by

its
means

the

(kdma),
poem

of with

the

world of
who

created.

confession
knows and later and whence than

bafflement
here this

"

Who

verily
was

can comes

declare creation

it, whence
?

it

born,
are

The

gods
then,
the
or

this
came

world's into

when

it first of

production, being ?
whether he

who

knows,

He,

first did eye

origin
form controls

this

creation,
world he in knows
celestial
well

formed

it all

not

it,
the

Whose

highest
it not."2 bird,
the

heaven,

he

verily

knows
1

it, or
46.

perhaps
Garutman

R.V., god.
account

I. 164.
These und is

is the
are

Sun.
in

Matarisvan

is

wind

philosophic hymns
Philosophic given
in des VEDA pp.

expounded
die
"

Deussen,
pp. 129.

Attgemeine
105-158.
A

Einleitung
short

bi9 32-41.

auf

UPAMSHADS*,
B.

R.H.C.

V., X.

6, 7.

23

24

HINDUISM

[n

names are mysterious One various assigned. in the Hymn Thus of the Golden Germ the poet asserts that in the beginning was the Golden Germ, and by him the

To

this

world

was

created the
"

and
'

is conserved.

Each
we

stanza,

cludes conour

with

line the

What

god

shall
comes

adore
the
answer

with
:

oblation unknown
other

In
is

last stanza

this

god hymns
and
"

Prajapati,the
One
as

Lord
as

of creatures.1

In two the
all-

the

is hailed

Visvakarman,
architect
"

creator, and

invoked,
the
; but

the

the high-priest,

of the deities'

universe,

Father

who

made

us,

the
the

namegiver
en

the poet cannot that

do
" "

understand

mystery
are

of creation, and

complains

the
not

wrapt in misty cloud

and

hymn-chanters help his quest.2

the have was Among gods of the earth, as we seen, Brihaspati, or, as he is often called, Brahmanaspati. As the high priest, of Prayer, he was the path prethe Lord As it was natural had a theurgic power, prayer parer. that priestlyspeculators should exalt him to the highest hymn, the Hymn to Brahmanaspati, he place, and in one too is praised as the all-creator, who produced the generations of the gods with blast and smelting,like a smith."3 of all the Rigvedic hymns is the Hymn famous Most to Purusha. the Purusha, man, humanity, is here made itself is conceived as a origin of creation ; nature unity, extension of the primaeval man and is described as an :
" "

thousand feet.

heads

had

Purusha,
every

thousand

eyes,

thousand

He

covered breadth

earth

on

side, and

spread

ten

fingers'

beyond."
are

All

creatures
"

one-fourth

of

him, while
He
The

three-fourths
once

of him

are

eternal

life in heaven." first

is at

the

first
seers were

begetter
offered
born
"

and

the
in

begotten.
air and

gods
that

and

Purusha

and sacrifice,
of the
*

from

sacrifice wild

the creatures
1

animals, both
82.

and

R. F., X.

121.

R. V., X. 81 and

R. F.,r72.

n]

BEGINNINGS the

OF

SPECULATION and

25

tame,"
From
"

three

Vedas,
the
his

horses, cattle,goats,
the four
;

sheep.
made.
was

the

parts of
was

body,
mouth

castes his

were

The

Brahman

of

both

arms

the

Rajanya1
His

made. the

thighs became

Vaisya,

from

his feet

the

Sudra

was

produced."
The
the
moon came

from

his
and
came

mind,

the from

sun

from

his
;

eye,

great gods, Indra Vayu, the god of wind,

the

Agni,
from

his mouth

whilst

his breath, and from

the earth This

Rigvedic hymns, for, and it was when written, the Sdmaveda Yajurveda already existed,if only in rudimentary form, and there was already which has since been distinctive that recognition of caste
of the social system It would be
a

formed sky were hymn is probably

and

from

his feet and last of the

his head.2

of India.

from these hymns pleasure to pass at once the speculative genius of to the Upanishads in which first its classic expression ; but, in order that India found be understood, it is necessary their teaching may to say and the Brdhmanas, for, something of the Atharvaveda the slow be traced can dreary as are these books, in them of that doctrine of the identity of the self with emergence in the Upanishads is transformed which Brahman into a

great message
The In
"

of

redemption.

Atharvaveda.' the

Eigveda the references to magic are few, and such spellsas it provides are found chieflyin the tenth book, which, as we have seen, is a kind of appendix to the But it is probable that the placation of main collection. devils existed from the first, side by side with the brighter worship of the gods, and in the Atharvaveda, which was compiled long after the central portion of the Eigveda, have the grand collection of spellsdesigned to avert we
1

the warrior i.e. Kshatriya,

caste.

R. V., X. 90.

20

HINDUISM

[ii
utilise their services
to

the

anger

of the
to

devils,or
enemies

to

destruction other
means.

too

powerful
as

to

be has

attacked

bring by
the

Such
it

interest
us

the

book

lies in

ordinary life of ancient consecrated India. Then, as now, phase of life was every off the are provided to ward by religion,and charms the love of beasts and thieves, to win attacks of savage the land maid husband, to speed the plough and make or harvest. The magic is not only bring forth an abundant white black but are spellsby which a wife ; there kill a hated rival, or a Brahman destroy the noble may glimpses
that

gives

of the

"

"

"

"

who

robs him

of his

cows.

The The

'

Brahmanas' Bralimanas
are

the

reflection

of

an

age

in

which

in decay, prayer, and sacrifice were mere a religionwas for themselves theurgy, and the priests claimed greater wearisome and importance than their gods. Unspeakably puerile as these books are, they enable us to trace the that has entered into the complex of modern originof much Hinduism. from Already the Sudra is excluded religion, for the gods talk only to the higher castes," whilst the divine Brahmans had a begun to claim for themselves The Brahmans, who have studied and teach sanctity. sacred the human lore," are gods," and with giftsthese be human gratified."1 Of great importance gods may the sacrifices. Unless the priestsacrificed before dawn, are the sun not rise. It was would by sacrifices that the gods for themselves won and, by the sacrifices men supremacy, offer, they may be, not so much worshipped, as overcome and utilised. The Brahmans had gained for themselves but in education, and a monopoly not only in religion, already we read of the beginnings of the four stages into
" " " "

which

Brahman's

life should
is
1

be

divided. of
the

One
cow.

mark

of This

Hinduism

to-day

the

veneration

Sat. Br., II. 2. 2. 6.

IT]
too

BEGINNINGS

OF

SPECULATION time

27

had

when,
as

beginning in although the cow

its
are.

the
was

of the

later
was

Brdhmanas,
sacred
of

it sacrificed, milk is
"

just

totems
a

Its

white passage,

the

seed that and

and, in

curious and skin

"

it is asserted
cow

Agni,"1 the gods

to

flayed man,
up

gave

the

his

skin,
to

so,
a

make
;
a

for the

lost, man
a man

alone

has

wear

garment
of
runs

wherefore
cow,

let not
cow

be
that

naked
she
wears

in the

presence and

for the

knows

his skin

lest he should take the skin from away it is forbidden to eat the flesh of the the
comment

her," and, although

cow,

there
it

is added

of

"

sage,

As

for me,

I eat

provided gods

it is

tender."2 Of
some

interest in the

are

the

many

myths

of the

spersed inter-

natural, exposition of the sacrifice. As was when had degenerated into theurgy, they are not religion drunken and depicted as holy gods. They are sometimes to sense lecherous, although they have sufficient moral the incest of Prajapati with his daughter Ushas,3 condemn read in the sacrifices, truthfulness and that they demand we indeed the gods do keep that for the vow they speak the truth ; and for this reason they are glorious."4
"

The As

Speculation of
we

the Brdhmanic in
as a

Age. hymn
of
the

have

seen,

famous

Rigveda,
and it is

Prajapati is
around him It

extolled

the

great unknown

god,

that
was

much believed

of the
that
were

gathers.

power

by

it

men

speculation of this period culable austerity, tapas, had incalable to subdue the gods
we

themselves,
and
this

and

so, in many

passages, earth.

read

that

it

was

that Prajapatiproduced by austerity

all creatures that live
on

the

gods, and demons,

the
end of

Towards

period
Brahman
1 "

the

become
the

and less,

importance of Prajapati appears to have speculationbegan slowly to gather around

and the

Atman,
"
"

until

at

last

the

great

Sat. Br., IT. 2. 4. 15. Sat. Br., L 7. 4. 4.

Sat. Br., III. 1. 2. 16-21. Sat. Br., I. 1. 1. 5.

28

HINDUISM

[n
cosmic
and

assertion

is

reached
one.

that

the

the

psychic

are principles

Brahman. The

origin of
to

the
a

word

Brahman

is still behind

obscure,
the

and

it is hard

find word
is
"

unifying thought
may
"

various
that

meanings
its root

the

bear.
;

Deussen
"

supposes the will

idea

prayer the

it denotes and

of

man

striving up
likelihood,

after

holy
is
"

divine."1
the

With

greater
Brahman

Hillebrandt

suggests that

fundamental
the

meaning
was

of the word

magic."2
man,
or

Probably
sorcerer,
}

at

first the
we

medicine

the

wielder

of

such

spellsas to originally
denote

find in the Brahmans

Atharvaveda alone. Later of the

as

which
the

belonged
word
and
came

the

to

the
were

sacred

knowledge
now

Vedas,
possessors

the

Brahmans sacred
valid.

honoured
songs,

the
no

of the
be

Vedic So

without
"

which
"

sacrifice could

secured a loftier significance. gradually brahman have We that in a late hymn of the already seen is hailed the as Rigveda, Brihaspati, its personification, All-creator,and in the Brdhmanas, as the importance of Brahman elevated above Prajapati, was Prajapatigrew less, and made the creative principleby which the gods even created.3 In one of the hymns of the Atharvaveda were Brahman is identified with Purusha, the primaeval man.4

Atman. Atman
and
so came

probably
to
mean

has

as

its

first

meaning
thus

"

breath,"
the

the
came

and life-breath,

soul,
was

the self. is not

How

this

to

denote

the

self of the

universe

clear.

helped by the the primaeval man,

and
of

probable that the popularity of the similar

from whose

It is

development
ideas world in
one

of Purusha,
arose,

sacrifice the is described

*

Prana,
1 3

the

breath, which
241.
2. 3. 1-4.

of the

Op. cit., p.

E.R.E., II. 797.

A. V., X. 2.

e.g. Sat. Br., XI.

"

n]

BEGINNINGS

OF

SPECULATION

29

hymns
of
with
so

of the

Atharvaveda In another the prop

as

the

first and

creative

principle

nature.1

Skambha, Brahman,
is

is identified the Atman hymn or pillar of the universe, and

as

with

who

is hailed the

the

creator and

thus

the
the

equated with metaphysical principleof in the Satapatha Brahmana

with

Atman

Brahman,
universe.2 this

made in
one

the

And

place
Atman

the

Brahman

is reaffirmed
passages

of the
the
1.
man

most

famous

in

identity of the in language of which one the Upanishads is merely

true

transcript.
Let here
a man

meditate

upon

the

Brahman.

Now

possessed of understanding, and according to he departs this world, how great his understanding is,when enter does he, on passing away, so yonder world.
is 2. up
"

Let

him

meditate

on

the Self

(Atman),which
with
a

is made of

intelligenceand endowed with form of light and with a an changes the shape at will,is swift
and and
true

of

body

spirit,
which
solve re-

ethereal
as

nature,

thought,
all

of true

purpose,
holds

which
sway

consists
over

of all sweet the

odours

regions and is speechless, indifferen universe, which pervades this whole even as a grain of rice or a grain of barley, or a grain of millet, or the smallest granule of millet, so is in the heart ; even the golden Purusha as a smokeless light, it is greater than the sky, greater than the ether, greater than the earth, greater than all existing things ; that self of the spirit(breath) is myself ; on passing away from I shall obtain has this hence that self. Verily whosoever trust, for him there is no uncertainty. Thus spake Sandilya
tastes, which
"

and So

so we

it is."3

have
is the

reached

at

last

the

great equation, the

and the cosmic

Atman

Brahman,

the

psychic

ciples prin-

are

one.

1 "

* A.V., XI. 4. A.V., X. Sat. Br., X. 6. 3. (=Chhand.

8.

Up., III. 14).

III."

ESSENTIAL

HINDUISM,
UPANISHADS

STUDY

IN

THE

OF

the

spiritual Upanishads
dated is
now

revival
we some

which

marked One
"

the

age
event

of

the

earlier
may be

know

little.

great

alone

with

confidence

the 560-480

life of the
B.C.

Buddha,
It
seems

which clear

assigned
oldest their

by

many

to
are

that

the

Upanishads
time,
there and

earlier had

than

his
the

ing, teach-

and,
doctrine

before of

emerged
which
now

great

transmigration
of Indian

karma,
and

became

the
many,
to

axiom and

thought
those
that

religion,
rich

and

inspired
classes,

especially
the karmic world order.
Hindu

of the

and

leisured seek
are

abandon
the

they

might

redemption
the

from
the

The
answer

Upanishads
to

record The

of

distinctive
the

this

quest.
foreshadowed

great
in
the
as

equation, philosophic
we now

Atman=the

Brahman,
the passage of the

hymns
in
one

of

Rigveda,
in the

and

fully reached,
becomes

have
a

seen,

Brdhmanas,
The the free

grand
is
one

message

redemption.
Atman
peace

individual

soul

of

man

with

and and
message is

Brahman,
from the

and

whoso
of and

knows

this, wins
Such is the
in later

cycle

rebirth.
it is

central

of the
has It

Upanishads,
become is the

expressed
of
all

language
Hindu

which

commonplace
to
are

thought.
of
their

impossible
for

give
not

systematic philosophic
many

exposition
texts

teaching,

they

but

uncritical do
the not

compilations/
rise and and

They
the

contain
senile

chapters
Brdhmanas,
passages

which
and
are

beyond living
times some-

folly

of the

fresh

thoughts
self

of their

nobler,

unrelated,

-contradictory.
30

in]
It will be

THE

UPANISHADS
to

31

convenient

deal

first with whatever all Indian

men

the

doctrine its

of
it

transmigration and karma, as, has become the logical prius of

well be that it
was

be

origin, thought, and

it may

because

felt themselves

thus back
and

bound

in the chain

of endless

births,that they turned

in the

to the obscure

speculationembodied
At
man

Brahmanas the secret

discovered

in the

-Brahman

doctrine

of

redemption

from

the miserable

cycle of

rebirth.

The

Doctrine

of Transmigration.
to

The
to

earliest references
in
some

this

doctrine

are

apparently

speeches of Yajnavalkya, a Brahman To a Brahman, Artabhaga, who challenged his right sage. offered by a king, Yajnavalkya to the prize of wisdom that the soul explains,in language deliberatelydifficult, of to the organs is in bondage so long as it ascribes reality
be found
sense, rest.

and

the

sage

who

knows

thus Artabhaga asked him in public to released, Yajnavalkya refused answer but took him aside ; then they two out and argued went what and work (karma], and what they they said was work becomes (karma), viz. that a man, good praised was The teaching, so by good work, and bad by bad work."1 the sage to be this : at death obscurely taught, seems When
"

at death this may about the soul not

be

at

wins

release from
some new

rebirth, whilst the soul,not

embodiment
;

thus

released,
have been

finds

good, if

its works

Upanisgood, bad, if its works have been bad. In the same had, Yajnavalkya explains this doctrine more lucidly in classic in later thought. metaphors which have become The self at death approaches another pillar body, justas a caterfrom blade of grass to another, or just one passes as a a goldsmith moulds piece of gold into another and A man beautiful shape. of good acts will become more He of bad acts, bad. becomes good, a man by pure pure
" 1

Brih.

Up., III.

2. 13.

XV., (S.B.E.,

p.

127).

32

HINDUISM

[m
here

deeds, bad
consists and
as

by

bad

deeds.

And
as

they
and

say

that

man

of desires.
is his he

And

is his deed
;

desire, so

is his will ;

will,so
will the

is his

whatever

deed

he

does, that
So with
this

reap."1
doctrine
is

stated
was

simple

and

consistent

but

eschatology, which the way of the fathers," by which men might spoke of attain Yama the happy to the world where ruled over of the dead, and of a of the gods by which spirits way men Agni bore the offeringsto the gods, and by which both might ascend to enjoy the bliss of the gods. From these paths the wicked shut out ; for them there was were The of the classic statement only the lower darkness. doctrine of earlier transmigration incorporates these
combined the earlier
" " "

views.

The

passage

occurs

in each

of what

are

probably

Upanishads. We follow here the account It is of interest to in the Brihaddranyaka Upanishad.2 notice that this teaching is given to Brahmans by Janaka, a Kshatriya king, who declares that this knowledge has
two
"

the

oldest

never

before
passage

now

dwelt

with

any

Brahman."

The

consists the two

of two

five fires and is

ways.
to

parts : the doctrine of the In a country where cremation

think of the

it practised,
as a

is natural

burning
of the and

of the fires

dead
is in

and sacrifice,

in

the

doctrine
moon

five

depicted the
five

rise of the self to the

is born
on

its descent Combined

stages, till it

earth doctrine

again.

with

this doctrine

is the famous

of the two

paths.

The
"

Way of the
Those those
to

Gods. thus know in the

who who

this,the doctrine

of the five fires, and the the

and
go

forest

from lightto light, half, from the increasinghalf

sun

worship faith day, from day to

to

true,
the world

increasing
when

the six months, six months

goes
1 *

to the
Up., IV. 4.

north, from
5.

these

to the

Brih. Brih.

(op. cit., p. 176).

For
a

204-9. Up., VI. 2., op cit.,

fuller statement

see

R.H.C.,

pp.

60-3.

in]
of the
sun,

THE

UPANISHADS

33

Devas
the

(gods),from
sun

the

world

of the

Devas

to

the

from thus

to

the

have
near

reached
and

the

they place of lightning. When place of lightning,a spiritcomes

to

them,
these is
no

leads

them

the

worlds

of

Brahman. for ages.

In

worlds

of Brahman

they

dwell

exalted

There

returning

for them.

The
"

Way
But

of

the Fathers.

of sacrifice, the worlds by means they who conquer smoke to night, charity,and austerity, go to smoke, from the from from night to the decreasing half of the moon, the when to the six months decreasing half of the moon
sun

goes

to

the

south,
the

from

these

months

to

the
to

world
moon.

of

the

fathers, from
reached feed
on

world

of the

fathers

the

Having
Devas

the moon, there them decreases.

on

they
as

become

food, and
on

then

the
as

sacrificers feed But

when this

Soma,

it increases

and

their
that

good
rain

works

earth)
to

ceases,

(the result again they return

the reach in the air
to

of
to

ether, from
to

ether
earth.

the

air, from
when

rain,
earth

from

the

And
are

they
which Thus

become is man,

food, they
and
up rise

offered
are

they again
in

the altar

-fire,
same

thence towards

born

the
and

fire of go

woman.

they
as

the

worlds,

the

rounds In

before."

the
"

Brihaddranyaka

Upanishad

there

is yet

third
two

neither of these Those, however, who know path. birds, and creeping things." paths, become worms, wise of transmigration is fairlysimple. The account
up
to

This
pass

the world

of

Brahman,
way the

from

which

there

is
to

no

return. moon,
are

The
and born

good

ascend

then, after

by the enjoying
earth.

of the

fathers

the

fruit of their

good works,

again
are

on

The

ignorant

and

careless, after

death,
In made

again as the lowest animals. the Chhdndogya Upanishad a moral differentiation is of the journey along the way amongst those who
"

born

Fathers

Those

whose

conduct

has

been

good

will

34

HINDUISM

[in

quickly attain some good birth, the birth of a Brahman, conduct a or Kshatriya, or a Vaisya. But those whose has been evil,will quickly attain an evil birth, the birth of a dog, or a hog or a Chandala."1 As retribution is thus introduced into the way of the Fathers, there is no need for the the third mentioned in Brihaddranyaka way, Upanishad, but this too is retained at the sacrifice of any consistency. Such of transmigrais the classic text for the doctrine tion. Later to the wicked, before they are reborn on earth, are assigned terrifyinghells and there is thus a double retribution : in the world beyond, and in a miserable
rebirth this
on

earth.

Inconsistent has

as

are

the

statements

of later solve

doctrine, its influence

To
most

been

decisive appears life's pain.

for
to

thought.
seemed
not

Hindus
it has

this doctrine
not

life's mysteries, but

eased

Life has Indian from

good but evil,and the supreme quest of philosophy has been, not abstract truth, but freedom the bondage of the karma of past deeds.
The As
was

Way of Deliverance.
we

have

seen,

in

the

Brdhmanas At
man
=

the

great equation
It
was

already reached,
supreme

the

the

Brahman.

the

work

of the into
a

obscure which burden rebirths. doctrine

to

surmise
many

has

seemed

this Upanishads to transform of redemption, great message the from to bring deliverance

of

the

temporal
seems

and be the

the

wearisome

round

of

What
in the

to

earliest statement

of the

Upanishads, is ascribed to the Brahman he it is the king Janaka whom sage, Yajnavalkya, and He instructs. the Atman at first in language describes is is deliberately which the gods love what obscure, for At length there mysterious and dislike what is evident." the famous And he statement comes (the Atman) :
" "

A low caste.

See Chhdnd.

Up., V.

10. 7.,S.B.E., I, p. 82.

m]
can

THE

UPANISHADS

35

only
he
cannot

be described be
;

as

No,
is not

no

!
;

He he

is

for he

cannot

comprehended
he
is

incomprehensible, is undecaying, for

decay
0

attach
not

himself

; he

attached, for he does not he does unbound, he does not suffer,

you have indeed

perish.
"

Janaka,
in
a

reached

ness."1 fearless-

So,
declares
:

the
man

If

He,'
the the have

what

could
"

he

following dialogue, Yajnavalkya the Self,saying, I am understands wish or desire that he should pine after
'

body."
eye, the

They

who

know
ear,

the

life of

ear

of the

the

mind

the eye of life, of the mind, they

comprehended
alone
who

By the mind diversity. He

from death
and

primaeval, Brahman. it is to be perceived, there is in it no perceives therein any diversity, goes

the

ancient,

to

death." Brahman
"

Thus the

to

know

that

the

Self

is

Brahman of
a

sole

reality, gives the

solace

He therefore that knows it,after having quiet heart. become patient, and collected, quiet, subdued, satisfied,
sees

self in
he

Self,sees
Free

all

as

Self. Evil

Evil
does

does
not

not

overcome

him,
burns

overcomes

all evil. from

burn

him, he

all evil.

evil,free from
"

spots, free from

Brahman." This great untrue a born doubts, he becomes Self, undecaying, undying, immortal, fearless, is and he who knows indeed Brahman. Fearless is Brahman,

this, becomes
man

will

verily the fearless of realise the instability

from its
snare

Brahman.''2
the

The

wise and
so

visible world
"

be delivered follow
after

and

win

consolation.

Children

of pleasures,and fall into the snare Wise men widespread death. only, knowing the nature of what is immortal, do not look for anything stable here The wise, when he knows that things unstable." among that by which he perceivesall objectsin sleep, or in waking, is the great omniscient So the Self, grieves no more."3 the is the All this is one Atman, Brahman, : reality outward
" " 1
*

Brill. Brut, Brih. Kath.

"

XV. 2. iv. V. (ajajs., (S.B.E., AV. 159, 160). Up,, IV. up., pp. lotJ Up., IV. 4. (op.cit., pp. 178-80). Up., II. 4. (op.cit., p. 15).

36
"

HINDUISM

[in
was

Brahman."

In the

beginning there
a

that

only

which thou

is, one
art

only, without
conceived
was

second."

"

It is the

Self and

it."1

So

the

doctrine

is the

purest idealism,
which the
was

and

its message

felt to Our

bring a
redeemed

liberation with the

actual

and

blessed.

self is identical

great Self of

the world, and It is the have but

won

is thus

from

passages

in which

this doctrine their

cycle of rebirth. is expressed that

and

it is

Upanishads the that significant

for the And
are

fame
has

influence,
been

idealism

always
three
even

unstable.

this is hard

natural, for
to
are

it involves

cates impliin the

which

accept, and

which

Upanishads (1) The

The
and

themselves

frequently
are life

contradicted.2

world

and

the worWs that

unreal. is illusion
first found have

explicitteaching
the and
even

the

world

(maya)
a

God

illusion maker
there
seems

(mdyin) is
may
not

in

late

Upanishad,3
;

its later

ing mean-

in some of the impliciteven of redemption. earliest statements of the doctrine Thus in the dialoguebetween Yajnavalkya and his wife, Maitreyi, it is clearlytaught that it is only as external objects are related to the Self that they exist.4 The Self alone is all
but the

doctrine

that

is.
to

But

the

doctrine This

was

too

difficult for the

passes

sages

always pantheism, which, assuming

the

maintain.

idealism the

often the

into

reality of

universe,

Atman alone is real, for the Atman yet teaches that is the universe, and the world's creation was the projection of the Atman. and the
is

(2) God
As So
1 2 8 *

Self are
no

alike unknowable. is

there

when
ChMnd.

duality, God Yajnavalkya is asked to

Up., III.
14. 1.,VI.
2.

inevitably unknown.
"

describe

the

Brahman
107).

1.,VI.

14. 3.

(S.B.E., I, pp. 48, 93, and

See R.H.G., pp. 68-75 for a fuller statement. Svet. Up., IV. 10. (S.B.E., XV. p. 252). BriTi.

Up., II.

4.

108-113). (op. cit.,

in]
who he

THE

UPANISHADS

37

js visible,not replies, Thou

"

invisible,the
couldst the
hearer
not
see

Self who
the
seer

is within

all,"

of

couldst

not

hear

of

hearing, nor

perceiverof the perception,nor the knower At man, all."1 Brahman is within This is thy Self who or the subject, and not the object of thought, is inevitably as it can at all, unknowable. If described only be by a negation,
"

sight,thou perceive the of knowledge.

neti, neti, not

for the

so,

not

so."
a

Such

an

abstraction

is

inadequate points out, portrayed,

sense,

and, as Oldenberg religion, in the Upanishads themselves, God is often indeed not as personal in the full Christian time, not as quiteimpersonal. Thus but, at the same
needs

of

often, instead of the neuter Brahma, whilst Atman sustainer of the world,2 and
had passages
are

Brahman,
is in the

we

have the

the

line mascu-

depicted as
ascribe
to

creator

and

late Svetdsvatara

Upanisreached

found

which

the

great Lord,
of Brahman,

Isvara, the
is

creation the

of the
sage

world,3 yet
soon

the

theism

unstable, and
first

speaks again

the

principle.
works
no

(3) Redemption
In the
most

change
the

in

man's

heart.

characteristic

redemption already is.

and

is

simply
thus

passages intuitive

Its best

emblem
redeemed

for them

those

Upanishads, knowledge of what is deep and dreamless sleep, life has lost its meaning.
"

of the

As water good and evil are alike indifferent. evil deed clings to one does not clingto the lotus leaf, so no it (i.e. the Atman)."4 In passages often quoted who knows of Hindus, certain moral prerequisites to-day by educated redemption are enjoined, but for the most part there is For little ethical

interest, and

this

is indeed

inevitable, for
tuitive in-

redemption, as the Upanishads proclaim it, is the recognition of the identity of an unknowable
1 1 " "

self

Brih.
Die

4. 2. (op. cit., p. 129). Upanishaden und die Anfdnge e.g. Svet. Up., VI. 18. (op. cit., pp. 265, 6). ChMnd. Up., IV. 14. 3 S.B.E., I. 67.

Up., III.
der

Lehre

des

Buddhismus,

pp.

103, 104.

38

HINDUISM

[ni

with

an

unknowable
to

Brahman.
to

This

recognition sought.
to

evidently
Even
in the

failed earlier the

bring Upanishads

some

the there

peace
are

they
references in the and

the

efficacy

of
the

regulated
of
in yoga

breath,
was

whilst

later

Upanishads
state

practice

enjoined
distinctions be
at

cataleptic
be the

was

sought,
mind

which

all

should with

lost,

and

the

should

actually

one

attributeless

"It."1
Cp.
the

instructions

given

in

the

Svet.

Up.,

II.

IV."

POPULAR

HINDUISM
THE

AND LORD

THE

SONG

OF

THE but their

we a

Upanishads discipline redeeming

have
to

provide,
of salvation

not

religion
those
rise

for

the
to

people,
receive

for
For
two

ready
of

mysteries.
turn to

the

popular
of
be

ism Hinduthe

the

great
It then

epics
will
to

India,
convenient
on

Rdmdyana
to vast

and the

the

Mahdbhdrata. first and the

deal

with

Rdmdyana
of

pass

to

that
cially espe-

thesaurus
to

Hinduism,
in

Mahdbhdrata,

and in and that

that devotion

incident

it, the

Bhagavadgitd, expression,
so

which the this

popular
needs

finds
and is

philosophical feeling
the
are

of

thought
Lord

satisfied

Song
books.

of

the

to-day

most

influential

of all Hindu

The It make

'

Rdmdyana.'
is
up

generally
the It

agreed

that the

of first six

the
and

seven

books last be
are

which
later

Rdmdyana,
is

the
may

additions.
to

books

two

to

which

assigned
falls The
and

Valmlki,

its between

traditional the sixth

composer, and fourth of

whose

date
B.C.

somewhere book Sita's

narrates

century
Rama's has

the

famous The and

story

trials three

faithfulness.

king

Dasaratha and and

secures

wives,
he

Kausalya,
has three

Kaikeyi,
sons,

Sumitra, Bharata,

by

these

wives

Rama, trick,

Lakshmana,
the that
is

tively. respecof

By
Rama
may exile

Kaikeyi
in

banishment her
son

for succeed

fourteen the

years

order Rama
and

Bharata in his
his

aged

king.

accompanied

by

Sita, his

faithful

wife,
39

Lakshmana,

half-

40

HINDUISM

[iv
to

brother.

When

the

him, and
not
a

seeks to and
his

refuses king dies, Bharata back again ; but bring Rama

has
to

succeed will of

Rama

consent,

Bharata

exercise

the functions

the demons, combats exile, Rama the anger of Ravana, their chief,who, by and thus arouses craft and force, carries off Sita to Lanka, his island home.

king.

In

forest

ally, discovers her leads his army to Lanka, across abode and Rama a bridge Ravana which the monkeys had miraculously constructed. Sita won, is slain, and and, by the ordeal of fire,Sita the preservationof her chastity. Rama returns vindicates home with her, and reigns in happy unison with Bharata,
Hanuman,
the

monkey

god,

Rama's

his in

brother.

Such
or

is the in

bare

outline

of the

story which
best

Sanskrit,
and
a

vernacular

translations, is the
tales.

known
not

best

loved

of all Indian

Rama

is here

a religious leader, but an earthly hero. god, nor even this The religiousinterest is incidental, and, just on is one that account, the picturegiven of popular Hinduism The old Vedic be readily trusted. can gods are for the less powerful than most part recognised, but they are new gods and goddesses are now they were, and many worshipped. Greatest of all the gods is Brahma, whilst in importance. Vishnu have We Siva and gained much and his son, the god of war,2 read of Siva's wife, Uma,

and
the

of Siva's sacred
was a

sacred

bull.3

Vishnu Lakshmi

now

rides

on

Garuda,
and her

bird ; his wife

is mentioned,

image
At

already worshipped.
there period,4
were

later

added
was

to

the
a

poem
manual

the
of

first and

seventh old
and
now

books, and
Siva made had
*
"

it

thus

made

religion. The
Vishnu,
Rama's Vishnu.
1 "

polytheism
are an

is still maintained, but

ma, Brahand of from

clearly the
illustration the boon
*

chief of the he had

gods,
mercy
won

life is Ravana

abused
Karttikeya.
300

i.e. Ceylon. Macdonnel Buddhism

says, additions to the
was
a

Nandi.

After

B.C."

(Sanskrit Literature,p. 307). Farquhar

B.O.-A.D.

assigns these
and

period 200

there

movement

towards

Theism

both in Hinduism 200, in which 83). (op. cit..,

rv]
Brahma that and curb
on

THE

EPICS

41

he the

should

be

invulnerable
to

to
as

gods
man

and that and

demons,
he may descends
a

gods beg
;
as as

Vishnu Vishnu
who

be

born
their

his power
earth

grants
is
now

prayer

Rama,
the

human

hero, but

praised, not as of the great partialincarnation

god
The

Vishnu.

Mahdbhdrata.
vast

This

work
the

contains first book

as

it

stands

over

100,000

clearly stated that the was only 8800 couplets long, and that it added contained 24,000 couplets before the episodes were ; clear it seems and, difficult as is the analysis of the poem, is indicated that the history of the poem roughly by these short epic narrating the three a stages. The nucleus was already ancient story of the tragic defeat of the Kuru their in the struggle with princes at Kurukshetra of Pandu, who their victory largely treacherous owed sons to the help of Krishna, the clever,and unscrupulous, chief This short epic probably dates from the of the Yadavas. same period as the originalRamayana, and reflects much the same development. It is concerned, stage of religious with not heroes, and the supreme gods but with human In the next God of this period is the personal Brahma. Panda became the vas stage of the epic, the victorious is honoured of the tale, and Krishna heroes the partial as of Vishnu, who, with incarnation Siva, is now on an couplets. In original work
it is

equality epic poem

of

with
masses

Brahma.

Later

there

were

added

to

this

of didactic
is the

material.

Most the

these the

additions

Bhagavadgltd,
Krishna goes later books

important Lord's Song.

than the

Here

exaltation of Rama is
as now

of
in the

farther of the of with

exaltation for
is

the

Krishna

full incarnation
and

Rdmdyana, Vishnu, who

the Atman-

regarded

the

All-God,

identified

Brahman

of the

Upanishads.

42

HINDUISM

[rv

The

'

Bhagavadgitd.'
be difficult to
in

It would
the

exaggerate the importance of

Bhagavadgltd
the

India
are

Western
but

the Vedas lines,

to-day. By but praised,

loved, and
a

men

educated

on

often left unread

to

Gltd

is known

and
seems

many

such

the
of

Krishna the who

of the

Gltd No

worthy
so

rival

of the

Christ

Gospels.
would

Hindu

book

merits

study by
is

those

understand
is very

the vital forces of modern

Hinduism. about
as are

That

study
John's and

difficult. but
it

The

book

only

long
many

as

Gospel,
When of

the
was

problems
written and view of that

it

presents
to

elusive.

it is hard

say.

development impossible the common

immemorial Krishna
and the age,

The

language
Hindu
narrates

thought
the work

makes
is of

and

the dim the

Arjuna
battle

in that

dialogue between antiquity,in which was

Pandavas
and

actual

to be a growing European scholars there seems of opinion that the poem written after the was consensus second of the later period of the Epic, but before most We additions. or assign it tentativelyto the first, may This date possibly even, the second century of our era. is of interest it makes as improbable the theory once advocated scholars that the many blances resemby Western of the Gitd to our ing. Gospels are due to direct borrowwitnesses to a mind Instead, they are naturally

fought Among

between

Kurus.

Christian. Short
as

is the

book, its contradictions

two

are

vital and
"

irreconcilable. the been

one

It contains

the other theistic,

strata clearly marked Vedantic. The suggestion has

made
a

by

Professor

Garbe

that

the

poem,

as

we

have of the

it,is

theistic work, redacted The of Hindu

later in the interests its

an

Vedanta.1

theory, with history,is

6-64. His views

struction corresponding recon-

attractive
are

one,

but

the
100,

Die,

Bhagavadgltd,pp.
250.

summarised

in E.H.C., pp.

101, and

iv]
balance

THE

BHAGAVADGlTA
seems

43

of evidence

to

be

against it.
than
the of
now

It is

more verse

probable that the Gita in Upanishad, written somewhat Upanishad, and modified in
so

its

present form
interests

is

later the

Svetd"vatara

Krishnaism,
a

that

the

absolute

Brahman As he
was

becomes

nantly predomiVishnu,

personal God.
the Vaishnavite

identified

with

temples could find here and its intellectual its justification expression. But, whatever theory we adopt of its origin,it is its theistic and it is this that portion that is of prime significance,
devotion
will be

of the

first described.

Arjuna on the battle-field hesitates to order the fighting it be to slay our kin from to begin. A heavy sin would of kinship."1 Krishna lust after the sweets bids him lay without and aside his scruples. Souls are beginning end, the connection of a soul with a particularbody is of and no importance. So there is no real slaying for, at death, the soul puts off its outward body and takes another, as a man puts off and on his clothes. Let Arjuna then do the in battle. This is much duty of his caste and engage let him according to the doctrine of the Sankhya. Now
"

learn but the

the without

doctrine

of the of

Yoga.

Works

must

be

done,
not to

thought
to the

reward, for they belong

of nature.
in

self,but
Krishna

moods

This

which Krishna

has

taught
and Krishna

himself
are

works and

his many yet is workless.

teaching previous births.

a

is

The

ways

of the

Yoga
best
with

many,

accepts them
who

all ; but

Yogin, says Krishna, "is he self dwelling in his inward

Krishna
and and
to

asks

reveal

himself
"

consents,
mouths
many
"

Arjuna
eyes,

beholds
arms

of many

worships me in faith, me."2 At length Arjuna in his glory. The Lord his mighty form of many and thighs,and feet, of
teeth,"
"

bellies,and

grim
and

with

many

and

at

the

sight the worlds grim with fangs and

1

he
"

terrible
are

his mouths quake." Into were enteringhis adversaries,

translation.
*

I, 45.

Quotations

from

Dr. Barnett's

VI. 47.

44

HINDUISM

[iv
with

some,

caught
y

between the

the

teeth, appeared
the
to
"

crushed
too
were

blazing mouths passing with exceeding speed Krishna himself again in to show
heads
"

into

worlds

perish.1 Arjuna begs

form,
and with the

his less awful

diadem,
Lord
in the

and

mace,

and

disc

in

hand, four armed

is bidden all
to

grants
Lord

his and

request.
be

Arjuna
from

seek
the

refuge
poem
:

delivered

sins, and
in

concludes
"

with

Arjuna's
has

confession
vanished

of faith
away
;

Krishna

My

bewilderment

I have

gotten
free

remembrance from doubt

in
;

by thy
briefest

grace,

Never word."

Falling. I stand
theistic element with
and

I will do

thy

Such Oltd.
manism

outline

is the is

of the Brah-

The

worship
Krishna
become

of Krishna

so

far united Vishnu And

that has

is identified with
the supreme

Vishnu-

Krishna
is

God.

this

religion

expressed in terms of the Sankhya and Yoga systems. asserted This Sankhya system was the a dualism, which of a primordial matter, on the one existence hand, and a of spirits the other. individual soul The on multiplicity is unchangeable, inactive, and impassive, and absolutely all activities and distinct matter from to which feelings, the intelligence,belong ; redemption including even consists in the recognition of this distinction. This conception of redemption had its counterpart in the practical of Yoga, which the Yogin, by control enabled discipline
of the from breath material
and the

like,to withdraw
the

all his activities

and then intelligence, by sciousness. concentration, meditation, and absorption,to reach unconAlthough the Bhagavadgitd employs the its conception categoriesof the Sankhya, usually it transcends of redemption, and teaches that the discrimination the spiritual between and the material is merely preliminary to the redemption which tion comes through the way of devoto the Lord ; and, instead of the denial of the (bhakti) him God, it portrays a livingGod of love. From supreme
"

objects into

XI. 23, 27. 29,

iv]
"the the not. does All doer

THE

BHAGAVADOITA
He is the
no

45

proceeds."1
of work
me

model
"

Yogin,
Works

for he defile Not

me

is

and

yet

worker.

In
the

is

no

longing for
One
conserve

fruit of works."2 the world. the He

only
on

Blessed need

is born

earth

when

arises.

"Whensoever

law

fails and

lawlessness To the
men

birth. then do I bring myself to bodied uprises, guard the righteous,to destroy evildoers, to establish into birth, age after age."3 He loves law, I come

and
the
man

receives

men's

love.

"

Exceedingly

dear

am

knowledge and he to me."4 The of the Yoga is likewise formed. transpracticaldiscipline old Yoga method The the world, of flight from and and meditation, is not rejected; but a new austerity, all alike could better Yoga is taught, which practise. has made Hindu The fear of karma thought reluctant to think of God as active,and has made from the world, flight and the first requisite of redemption. inactivity,seem But the Gltd bids men work, and yet to work in the Yoga without spirit, hope of reward, and so free from attachment does my He who to the fruit of work. work, who is given
to

of

"

over

to

me,

who
to

is devoted any

to

me,

void

of attachment,
to to
a

without
man

hatred

born

being, comes
caste.

me."5

Each
as a

duty of his knight, there is nothing more Better than the casting off And the Gitd proclaims a new
must
"
t;

do the

Thus

Arjuna,

blest than
of works way
"

lawful

strife."6

of

activity. redemption, which

is selfless

is better

than way
even

It is the

of wisdom, or oven the way of selfless work. of devotion (bhakti).This devotion, Krishna

accepts

though

it be

offered

to

other

gods.

"

If any

worshipper, whatsoever, seeks with faith to reverence any faith in him I make fast."7 steadbody whatsoever, that same "They also, who worship other gods and make with faith,do verilymake to them to me, offering offering will though not according to ordinance," and Krishna
1 "

X. XI.

8. 55.

* "

IV. IL

13. 14.
31.

IV. 5-8. VIL 21.

"

VII.

17.

46
"

HINDUISM

[iv water,
of if offered the four

accept
with
castes

even

leaf, a flower, fruit, or

To all
men
"

devotion."1 the invitation

to me,
me

and
Have

women

is made

devotion "so
to

sacrifice to me, shalt thou come."2

thy

thy mind on me, thy do homage, to me ;

"

Side related the

by
to

side with

this theistic

teaching, and
Krishna

imperfectly
is the

it,is the Vedantie

element.

All,

He is veiled by mystic syllableOm of the Vedas.3 illusion (may a) and known to none,4 and, in contradiction the to central teaching of the Glta, he is described as indifferent to all born beings," hating none, and loving
"

none.5 Such for contradictions do

not

affect the

Gild's

popularity,

just such a compromise of impersonal pantheism and Hindus educated is congenial to many personal theism to-day. It is not through its systematic teaching, but for selfless obedience to duty, and through its demand its portrayal of a gracious,loving God that it has won It is a great its place in the affections of modern men.
and

noble
seers

and

book, and it has alone, but for men

tasks of life.6 The In

message,
women

not

for

ascetics
in the
was

and
two

engaged
its

ordinary

respects

writer

unfortunate.

Sankhyan

philosophy

he

employs

is

unethical, in that it .teaches that the self is unaffected And deeds, which belong only to the material world.
Krishna
he

by
the

depictsis not a figureof history,but a product be foul, as well as of the imagination ; imagination can of the and, in the popular mind, the ideal Krishna pure, of the Purdnas, with the Krishna Gitd is inevitablyconfused who is the product of an imagination both lewd and that is perhaps the saddest And fact of India's foolish. religious history.
1

IX.
it may

23. 26.

It is

noteworthy

that
"

there VII.
as

is

no

mention

of animal
s

sacrifices

and
2

IX. Dr.

well be that, from this time s 31-4. VII. 8.

on,

Vaishnavism
25. 26.

rejectedanimal
IX.
29.

sacrifices.

Farquhar

well

describes

the

Oltd

the

layman's Upanishad,

op.

cit.,

p. 88.

V."

SOME

FURTHER HINDUISM

DEVELOPMENTS

OF

WITH in
a

the
sense

completion complete,
of cult
the

of
for

the
it

Bhagavadgltd
could
and which
we

Hinduism
to

was

offer
to

the

wise
men

the

speculations
women

UpanisJiads,
the

ordinary
the
can

and
an

the

of

gods
;

to

Gltd

gave

intelligible interpretation
the

but, before

understand
to

religious
a

situation
at
some

in

India the

to-day,

it

is necessary of
Hinduism

look between

little the

of

developments
the

end

of the

first and

beginning

of the

teenth nine-

centuries.

TJie

Development

of Speculation.
as we

The

UpanisJiads,
but
the

have

seen,

do

not

provide
Their VeddntaThese

philosophy,
dominant

materials
was

for

philosophy.
in the

teaching
which
are mere

systematised
is

sutras,
Sutras

Badarayana

said
so

to

have

written.
as

mnemonics,

concise

to

be with

telligible uninthe
"

without

exposition.
the

They
"

form,
three

Upanishads
on

and any

Bhagavadgltd,
which
many

the
to

institutes
must

which

system
Of the
and
not

claims commentaries
are

be

Vedantic
on

still be

based.

these

Sutras,

those

of Sankara
was

Ramanuja only
a

of

greatest importance.
but of the

Sankara1

philosopher,
the much founder

vigorous

protagonist
which,
still

of

Hinduism

and have
one as

monasteries
are

although

they
His is

lost of the

of their
names

influence,
in it well

famous. and

greatest commentary,
A.D.

India's repays

history,

difficult
1

is his
in

Born

Malabar,
47

788.

48

HINDUISM

[v

the

heavy
has

labour

involved classic

in its careful

study, for

in it

we

have
which

the full and

Upanishads greater does by distinguishing a higher knowledge and a lower puts it, a knowledge and a ; or, as he sometimes the nescience. To higher knowledge there is only one herently reality the Self which, as subject and not object,is inunknowable. The phenomenal world, the not-I but unreal ; it is the business of philosophyto is knowable the two distinguishbetween spheres and give to the self the alone real infinite and of its unity with the sense Brahman. Ethics and religionthus alike belong to the unreal. The knowledge of active religious duty has for that and its fruit transitory felicity, again depends on The the inquiry into performance of religious acts.
"

to-day the described simply as the Vedanta.1 attempt to give the teaching of he This unity and coherence. between kinds of knowledge, two

expressionof that form of greatest influence, and

His

Vedanta
is
a

often

work

is

sincere

the

"

Brahman,
and does Brahman that the

on

the

other

hand,
on

has

for its fruit eternal

bliss

not

depend
be

the

cannot

revealed is

self."3 whole

As and

Brahman
undivided

performance of any acts."2 Silent is by word or act. the one realit}^, -every soul is
"

Brahman

and

so

is

infinite.

come only by the knowledge of this Redemption can is nothing Release identity of the self with Brahman. Therefore Release is not something but being Brahman. relation in the slightest stand to be purified." It cannot to any tion action, excepting knowledge."4 Yet this redempis available only for the three higher castes, for they such alone knowledge can study the Veda from which comes. Spiritual capabilityis (in the case of the Sudras) the study of the from excluded by their being excluded For those thus Veda."5 qualifiedand redeemed, life has
" "

'

The
On

work
I. 1.

is available

of his textual,exposition
a "

and S.B.E., XXXIV. in is R.H.C., teaching given

in
* "

XXXVIII.
pp.

short, but

80-97.

On

III. 2. 17.

On

I. 1. 4.

I. 3. 34.

v]
no one

FURTHER

DEVELOPMENTS

49

further
with hence

meaning.
Brahman,
he says,
"

The who is

man
"

who neither
was

knows

Brahman

is

and
at
nor

I neither

I previous time, nor am any future shall I be such at any

agent nor enjoyer," an agent nor an enjoyer such at the present time,
time."1

thus

involves
then

the

destruction external

of moral
world

Redemption responsibility.
of the
duties

What

of the

and

of

of the absolute ? Sankara religion rejectsthe doctrine unrealityof the phenomenal, yet such realityas it has is due with sion, illuis associated Brahman only to nescience. mdyd, and it is through this that the created world into existence. came it, is Isvara, the Supreme over Lord, but he too is unreal with the unrealityof the whole karmic alone is Thus to knowledge, Brahman process.
real ; all else is

mdyd,

is illusion ;

yet
soul

to

the

man

not

yet illumined, the

of

gods

and

his

own

and

the

tions obliga-

real, and are to be treated as religionappear Thus realities until true knowledge comes. the antinomies is of the Upanishads are resolved, and an absolute monism reconciled with the practices of polytheism. It is significant that Sankara himself is honoured by Hindus, not only as the teacher of the absolute, but as a Yogin and a miracleworker, and to him are assignedhymns of devotion to the gods. In Ramanuja's2 commentary, have a sincere attempt we with a difference. He rejects at Theism. His is a monism the higher and the distinction between the lower ledge, knowand between Brahman and Isvara, and also the doctrines of the unrealityof the world, and the absolute identity of the individual and the highest Self, and enin the Vedanta the belief in a deavcurs to legitimatise
supreme

God

of grace.
there is
a

Scripturethat
1

know," he writes, "from Supreme Person, whose nature is

"We

IV. His

1. 13. death is

near

is connected with Srirangam, assignedto A.D. 1137 His name w here stands the Trichinopoly, to-day greatestof Vaishnavites temples. His is translated in the

commentary
D

S.B.E., VoK

XLVIII.

50

HINDUISM

[v
is

absolute
to

bliss and all

goodness, who
is the
cause

evil,who

fundamentally antagonistic sustenof the origination,

differs in nature

tation, and
from

dissolution

of the

world, who

beings,who is all-knowing,who by his mere is ; who thought and will accomplishes all his purposes of kindness, as it were, for all who an ocean depend on Souls are is the highest Brahman."1 Him, whose name freed from the cycle of rebirth to the by their devotion Lord and meditation on Him, and, being redeemed, are not Yet merged into God, but enjoy intercourse with Him. in the Theism is very reached imperfect. Ramanuja, with Hindu most common thinkers, accepted the doctrine
all other of and
not

karma,
from

and

so

has

to

assume or
"

that

God

is without

motive

desire.

He

made,
from

love, but
Brahman

"arranged," the world, sport,"2 and, although in some

rather
as

passages

is described that his

if he

were

redeemer,

in

others

it is clear

passive.
leaves
no

This

is

part in redemption is merely of karma inevitable, for the doctrine

sufficient

place in

the

universe

for

livingGod.

The As

Development of
we

Sectarianism.
at

have

seen,

the

time

Ramayana,
Brahma.

Vishnu Brahma

and
was

Siva
not
a

completion of the had been made equal with naturally, popular god, and, not unand Siva claimed
and
was

of the

the followers

of Vishnu

for their became

god supremacy. mutually hostile

interests

Thus
sects. to

Vaishnavism An

Saivism
made

attempt
the

later in the
of the

of

peace

co-ordinate Brahma

the

functions

three

gods by making
the

creator,
This

Vishnu

the

sustainer, and Siva sectarian zeal, which

all these

destroyer.3

failed to
the

satisfy
of

claimed This

for its

god

exercise

functions.

sectarianism
which
2

found
and

its
men

literary
of low

expression in
1
3

the Puranas,
p. 770. of Sankara
and

women,

S.B.E., XLVIII.
So
the followers Brahman

Op. cif., p. 477. recognise the triad as coequal manifestations

to be reabsorbcd into

of

the

supreme

destined

it.

v]
caste

FURTHER

DEVELOPMENTS

51

also may

read

and

by

which

popular

Hinduism

has

been

greatly influenced.
.

YaisJinavism In the
Vaishnavite and Pur
anas,

the

child

Krishna
stories and
was are

becomes
told

prominent,
with the

luscious

and

licentious

of

his mischievous

stoiy the
the
a

bo}Thood as a cowherd, shepherd girls. Later there legend of the love of Radha,
of the soul
to to

his dalliance added

to

the

his mistress, and

as

relation

God lover

was

described

that

of
to too

passionate woman
still
more

her

; thus

tended religion Yet Krishna

are no

become
has been

erotic in

and

sensuous.

worshipped
of Hindu
in which his

purity, and
than is
as

there

nobler of
the

hymns
West

devotion

the

Marathi

hymns
not
as

India,

Krishna

conceived,

lover of Radha,
his lawful

mistress,but
is one,

the husband

of Rukmini, which
:

wife.

Here

for instance, by Tukaram of devout

thou leadest trust

speaks

the
"

universal

language
hand

in God

Holding my My comrade
As I go
011

me,

everywhere.
lean thou
on

and

thee,
bear.

My
If
as

burden

dost

I go, in my I frantic words

settest

distress would say,

Thou And

right my
my shame

foolishness,
away. dost
;

tak'st

Thus
A

thou
new

to

me

world

hope bringest in
new

send,

Now And

know

I every my

man

friend

all I meet

kin.

So

like In

happy
dear

child

I O

play
"

And

world, God, thy I Tuka, everywhere say Thy bliss is spread abroad."
"

From

Dr. Macnicol's

Psalms

of

Jtardthd

Saints.

Tukaram

lived

from

A.D.

1608-49.

52

HINDUISM

[v
so

As Rama
have many

we

have

seen,

no

story is it, and

as

loved
All the

in India

as

that

of

and
their
a

Sita,his faithful
version home From
of

wife. it

has

great vernaculars the same place in

once

Hindu lands.

the

Old

Testament

had

in

Christian Hindi the

the

version

of Tulsi Das1

of partialincarnation compassionate Redeemer,

"

standpoint of religion,the is the most Rama, significant. Vishnu, is here presented as a and his story is described as
error,

snake

to
"

annihilate Rama alone

toad-like

the

annihilator

beautiful, all wise, full of compassion, and of loving-kindness for the destitute, disinterested in his benevolence, and the bestower of final

of hell."2

is all

brought to its promise that who believe by many, and of Rama," incessantly devoutly repeating the name all the faithful may attain to felicity.4
comfort
"

deliverance."3

In

North

India

this

book

has

Saivism.
It is difficult to has for his understand the fascination that Siva

worshippers. In the Eigveda Rudra, his prototype, is a dreaded storm-god. In the Svetasvatara In the Upanishad, he is exalted as the Supreme Lord. Mahdbhdrata his symbol is already the phallic emblem, by which to-day he is chieflyrepresented. He is the god connected with the mysteries of procreation and of death. Of him there are no descents or incarnations, but only around this strange temporary theophanies ; yet somehow tion. deity there has gathered a wealth of speculationand devoSankara himself is claimed by the Saivites as a follower of their God. Not only is Siva honoured to-day at Benares, the metropolis of Hindu orthodoxy, but his emblem, roughly hewn in stone, is found in most villages,
" "

however
1 1

small.
1532-1623.
A

Especiallyin

South

India

is

Saivism

A.D.

I.

Chaupdi,

31.

brief account is given in R.H.C., pp. 119-24. 8 " VII. Chhand., 12. I. Chaupdi, 24.

v]

FURTHER

DEVELOPMENTS

53

influential ; and to Siva of Tan jore and Madura,

Tamil supreme release

are

dedicated
are

the famous
the

temples
beautiful
as

where

still sung

hymns
and

of the Saiva

saints, which
ascribe the
*

praise Siva
to

the the

from

compassionate God, bondage, and see, in

power
so

his grace

grotesque legends of
It is hard intense
to
can

him, proof of his

how

and

mercy.

stand under-

devotion

genuine
which
a seem

and

have
but it

gathered round myths is only the problem that

where
we

unattractive

see,

in

temple still presents, of the strange conjunction,the devotion

great Hindu

worshipper, and the foolish,and often obscene, statues of received of the gods. In South India this devotion many later a philosophic expression in the Saiva Siddhanta, which able valuhas been described the most as intrinsically of all the religions of India,"2 and which is still influentia and its disciples numbers learned some among
"

and

devoted

men.3
is
or

with Saivism Closely associated of Durga goddesses, and especially of Siva, conceived his sakti,or as

the
as

worship
the It is of

of

Kali,

consort

that

the

movement

represents

power. coalescence

possible Sankhyan

superstition. In its left hand form, it is and vile. In its right-hand form it is respectable, obscene and is connected Throughout up with ordinary Saivism. India Kali is much in feared, and Bengal it is estimated that the majority of Hindus are goddess -worshippers.4
It is clear that the vital forces

dualism

with

by

the

close of the had almost

eighteenth century
for the Even

of Hinduism had

become,
ceased.

time,
the

exhausted.

Learning
for 124r-40,
an

See R.H.C., pp.

saints.

account

of Manikka

Vasagar, the

most

famous

of these
1 "

So Dr. Pope, Tiruvdsagam, p. Ixxxiv. whose Studies Filial, e.g. Mr. Nallasvami J. C. Oman Tfteists and
estimates that the

in

Saiva

Siddhanta
is

is well

worth

reading.
"

worship

of

or Kali, jjDurga,

of probably religion

three-fourths

of the

Hindu

population of

the practically man's Brah(The Bengal

Muslims

of India, p. 24).

54

HINDUISM

[v

Upanishads jealously
Krishna
lewd and

were

known from Gltd Krishna and Self-torture infanticide foul

witness

only popular
we

to

few

scholars,

and
it it is

were

kept
of the

knowledge.
hear of

To-day
Then that

the the

praised.
the Purdnas

was

foolish known

was

alone

generally
and

worshipped.
and and

Idolatry obscenity burning

of
the

was

coarse

ignorant.
Female The India
since has still

formed of widows

part
were

of

religion.
common.

sculptures
to

great
of

temples
Hinduism,
ism Hinduwith

of

South but

the the

degradation
nineteenth

the been

beginning
enriched

of and
and
to

century
Its
Its contact contact

purified.
weakness. it of life

Islam

meant

repression
has

with There
elements

Christianity
has

brought

new

and The
have

hope.
baser been has

been

transformation which The rich

in the

values.

of

Hinduism,

then

were

prevalent,
of
utterances

largely
been
re-

forgotten. explored,
saints
a

heritage
noblest has

the

past
of

and

Indian

seers

and

new

significance

been

discovered.

VI."

SOME

MODERN

RELIGIOUS

MOVEMENTS

THE

beginning
in the

of

the

nineteenth

century
East the

marks
and

new

epoch
met,

history

of
much been

Hinduism. of
a

West

have remains

and,

although
there
to

old

Hinduism

unchanged,
It
is hard

has

revaluation

of its

vital

forces.

describe is
must

this

notable

transformation
and its final
some

of
issue

duism, Hinis not

for

it It

still

incomplete,
to

yet clear.
movements,

suffice influence whose

in

describe has

briefly
far
serve

religious
their

whose
and

extended
may

beyond
to

membership,
the
new

teaching
the
vast

illustrate

elements Hinduism.

and have

intricate been and

complex chiefly
tive opera-

of

modern
"

Three

forces

Christianity,
and the

Western

education

ideas

of government, of the sacred

exploration
India. founded
In the in

by

Western

scholars

literature Brahma made

of

first

phase,
an

represented

by

the
was

Samaj
from of
a

1828,

abrupt

departure
and

popular
radical
came

Hinduism,
nature
a were

and

religious
demanded.

social
at

reforms about
learn

Later,
should the much

1870,
from
?

there the

reaction.

Why

East
more

West,
we

when
in

its civilisation the

and

was a

so

ancient of
a

So

have

Arya Samaj
in the
a

vigorous

defence

modified Ramakrishna of the Brahma

Hinduism,
and

movements

represented apology
for

by
most

Theosophy
in the old

confident

elements

religion.

The

Samaj.
Rai
born years

Rammohan

(1772-1833),
in
a

the

founder

of the of

Brahma

Samaj
When be

was

Kulin
he
was

Brahman
sent to

family
Patna Patna
that
was

Bengal.
he
a

twelve

old

might
seat

educated

for

Government

service.
55

of

56

HINDUISM

[vi

Rammohan returned learning,and, when after three years'study there, he objected to idolatry home and, in consequence, quarrelledwith his father, who was Muhammadan
not

reconciled
in

to

him and he

till

some

years

after.
and

Rammohan afterwards

settled

Benares In
1804

studied

Sanskrit

published a pamphlet in Persian entitled A Giftto Deists. Shortly after he entered the East India Company's service, and in ten years saved enough to reform. enable him to retire and devote himself to religious tion In 1815 he established a societycalled the Friendly Associa(Atmlya Sabhd) which met weekly for the recitation of from the Hindu scripturesand the singing of passages mohan RamThis association only lasted four years. hymns. believed that he could find in the Upanishads that and which he held to be the true religion, Theism pure he published in Bengali and 1816-19 between English an English.
abstract the
verse

of the

Veddnta-sutras

and

translations

of four

of

these to Upanishads. In the introductions works, and in two pamphlets, he denounced idolatry and with uncompromising vigour. Rammohan immoral superstitions got to know at Calcutta the Serhampore missionaries that he might be able to Hebrew and Greek and studied he In 1820 better. understand the Bible published in Bengali and English a little book entitled The Preceptsof Jesus, the Guide to Peace and Happiness, a notable book, which was harshly criticised by the missionaries, who complained unreasonably that it did not express the fulness

of the

Christian
soon

faith.
became

In

1828

he
as

founded the

the

Brahma

Sabha, which

known
two

Weekly services were generosityof Prince

held, and
Dvarkanath

years

Samaj. later, through the

Brahma

Tagore1 and other friends, Its trust Theistic Church was a Hindu opened in Calcutta. that no deed enacted image, carving or picture should be
allowed in

it, and

no

sacrifice offered

there.

Rammohan
At his death

sailed for

England

and
"

died in Bristol in 1833.

grandfather of
the

The

poet,

vi]
the

SOME

MODERN

MOVEMENTS

57

Society began to languish, and was only maintained Tagore. by the generosityof Dvarkanath when The in 1842 influence of the Society revived of Ramwas joined by Debendranath Tagore, the son
mohan's twentieth friend. Born in

it

1818, from
"

his

sixteenth

to

his

year he was, as he tells us, pleasuresof the flesh,"but he awoke

intoxicated
a a

with

the

to

vivid

sense

of God

and,
world and the

as

he

narrated

afterwards,
and

"

after became
and

lost its attractions

God
sorrow

long strugglethe only comfort my

sin." He became

delightin
leader
"

this

world

of
and

of the
seven

Samaj,
solemn

in

1843
to

drew
renounce

up

the

Brahma

Covenant
love and and
to

vows

venerate

God,

to

serve

him

by

idolatry, to righteous life,

been had Samaj. Rammohan support the Brahma unduly Deistic,but Debendranath Tagore, although he was less conscious of obligationto Christ, was more a deeply

religiousman, Samaj a new

arose

and

introduced

into

the

services

of

the

element the

about of

Difficulties and of prayer devotion. authority of the Vedas, and, at last,the

doctrine

their

although the the Society.

In
soon

inerrancy was Upanishads remained

Chandra Sen

explicitly renounced, the chief scripture of joined

the

1857

Keshab
a

Society
he, with

and

became of the

prominent
younger

member.

In 1861

some

others
and

became
was

members, gave up their livelihoods its missionaries, and Keshab, though not a
made
a

Brahman,
He
and
"

minister
and

or

Acharya of
of caste
"

the

toured bade

through
"

India

vigorouslydenounced
and involve evils of great
at

Society. idolatry
the

men

kill the

monster

reform

marriage

customs

which
grew

Debendranath
when
to
wear

apprehensive, and
the minister

Debendranath
the sacred

authorised
thread

of the

magnitude." length, Society

and his Keshab officiating, from the Samaj. The old Samaj (the Adi party withdrew Debendranath 's leadership, more Samaj) became, under

when

conservative.

He

lived

to

great old

age,

and

is revered

58

HINDUISM

[v.i
the

throughout India as He was unwilling to

followed
had Ramrnohan the abandoned studied

the
owe

Mahdrishi,

in

anything to ignoring the

interest

great Eishi or seer. Christ, and yet, as he of karma, he doctrine

central

of Hinduism.

Keshab in Calcutta

Christian

his memorable it he

and in 1866 delivered literature, lecture Jesus Christ,Europe and

"

Asia.

protested against that denationalisation native converts to Christianity which is so general among who an Asiatic," forget that Christ, their master, was which with and Europeans condemn against the harshness the European hates the native If Indians. as a cunning
In
" " "

fox, the

latter

fears

the

former

as

ferocious
"

wolf."

He

spoke
immortal

with

passionate admiration
child

of the
not
an

Blessed
?

Jesus,
When

of God.

Was

he

Asiatic
a

I reflect

on
:

intensified
national

love for Jesus becomes this my heart I feel him and nearer my

hundredfold

deeper

his countrymen he bade sympathies." And for lives of self-denial that the inspiration in Christ's cross service and their to God's they might dedicate themselves country's welfare. Brahma founded In the same a new Samaj year Keshab in his hands. all the power and It lacked organisation, was A selection of theistic texts from the Scripturesof the chief
was religions

in my find

published,and
Keshab

methods then

of Vaishnavite

tion devowhere he

introduced.
he
was

left for
on

England,
his

received, and, enthusiastically

return,

As his success increased, he pressed on with social reform. revelation to be guided by special and more, claimed, more This provoked oppositionin his followers, from God. (ddesa) at the marriage of his daughter to the culminated which rites were heir of Kuch Behar, as idolatrous formed peryoung the bride and bridegroom were at the wedding, and below the age the Society approved for marriage. In consequence, the majority of its members seceded, and became the General known Samaj. as (Sadharan) Brahma

In

1881

Keshab

announced

that

his

was

the

Church

of

VT]
the

SOME

MODERN

MOVEMENTS

59

symbol made and of trident, cross crescent, and, through Ramaup if all religions krishna's as influence, Keshab spoke now of the ritual New in the were true, and Dispensation but Hindu sacraments imitated Christian not monies. cereonly claimed that his New Keshab Dispensation was
New

Dispensation.

Its emblem

was

Christ's second
with is my me."

Advent,
"

and For
me

declared
to

that, for himself, he

"

Paul food
Yet

could and

say,

live is Christ."
water

Christ

drink, and
he

Christ is the

that

cleanses

placed himself on a and turned for comfort. to other religions that his deepest religiousexperience was but he was no systematiser,and, as Dr. beliefs although his deepest theological
at times
"

level with It
due
seems

Christ,
clear

to

Christ,

Farquhar says, tian, were fullyChrisas

he retained his death

never

surrendered

himself

to

Christ
own

Lord.

He

the in

government
1884 of the many

of his life in his

were

hands."1
"

At of He

his last words

these
me

Mother

Buddha,
is
are a

Mother
very

Sakyan, grant
noble-minded
and

Nirvana."
who

type of
not

Hindus
their

to-day
from

fully Christian,
His

yet derive
would

ideals

Christ.
divided.

death

left the

Church

of the New
have

Dispensation
been
a

His

natural

successor

P.

C.

Mozoomdar,
and

whose

book
he

The
was

Oriental
deemed

Christ is
too

beautiful
in his its

notable

work, but
and The the

Christian

sympathies,
dissensions.

Church
Brahma

lost

influence

through
which

Adi

Samaj
Brahma the limits

still

continues.

More
a

important is the permeating influence

In Western India

Sadharan far outside

Samaj

has

of its membership.

similar

influences

have

led

to

the

formation This
to
was

of the founded

Prarthand
in

Samaj,
years

the

Prayer Society.
's visit social of the
are

1867, three
for its aim
are

after Keshab

Bombay,
Its

having
beliefs Brahma
1

theistic the
same

worship
as

and

reform. Sadharan

much

those

Samaj.

Many
in

of

its

members

Modem

Movements Religious

India, p. 67.

60

HINDUISM and the

[vi

Marathis,
is

beautiful

hymns
have

of the Its been

old

Maratha

poet-saintsare
small, but
of

employed
among

in its services.

membership
some

its members

of

the

greatest Indians, of whom

famous

Sir R.

G. Bhandarkar,

the most
the

Indian

leader
most

of the

scholars, and Mr. Justice Social Reform are Movement,

It is this

Ranade,

illustrious. leaders of

society that
as

has

perhaps the supplied most

which,
the of

of the instead karma

of the

Depressed
outcastes

Classes'

Mission

regarding the
done

accursed

through
imitation

of evil deeds

in

in previous life,

Christian Social modern

missions, labours
of

for their
one

uplift. The
finest this

Indian

Reformer

Bombay,
has
a

of the of

weeklies,

member

spiritedof Society, Mr.

Natarajan,
The

for its editor.

Arya-Samdj
he

Its founder, Mula the

was name

Sankara

afterwards

(1824-83), better assumed, Dayananda

in Western first in
now

known

by
in
a

Sarasvati,
India

born

in Tankara

in Kathiawar

wealthy
of his

Brahman
we

family.
a

Of

the

life

have the to

clear account and

thirty-threeyears his autobiography,

available of his best
us

published
introduction

in

Theosophist

in

the

the

English translation
In it he
his tells
"

known
a
"

book, Satydrth Prakdsh. fourteen, he spent with

that, as
hideous
the

lad of
in
a

father whether

Siva's the

night

temple
of Siva the

and

asked

his father
was

emblem of of
an

in the

temple

identical
not

with

Mahadeva
the idea

for Scriptures,"

he could
with

"reconcile

omnipotent livingGod to run its body." upon

death
order

this idol which

years

allows

the mice

Four

his sister's sudden later, win

made
that

him

desire

eagerly to

redemption, and,
ran

in

he
at

home,
ascetic

and,

might remain length, was

Sarasvati He
studied

unmarried, he
initiated
as a

away

from
an

sannydsin by
him
the
name

of the

order

who

gave
on

of

Dayananda.
found
that

Yoga, but,

a dissecting

corpse,

its

teachings were

false to

fact.

In

1860

he

vi

J
a

ME

MODERN

MOVEMENTS

61

became
studied

pupil

of

blind

Brahman

and

for three In
at

yeaxs

under

him

ancient of

Sanskrit

works.

1866

he

began
reason

his denunciations
with

heed

him. In
used

idolatry. He tried the pandits in Sanskrit, but they He then appealed to the people and
1872 he and
met not

first to
not

would
drew and

large
forth hence-

crowds.

Keshab

ChancLra
in

Sen

Hindi

Sanskrit

his

In

1874

of his
with

published teaching. From

leaders this of

he

his

Satyarth Prakd.sh.
he

1879"81

worked but
the
a

the

Theosophy,
In

public lectures. a compendium in conjunction violent quarrel

of his

terminated

connection.

first edition

eating had not been condemned, but in 1882, as and Muslims, he part of his polemic against Christians He died in 1883. founded a Cow Protecting Association. He claimed the to find in the Veda-s, by which he meant Vedic hymns, not only a pure monotheism but the anticipation the of such modern discoveries the railway and as his movea fierce controversialist, and ment, telegraph. He was which is numerous and influential in the Punjab and the United Provinces, is bitterlyopposed both to Islam and Christianity. His work is commemorated in the AngloVedic College of Lahore and in a great C+urukula at Hardwar, are

book,

beef

where trained
return
to

the old Brali machdrin

ideal is revived.

Students
may

from home
see

the for

not

allowed

their

eight to twenty-five,and the whole of this period, and are a year. parents once
age
""

of

only

The

Complete Defence of Hind

Hinduism
which

defended was Dayananda fiercely Hinduism a changed beyond recognition; but unreformed Hinduism has also found enthusiastic advocates. Very in this respect is the work of Gadadhar significant Chatterji, better known he assumed when he became a by the name
i lamakrishna

The

Paramahamsa. He for
an

He

was

born
a

in

the and

Hoogly

district of
a

conceived

Bengal in 1834. passionate devotion

became

priest,
of Kali

image

62

HINDUISM

[vi

hours in temple which he served, and spent so many ecstasy that he lost his position as a priest. For religious God he sought to realise his unity with twelve and, years a sannydsin. forgettingthat he had been married, became the trance When period passed, he craved for redemption by the way of love, and, dressing himself up as a woman, as passionate as that of Radha sought a love for Krishna his paramour. Desiring to enter into the experience of and he lived for a while as a Muhammadan, other religions, absorbed Jesus in a vision, and for three days was saw later, that all to the conclusion So he came in thought of Him. for the Hindus the ancient alike true, but are religions path, the path of the Aryan Rishis is the best." He himself than any other deity, and his worship worshipped Kali more ViveAfter his death in 1886, his disciple idolatrous. was tion, kananda who, unlike his master, had had an English educain the
"

travelled, far and

wide,
of

to

propagate

his

master's

Religions,held in Chicago of Hinduism, and, in 1893, he attended as a representative and persuasive speech, made by his impressive presence Miss Margaret Noble has since some converts, of whom teaching.
At the

Parliament

become

famous

as

Sister Mvedita. acclamation He

On
as

his return
the

to India tagonist pro-

he

was

greeted

with

successful
age the

of Hinduism. but his influence

died in 1902 His

at the
are

of

forty,

remains. educated

speeches
who

favourite

of many that, while all

quarry

Indians

echo

his

teaching
most

of philosophic is

religionsare true, Hinduism its idolatryis right,and, all,

the is materialistic,

is the whereas

pean Euroof India should

civilisation

civilisation

can spiritual ; everything Hindu much be preserved. Yet he owed he scorned, and proclaimed what

be defended
to the Western

and

influences Practical

he

called

the

Vedanta

service for the Motherland. self-sacrificing those elements Theosophy also has sought to defend even had of which educated of Hinduism men begun to grow its justification of ashamed, and, in South India especially, of

vi]

SOME

MODERN

MOVEMENTS

63

hoary
it is not

superstitions
to
a

by

modern

"

science

"l

has

been

attractive

many.

Although
movement,
Dr.

it has and

influenced
its

Hinduism
we

Hindu
to

for

history

must

refer

the

reader

Farquhar's
Hinduism

fascinating
may

narrative.2 with books

sion. expreswith
a

This reference the

brief
to

sketch
Dr.

of

fitly close
in

Rabindranath

Tagore,3
find
saint
seer, to

whose

noblest The

aspirations
bhakti

of Hinduism
Hindu

exquisite
combined
is
a

of the
of the which

is here but find

"

the with

speculation
a
"

Hindu refuses
form

it in

Hinduism
munion com-

difference,
the
not

secluded which
to

highest
a
"5

of

religion,4 and
but
"

seeks love
in the

from

God
in

selfish ecstasy
and in

strength
find Him Him

make
not

fruitful

service

expects
labour
with

to

darkened
';

temple
is there the

but

for the hard

world.

He

where

the

tillef is tillingthe
is

ground
is with with
come

and

where
in
sun

pathmaker
in

breaking
and

stones.

He

them
dust.

and off

shower,

and

his garment
even

is covered

Put
on

thy holy
soil ! ?

mantle

like

him

down
"

the

dusty
himself
;

Deliverance
master

Where
has

is this

deliverance taken
upon
ever.

to

be the

found bonds

Our

joyfully
with

him

of creation
"

He

is bound

us

all for and is

Come
and

out

of

thy
;

meditations
what stained

leave if

aside

thy by

flowers become him

incense and in

harm
?

there him

thy

clothes

tattered

Meet

and

stand

in toil and
"

sweat

of

thy
"

brow."6

e.g. renewed from bodies p

forces

which

of the

sanctified and properly prepared image by the daily by mantraf, of the worshipper's devotion becomes a strongly magnetic centre, issue powerful vibrations, which regularise and steady the invisible Text-Book (An Advanced of Hindu worshipper." Religion and Ethics,
"

215.
* * "

)
Amritsar
"

in India, Religious Movements 208-90. pp. the resigned his knighthood as a protest against * Sadhana, p. 129. 36. Gitanjali,Poem He

Modern

massacre.

Poem Op cit.,

11.

II ZOROASTRIANISM

I."

THE

LIFE

AND

TEACHING

OF

ZOROASTER

Introduction. ALTHOUGH Parsis

our

Zoroastrianism
in

is
a

to-day

professed
in

only

by

the

India,

and

by

small

community
influence

Persia, it merits
of the
some

study

because
and it has have
terms.

of the

intrinsic

nobility
which

prophet's
scholars with brief of
are

preaching
suppose
which
we

because had
to
on

of the other
is

religions.
so

No

religion
in

deal

hard
source

to

describe
our

and

simple

The
is

chief

for

knowledge
scholars facts instead Yet
as

Zoroastrianism
very is the
no

the
in

Avestd,

but
to
are some

Avestan essential confronted scholars.

few,
consensus

and

even

regard
;
we

there
with
one

of

opinion
views
to

irreconcilable
at

of

individual

fact

least

seems

be
a

certain

; Zoroaster

is not, name.1 his

DarThis
we

mesteter

suggested,
had
a

merely
founder,

legendary
and of

religion
have
an

-historic record.

teaching

authentic

The

Avestd. tradition
were

Pars! the and the

asserts

that
in

the
the

two

complete
of
was

copies
Alexander

of

Avestd that

destroyed
Avestd,
as

invasion

the

it

exists

to-day, king

compiled
who

at

order

of the

the

first

Sassanian that
translation 64
a

(A.D. 226-240)
had

utilised
1

fragments
to his

predecessor
of the

collected.
IV.,
Ixiii.

In

the

introduction

Avestd,

8.B.E.,

p.

i]
Doubtless Muhammadans much

ZOROASTER

65

of

this

compilation
Persia, and

was

lost, when
faithful

the

invaded

the

followers

of Zoroaster The Avestd

fled to India.
has three main divisions
:

(1)The Yasnas, Hymns making offerings.Imbedded

ancient Gdthds.

to be recited

by

the
are

when priests the far

more

in this book

(2) The

Vendiddd,

or

Anti-daemonic

Law,

and laws, containing mythological matter and punishment of offences. dealing with the purification of Praise the Yazatas, to or Yaslits, Hymns (3) The minor Angels. These, with some pieces,form the Little

prose detailed

pilation com-

Avestd,
the

the

Khordah

Avestd,
well
as

collection
the

of prayers

which

as use laity may It is probable that

the

later

priests. Pahlavi (Middle Persian)

derived from Avestan

books1
sources.2

contain

much

material

The
all to

Gdthds about

are

seventeen

in

number,

and
are are

amount

in in
a

nine

hundred
to

lines.3 the

They
and Avestd.

written

related language closely

more

Vedic

obviously far
This evidence In

ancient

than

the

rest

of the
the
a

language is confirmed later writings Zoroaster he is an primitive poems

limitations Gdthds
their record
account
are

of

by
is

evidence

of content.
hero
;

legendary
man an

in

these

actual with the

whose

difficulties and candour. The

described

engaging
words
to

profess to give
terse

very
seem

of Zoroaster, and
an

mnemonic

verses

provide
these will be

authentic

of his

teaching.
mission

It is from

Gdthds

that

our

of the

of Zoroaster

derived.

The

Life of Zoroaster.
familiar
volumes
the
name

The
1
2

Zoroaster
S.B.E.
is said
,

is

an

adaptation of
Pahlavi
texts. Avestan

the Latin

Five Thus

of the

are

devoted be the

to these

Bundahishn

to

epitome of the

DdrndcU

Na$k,

V. p. xxiv). subsequently lost (see S.B.E. with notes, in J. H. Moulton's They are translated, 340-90. from this translation. are Passages quoted pp.
1

Early Zoroastrianism,

6(i

ZOROASTRIANISM

[I
the
or,

and
name

Greek
is

Zoroastres

In (Zw/xxzcrrpys)
.

Avestd the

his

usually given as Zarathushtra added, Spitama Zarathushtra.

Zaratust is the of the

with

ronymic pator

In the
commonest

Pahlavi,
form. Greek

Middle The

Persian, books
date

prophet
most

is still uncertain.
to dim

and

Latin
Thus that

writers, for the

part, assignhim
the years it is

antiquity.
death of

Pliny

the

elder,on
lived Plutarch

asserts authority of Aristotle,

Zoroaster
whilst

six thousand says that

before

the

Plato,
others

"flourished

five thousand
his
name

connect

before years with the time

and
on

reported that he the Trojan war";

of Semiramis
of Ninevah.1 and The

Ninus,
direct

the

legendary
to
a

queen

king
the
as

Zoroastrian

tradition,
may this

other 660-583

hand,
B.C.

assigns
Some
Dr.

Zoroaster
scholars

period we
held

give
date

have

that

is too

late.

Thus

Moulton

argued that Zoroaster lived not later than the tenth possibly another century or two earlier.2 century, and but it seems Such difficulties, a theory would solve many rob the prophet of unlikely that native tradition would that antiquity confers, and the traditional the veneration date may probable. perhaps be regarded as more The place of the prophet's birth and early life is also
uncertain. Dr. Iran and

Jackson

suggests that

he

was

born

in

Western
that

his message
success

began his mission there ; later, finding he turned eastward and, at was rejected,
in Bactria.

last,won
We
to reform.
common

know

little of the

religionwhich
that the

Zoroaster
the

sought
elements

We
to

may

assume

it contained

Rigveda, which go back to and Indians the time before the Iranians separated. This primarily a worship of the forces of nature.3 religionwas
the Avestd

and

For

the

relevant

passages

see

A. V. W. Dr.
the

Jackson, The Prophet of Ancient

Dhalla
is inclined
to
a

Iran,
view

pp.
-

152-7. 17-22.
that similar

Early Zoroasirianism, pp. (ZoroastrianTheology, p. 11).

3

So

Herodotus and

tells

us

later

Persians

sacrifice

to

Sun, Moon, Earth,

Jrtrc, Water,

Winds

(I.131).

i]

ZOROASTER

67

Conspicuous
the Dews

among

of the

gods Rigveda. The

the

were

the

sacred

in the Avestd, was Rigveda, Haoma Haoma employed, for, although the word in the Gdthds, Zoroaster speaks of "the the Karapans intoxicant, through which of the Daevas] evilly deceive."1

Shining Ones," liquor,Sonia in the almost certainly

does
not
occur

"

filthiness the (i.e.

of

this

priests

Of the events
we

which

have

no

record,

led up to the conversion reflect the for the Gdthds

of Zoroaster

maturity

of

proclaimed that there was one God there alone who was holy and almighty. For every man Truth between was one necessity to choose supreme (Asha) and Falsehood (Druj). Zoroaster for himself had
his

teaching.

Zoroaster

"

chosen

Truth
set

and
my

found heart
on

in

his choice

his mission.

"

I,

who
with

have

Good Ahura

Thought,
for
our men

and

watching over the soul,in union as knowing the rewards of MazI have
power

dah

works, will, while

to

and

strength,teach
It is clear had record
"

seek

after
met

Right."2
with little success. and token
the

that

his message

He
Gdthds

to
a

endure
very

poverty
human

and

contempt,
for
some

prayer
me

of

success

This

I ask

thee, tell
earn a

truly, Ahura,
reward
was

whether
ten
mares

I shall with
a

indeed, O Right,
stallion and
as

that

even

camel

which thee

through Immortality 3
as
"
.

well

the

promised to me, 0 Mazdah, and future gift of Welfare

he has few cattle that
not
;

He few
then

feels that followers.4

in

it is because

he has

Yet

he

is

sure

that, if
there he may what all
"

in
to

this world those

woe

the

next, God
He
to

will vindicate

him

who
at

do not
end will

put in practicehis word

prays that and

shall be know

the

of life."5
be

what

reward
to

given
;i

the
he

wise may

unbelievers

that

convert

punishment livingmen.'56
4. 2. 3.

the

With

Ys., XLVIII.
7*., XLIV. r*., XLV.
3.

10. IS.

"

"
"

Ys., XXVIII. Ys., XLVI. Ys., XXXL

68

ZOROASTRIANISM

[i
to
"

the horde At chief

word
unto

of

promise
the he

he

hopes
the

turn

even

the

robber

Greatest."1
converts

length

chief

Vishtaspa

and

his

two

ministers, the
the defenders

brothers of the
at

When

tribes defended

to

attack,
and

himself

the

Jamaspa. stirred up neighbourold religion ing Zoroaster's bidding, Vishtaspa with force of arms.2 new religion
God.

Frashaoshtra

and

Zoroaster's
The He is
"

Teaching
First

about

great God
the

is Ahura and

Mazdah,
Last."
"

the He
it

God
was

of Wisdom. who
in

the

the

Let the blessed realm be filled beginning thus thought, with lights."3 His holy spirit clothes himself with the 4 heavens His is an absolute lordship." as a garment." massy 5 the future. with He knows He sees a flashing be visited secret whatsoever or things may eye open with judgement." 6 Yet Zoroaster speaks of this sublime but with great God, not only with profound reverence, and himself that to intimacy. He prays for Frashaoshtra all eternitythey may of God." 7 He speaks of be beloved himself as of God. So long as he has strength the friend and power he will be the praiserof Mazdah.8 Side by side with Ahura Mazdah, the Wise Lord, are
" " " " " " " "

other

Ahuras.9
and

In

the

Odthds
is not

these

are

abstract

tions concep-

their number become

defined.

In later

thought,

of Immortal archangels under the name Holy Ones (Avestan, Amesha Spenta : Pahlavi, Ameshasto represent a diversity pand). In the Gathas they seem in unity. They are within the Being of God, not separate from Him members of the heavenly court,"10 exalted as and their names better translated, as their personificaare tion is incomplete. The Right and Good Thought occur
"
1

six of them

"
'

10

2 18. 5. Ys., XXXI. Ys., XXVIII. s 5. 21. Ys., XXX. Ys., XXXI. " XLIX. 8. 6. 11. L. Ys., Ys., J. H. Moulton, The Teaching of ZarathusUra,

" "

Ys., XXXI. Ys., XXXI. Ys., XXX.

7, 8.
13. 9.

p. 13.

i]

ZOROASTER

69

frequently. In the Gathds it is difficult to the less important of these conceptions draw a line between tory, and others of the same class, but, in view of their later hiswith these six Ahuras. it is necessary to deal especially 1. Asha is the Right, or Truth, or Righteousness, or, as by
far the most
it could sometimes be

translated, Order.
Ahura.1
leave the

He

who

chooses

Right will become to special mission Right. 2. Vohn Manah,

with

like Mazdah

It is Zoroaster's

bid

men

Lie

and

seek

the

Good
is

Thought,

is

closely associated

spoken of as the son of Ahura Mazdah. first when It was Good to Zoroaster Thought that came Mazdah the and he was instructed as recognised Ahura holy one.2 These two, Asha and Vohu Manah, are in the
Asha.
Each

closest association
3.
"

with

Ahura

Mazdah.
Divine
man

Khshathra, Dominion,
desired."
is best
"

is the

Reign.
"

It is the with
zeal

through his actions," who will receive the good, the precious Dominion from the Right as a most surpassingportion," and Zoroaster prays for this before all else.3 At the coming of the Dominion Dominion and sinners judged.4 the righteous shall be rewarded is a feminine 4. Aramaiti, Piety, counterpart of Dominion, later was The attribute holy (spenta) which regularly is only occasionallyconnected with prefixed to her name the comrade She is of Right,"5 and her in the Gdthds. the future birth." 6 brings earthly happiness and 6. Haurvatdt and Ameretdt, Welfare and Immortality, 5 and tion, are always found together. They represent salvaMazdah Ahura here and hereafter. declares that they who render Zoroaster obedience, shall all attain unto Welfare and Immortality." 7 Although in the later Avestd these six alone become
" " " " " '

Kingdom to be accomplishes what

It is the

who

F*.,'XXXI. 16. 6. Ys., XXXII. 5. Ys., XLV.

* 5

Ys., XUII. Ys., XXXIV.

11.
10.

" "

Ys., LI. 1, 2. Ys., XLVIII.

5. 6.

70

ZOROASTRIANISM

[i
abstractions
are

Spentas,in the Gdthds other Ahuras, as, for instance, Obedience (Ashi).
Amesha Zoroaster's Zoroaster for the
to

called

(Sraosha)and

Destiny

Teaching
was

about

Evil. that he

conscious

had
and
more

been
to

called to
summon

fight
range

Right against the

This

wrong,

others

this conflict.

conflict had
a

than

human

meaning. conflict waged

manifesto he reminds
in the
"

and

of

replica on earth of the age-long by superhuman beings. Thus, in a terse their choice, make his mission, as he bids men
It
was

them

that

it

was

the

same

choice

as

was

made

beginning.
Now
as

the

two

who primal Spirits

are

revealed the Bad the

themselves in

in and chose

vision word
"

Twins,
action.

the And
not

Better between
so.

and

thought
one

and

these

two

wise

aright, the
And

foolish

when

these

twain

Spirits came
Life and shall
to

together
and
to

in that

the
at

beginning, they
the the
"

established Existence

Not-Life be the

last

the but

Worst the Best

followers

of

Lie,
Of the

Thought

him

that

follows the

Right."
Lie chose he So

these

twain

doing
that likewise dutiful

worst

Spirits he that things : the holiest

with
are

followed

Spirit chose
as
a

Right,
Mazdah

clothes

him

the

they

that

massy fain to

heavens

garment.

please

Ahura

by

actions."1

Read
seem

in

the

to teach

light of later thought, these a metaphysical dualism,2 but

was

verses

would

it is

that The

Zoroaster

uninterested

in

such

probable speculations.

Holy Spirit is very closely identified with Ahura that the Mazdah and, as he is personal,we must suppose Spiritwho chose evil is also personal,and that the conflict and not a mere thesis antibetween is thus one personal spirits, of the Better and the between logicalabstractions
1 *

7*., XXX.
Thus the

3. 4. 5. Pahlavi

Dmkart

says

Onnazd

(Ormazd=
been
two

Ahura brothers

Mazdah)
in
one

and

(Ahriman=the enemy XXXVII. p. 242). (S.B,E.,

Ahraman

spirit)have

womb

i]
Worse.
was

ZOROASTER

71

Yet

it is clear supreme

that

to

Zoroaster,
The work defeated
own

Ahura

Mazdah

the

sole and
be

God.
but
not

of His
the

Holy
of
to

Spiritmight the spirit of

serve

checked
It is
a

by
in

work

evil.

man's
to

fault that

if he

chooses

evil.

It is of interest

notice
a

one

passage became

this its

Spiritis described familiar designation.

Bad
"

by

term

which

later

I will

speak
thought
deeds

of the

Spiritstwain
the holier thus
nor

at

the

first
to
nor

beginning
enemy
nor

of the
'

world, of whom
nor nor nor

spake
wills of
us

the

:l

Xeither

teachings
selves
nor

beliefs

words

souls

twain

agree.' "2

does not Spirit the Shining Ones, remained degraded into demons. The

Evil

work
as

alone.

In India the
and
reverse

Devas,
were

gods
the

the

Asuras
takes

Here

place.
Mazdah.
"

Zoroaster

sees

in the
"

Daevas
the

the enemies
worst

of Ahura
"

They at the together to

and rushed Thought that Violence they might enfeeble the world of man/'3 They, with the Bad Spirit, defrauded mankind tribes who of happy life and of immortality." The nomad better than their evil gods. Like are no worship them seed of the Bad of them, they are Thought 3^ea and of Arrogance." It is men who do the worst the Lie and beloved of the Daevas, separating things who are called Good from themselves Thought, departing from the will Ahura and of Right."4 Chief among of Mazdah those evil is the Druj, the Lie, the counterpart of Asha, the spirits Truth. Obscurely Zoroaster speaks of the fall of man through the fatal gift of Yima,5 but in speculation he is
" "
"

first

chose

"

"

"

little interested.

Life

is

great conflict between

which
no

Truth
can

(Asha)
be be his
1

and

Falsehood Let
each

(Druj),in
man

tolerated.

choose

compromise or aright, heavy

will

punishment.
enemy,
later
" "

The

Angra,
or

hostile.

This
the
"

combined

with of which

mainyu
is thus

(spirit)is
the
same as

the the

source

of the

word, Ahriman,
the

meaning
6.

Hebrew
*

Satan

English
"

fiend."
"

Ya., XLV. The Yama

2. of the

Ys., XXX.

Ys., XXXII.

3-o.

Rigveda. Ys., XXXII.

8,

72

ZOROASTRIANISM

[i
Punishments.
in this world
to the

Zoroaster's Zoroaster
the
to

Teaching

on

Rewards
own

and

knew, by
the

his

that experience, and

good
redress

often do not

prosper,

he looked
"

future

shall the be

soul

of the present. In immortality injustices in perpetuity shall of the righteous be joyful,

the torments
the

of the Liars."1

The

faithful look forward

Kingdom (Khshathra),when and those their righteousness. Zoroaster God will vindicate of that help him will be saoshyants,deliverers,hasteners the when time righteousness shall triumph. Doubtless not felt at times Zoroaster was impatient that his cause certain. but of the final issue he was to be sooner justified,2 used Zoroaster two figurative expressionsin connection with the next with the judgment. This world is connected by a Bridge of Separation. In the Gdthas the souls of the this good and of the evil are separated before they cross shall tremble at the Revelation the on Bridge. The Liar the Bridge Bridge,"3 but Zoroaster himself will guide across eagerly to coming
of the
"

those

whom

he

has

won

to

the

service

of God.4 It does

The
not

fire,

the molten that the the later

flood,shall
wicked
Pars!

test man's

works.

appear

will thus

be

ultimatelyconsumed.
seems

Unlike
that the
"

thought,
for
"

Zoroaster
in

to

teach is the
"

the

wicked

will

exist

ever

Hell. of the

Hell

worst

Existence." of the Worst

It is

the

House
The

Lie,"

Thought."
to his in

function

of

Dwelling judgment is
to

assigned
come

sometimes

Mazdah

himself,
Sraosha5

sometimes

Sraosha, acting
followed
to
men

render It

(Obedience) shall by treasure -laden Destiny (Ashi) who shall the destiny of the twofold award."0 severally
stead.
"

would

appear

that,

in

addition

to

heaven
"

and
whose

hell,
false

Zoroaster

things
makes
"
"

and his

recognised a third place for those Whoso, good things balance."7 and better,now thought now worse,
"

Mazdah,
his

likewise
Ys., LI. 13.

Ys., XLV.
Ys., XLVI. Ye., XLIII,

7.
10.

z
5

Later

Cp. Ys., XLVIII. the Angel

2. of

Judgment.

"

12,

""

Ys., XXXIII.

1.

I]

ZOROASTER

73

Self

by

action wishes and

and

by
choices,
the

word,
he

and shall

follows
in

his

own

tions, inclinabe
in
a

thy

purpose

separate
Heaven best
to unto

place
is

at

last."1
"

described
is and the his This It that be is is beheld shall
"

as

the

Abode which
"

of Ahura

Song."
Mazdah of blessed of

'.'The

possession
Zoroaster
all time."2

reward

gives
life Good
It is

followers
"

the

glories

is the

the

"

glorious
of

heritage Blessings."4
which

Thought."3
"

Dominion
the

the

felicity
shall

with

heavenly
him who the its

lights wisely
will

through
The Zoroaster
It shall of

Right
Consummation
and
"

by
come

thinks."5 God.

by
hasten

of

his

followers
the

can

coming.
of the wisdom that

be
the

through

powerful
and this

teachings
the world faithful

future be

Deliverers,"6
those
that make

pray

they

;i

may

advance."7

Ys.,
Ys.,

XLVIII. XXVIII.
XXX. 9.

4. 9.

Ys., Ys.,

LIII. XXX.

1. 1.

"

Ys.,

LIII.
XL

4.

"

"

"

7*.,

VI.

3.

'

Ys.,

II."

THE

RELIGION

OF

THE

LATER

AVESTA

IT with
not

is

not

easy

to

connect

the

religion
of

of

the

later

Avestd It
is

the

sturdy

ethical that the

monotheism
nature

the

Gdthds.

unnatural
or

worship,
have

which
a

Zoroaster
measure

combated

ignored,
but it in is

should

been

in

large

reinstated,

hard
any
as

to
sense

understand the

how of
a on

those

who

professed
could

to

be

followers
such

Zoroaster
as

have

accepted
with its

Scripture

book ritual

the its it is

Vendiddd,
inversion

immense values.

emphasis
In Dr. the
one

and

of

moral

Moulton's

view,

Magi Magi

an

influence
as

which Herodotus Moulton

non-

explains
tells held
us,

deterioration.
of
were

The
tribes

were,

the
an

six

of

Media,

and
caste

Dr.

that

they
A the

indigenous
remarked
leave
a

priestly
of
to

of that

Aryan
do
not

stock.

Greek
dead

writer but have

the be

Magi
devoured

they by

bury
that

them of

birds, and
Dr.

they

custom to

incestuous

marriages.1
not

Moulton
but

assigned
the

their of
and
a

influence,
cruder

only
and

these
a

customs,
belief the
in nature
a

assertion

dualism
that

planetary worship relapse

the

influences,
of
into the

argued
and the

although
may

Yashts

Yasnas

represent
ritual

unreformed
and

Iranian

religion,
texts,
cannot

the

portion,
be

Vendiddd from

nate cog-

possibly
or so

interpreted

sources

that if it

give

us

Aryan
owed
no

Iranian much
to

religion.2
to

It is strange of
in
one

that

the should

Avestd make

the them

influence

the

Magi

reference

except
marriages
Persian

passage
in the

Strabo,
been

XV. but

3.

20.

It
are

is clear

that

incestuous to

are

extolled and

Pahlavi

books,

they
See

obviously
excursus

opposed
S.B.E.,

sentiment 389-430.

have

for

long
"-

obsolete.

West's

XVIII.

Early

Zaroasirianism,

182-253.

74

n]
which Dr.

THE

LATER

AVESTA
held
was
a

75

Moulton

also

Throughout the sacred texts, members Athravan, fire are given the name view, Dr. Jackson accepting Dr. Moulton's
the
was

interpolation. of the priestly caste priest.1 So far from

still holds that to

late

Zoroastrian,
himself
a
"

and

classical,tradition
"

Zoroaster

The

Magian. shepherd of the

account

poor

whom

the
a

Gdthds

so

fully faith-

portray, becomes
Thus
with drove
stones

in the later Avestd

legendary hero.

the

the the
in

of his conflict given in the Vendlddd Druj (the Lie) is clearly mythical. Zoroaster and then pursued her, Druj away swinging his hands, stones as big as a house, which he
"

obtained

from

the

Maker,
a

Ahura

Mazdah."
to

The
renounce

Evil

Spirit(Angra Mainyu) in the good law and become

refuses, and
utters

terror

bids Zoroaster

ruler of the nations.

Zoroaster that

such

potent
are

formulae

Angra
and

Mainyu and vainly desire

that is
a

the
to

other

demons

panic
"

stricken
is the

secure :

his death. he is
"

Zoroaster

stroke

fells the

fiends

counter-fiend

to the

fiends,he

the

Druj to the Druj." They run away, they rush away, Daevas, into the depths of the dark, wicked, evil-doing
world of hell."2

horrid

modified self or teaching was rejected; he himwho first thought was greatly praised. He it was what is good, who first spoke what is good, who first did is good." He was what the first Priest,the first Warrior, the first Plougher of the ground He firstin the material world proclaimed the word that destroyed the Daevas, the
" " " "
.

Zoroaster's

law

of Ahura."3

The

Doctrine

of God.
Gdthd of Seven
from

Even from
a

in the prose

Chapters, which
we

dates

periodnot
than
op.
8

far removed
rest

the Gdthds, and is much find

that
pp.

earlier
"

the

of the

Avestd,

Ahura

Dhalla,

* cit., Vdd., XIX. p. 70. XXIIL Yt,,XIII. 87-90 (8.B.E.,

(S.B.E., IV. pp. 201-2).

214-18).

76

ZOROASTRIANISM

[n

Mazdah, though worship, for the

with

supreme,

no

longer receives
which Zoroaster

an

exclusive
connected

abstractions divine

God

are

here

worship, against which

in the

The Aryan nature persons. has reappeared Zoroaster protested,

Avestd,
are

and

natural

objects like
the

the

Earth

and

the

Waters
The

worshipped. Spentas, are now divinities or Archangels, are Among mortals, Zoroaster
All who

Ones, Holy Immortal six in number and definitely

not
was mere

Amesha

attributes

of

God.

the

first to offer to them

sacrifice.1 harm.2

offer them

sacrifices
are

they
for

shield their

from

These

divine

beings

splendour and their power ; but it is impossible to study the Avestd without realisingthat the importance of the Amesha Spentas is less than that of of the Yazatas or angels. some Thus in number. The Yazatas or one angels are many of the Yashts speaks of the heavenly Yazatas rising by up About "hundreds and thousands."3 tioned forty only are menin the
names

extolled

extant

Avestan

texts.4

Some

of them

bear

already familiar to us from our study of the Rigveda, thus clearly and represent an earlier Aryan worship. Thus read of Ushas, the lovely maiden of the dawn, and we that Zoroaster makes We saw Vayu, the God of the wind. direct mention of Haoma,5 the sacred liquor, but in the no is later Avestd his cult is prominent. Haoma the enlivening, the lordly, with golden eyes."6 the healing, the beautiful, He is to be propitiatedwith animal sacrifices. It is significant that although this ancient cult is thus restored, it is and Haoma is no ness. purified, longer associated with drunken" "

All other

drinks,"
but the

we

read,

"

are

attended

with

the

demon with Of

drinking of Righteousness and Piety." 7 great importance is Mithra. very

1 4 '

of anger,

Haoma

is attended

Zoroaster

makes

18. Yt., XVII. Dhalla, op. cit., p. 96. Yt.,IX. 17.

* 5 7

Yt., I.
Soma

24.

'

Yt., VI. 1.

of the

Rigveda.
5.

Yt., XVII.

ii]
no

THE

LATER

AVESTA

77

mention that

of Miihra

in the

Gotham, and
God
save

it has He

been would

posed supnot

the

omission

is intentional.

of the worship of any approve the worship of Mithra too was later Avestd, he is

Ahura, and
attack.1 In

yet
the

popular
of the

to

clearlyone
a

chief divinities of the which him.

may
serve

people.
to

To

him

is devoted
esteem

long

Yasht

illustrate the
him
as

in which

men

held

Ahura2 himself. he light,

that

created

worthy
himself
defend

of sacrifice and sacrifices.

to

To
sees on ears

him

Ahura
can

As

as prayer the god of

all,and
him. and

the

uttermost

those has
a

call

He
ten

is the lord of wide thousand and

men

pastures who
From him
never

thousand

eyes. pray

all the may

evil

spirits
to

flee in terror withstand from

a
;'

that

they

have

the rush

thousand

of the angry lord who goes and rushes sides against his foe, he, of the ten thousand

undeceivable spies,the powerful, all-knowing, god." The lord of light, he is the lord of truth, and lying he hates, and that his so severelypunishes. He enforces contracts is used to denote how is. Men name binding a contract sacrifice to him cattle and small birds, and, before they dare to drink libations in his honour, they endure scourgings that they may expiate their sins.3 has in the later Avestd Sraosha an increasingplace. To him Ahura had Mazdah his religion, revealed and it was his special task to fight day and night against the Evil Ashi Spiritand his associates. His sister, Vanghuhi, Good to the men Sanctity,conveys plenty, and gives them sanctity they seek. In view of the place which Fire has the symbol of the faith,the references to A tar, the Angel as of Fire, are of importance. Afar is the friend of those that
tend the fire with fuel.

One

sin

he

will not

tolerate,the
certain, op. cit.,

Treasures 'foulton,
X
" *

of the Magi,
119-58).

p. 86.

Dr.

Dhalla

is leas

"*., X.
Yt.,X.

(S.B.E., XXIII.
119-122.

Darmsteter

"

says,

One

may
of

find the

in this passage

of the
_-o

the painful trials through which before being admitted to initiation."

adepts

Mithraic

the origin mysteries had to

78

ZOROASTRIANISM

[n
in it dead

sin of faithful

the defiling
see

fire

by burning
has
thus

flesh

if the kill

anyone

who

offended, they

must

straightaway.1 Among the superhuman beings to whom prayer is made the Fravashis, who apparently formed are part of that aspect Zoroaster had of popular Aryan religionwhich ignored. Not good men only, but divine beings and all creatures Thus belonging to the good creation,have their Fravashis. the Yasht devoted to their praiseextols not only the good,
strong, beneficent
Fravashis of Ahura of the Mazdah but Fravashis faithful,
to
are

him

ranging
"

from

that

that
more

of

The

Fravashis those of the

of the

living faithful
and
are

plant. powerful
a

than

dead,

the

most

powerful
men

among

the

Fravashis
law

of the faithful

those

of the

of the

true believers)or those of the (i.e. not (Deliverers), yet born, who are to restore the world."2 The Fravashis secure happy and healthy birth, they help in their struggle men againstthe demons, and are co-workers and with Ahura. Eagerly they desire from men prayer sacrifices. It is clear that in this doctrine two conceptions combined. The Fravashis who include ancestral spirits are

primitive Saoshyants

need reward

the

that offerings

their

descendants

can

make, and

help. But they are not the of the dead alone. Every livingthing of the good spirits creation has a higher counterpart ; thus each good man his ideal self, has as his guardian angel an immortal spirit,
existed before his birth and
is destined
to

such

with offerings

their

which

survive

him.

The To
no

Doctrine the

of Evil given he spoke of the twin-spirit Lie, and chose to do the worst things, in one place the hostile (angra) spirit later Avestd Angra Mainyu becomes the
*

comes question whence decisive answer. Vaguely

evil,Zoroaster

had

who and

followed

the him

he

calls

(mainyu)*
"

In the

Vdd., VIII. 73. 74.

Yt., XIII.

17.

"

See

p. 71.

ii]
fixed evil
name

THE

LATER

AVESTA

79

of the is due.

world

of evil,and to his activityall spirit Thus, in the opening chapter of tells Zoroaster of his creations

the the

Vendiddd, Ahura

Mazdah

of

of evil. As creations Angra Mainyu's counter created Ahura created a good land, Angra Maiiiyu counter cold or heat, sins of lust some plague or vice. Excessive there is no and pride and unbelief, and sins for which atonement, such as the burying of the dead or the burning of corpses,1 thus created. In another are we were passage

good

and

of

told that

he made

99,999 diseases.2
created the

To

aid him

in his work
are

Angra
that

Mainyu

Daevas.

So of
men

many
unseen

they
walk of
a

the sacred

fire

"

may

kill thousands

Daevas,
to

thousands

of fiends."3 if
a

Because

of them

need the

warily. Thus,
his hair
or

man

allows carelessly
his nails
to

combing
a

the

parings of
want

fall into
rites

hole

or

crack, then, for

Daevas which
the
"

of the in the
in the among

lawful earth
corn

being observed,
are

are

produced
up the
corn

and

lice

produced
in

eat

field and demons

the clothes
is Aka in the in
one

wardrobe."4

Chief

the

Manah Avestd Yasht

(the Evil Mind), but

is

more

often

mentioned
is she
not
. .

Druj (the Lie).

Mazdah faithful the

So

powerful
that
"

that

Ahura of the

confesses

had
me

the awful
.

Fravashis would
to

belong to Druj."5

given help unto Druj, the material

end

dominion
would
"

world
be

belong
she

the her

In the

she shall

destroyed,

and

it is the will of the Lord."G as perish, The Gdthds speak of only one Druj, but in the Vendiddd read of other female called drujes, and demons we we are told that it is by the sins of men that the Druj is enabled to conceive her evil progeny.7 The conflict with evil spirits is not primarily the conflict between It is offences against ceremonial rightand wrong. purity that are most dreaded, for such place a man more
1

hundredfold

brood

shall

Vdd., I. 13. 17.

Vdd.. XVII. 1.
'2.

"-

Ydd.. XXII.
view that

2.

Vdd., VIII.
from

80. the human

3.

The

body
5

will be

utilised IL-.

by

demons
"

Yt., XIII.

is, of course, y/.,XIX., 12.

anything separated very widespread.

""

Vdd., XVIII.

30-o9.

80

ZOROASTRIANISM

[n
To combat
we

firmlyin
the
was

the

power

of the

demons.

their power

Vendlddd Zoroaster

provides potent spells. As

who firstin the material

have
said

seen,

it

world

the

word

Most powerful of all the spells destroys the Daevas.1 is the Ahuna Vairya.2 With this Zoroaster smote Angra Mainyu and felled him down, for it is as strong a weapon as a Libations, and especially stone, big as a house."3
"

that

libations For

of Haoma,

are

also efficacious.

many

crimes, punishment

provides

measure

of

makes expiation. The scale of stripesin the Vendlddd strange reading. A manslayer is let off with ninety stripes, the killer of a shepherd's dog gets eight hundred, the killer of a water dog ten thousand stripes. It is hard to believe that such carried out. were Probably, punishments in Avestan into commutable even were times, the penalties
money

payments.
was or

Death corpse,
or

the

chief
a

source

of
was

impurity.
to

To

bury
element
has

throw
; to

it into

stream

contaminate the sacred the

earth

water

burn

it would

contaminate
comes

of fire.

Everything

that

from

body

the

impurity of death, and so at death and birth,and at certain that those who have become periods, great care is necessary unclean the are segregated. As the corpse contaminates ground for a year after death, it is laid in some solitary place,and separated from the earth by a layer of stones or
bricks.
are

Ahura
"

Mazdah where

tells Zoroaster

that these
come

Dakhmas
"

places
"

troops of fiends
of

rushing along
is thus

to kill

in

healthy and natural of asceticism the depreciation There is no trace or way. of natural instincts. of fighting the Daevas is to One way till the land that it may He who sows bring forth corn.
a
"

myriads."4 Although the moral vigour of the the later Avestd, life is regarded in myriads

their

Gdthds

lacking

Vdd., xm.90. is given the Magi. " Yt., XVII. 20.

1 2

Its text

on

p.
"

91, and

translation
56.

of it

on

p. 42

of the Treasure

of

Vdd., VII.

n]
corn,
sows

THE

LATER

A VEST

A
is

81
""

holiness,"for
faint."
"

when

the
as

corn

ripe

the iron

hearts
were

of the turned

Daevas about

It is

though
there

red is

hot

in their throats

when

plenty of

com."1

The At

Doctrine death

of the
the

Last

Things.
for three

the lingernear body at the Tower of Silence. To the soul of the righteous it is a time of joy. On each of the three nights, his soul tastes as much world of pleasureas the whole of the living taste." At the end of the third night,his conscience can of the size of a maid in her fifteenth (daend)draws near year as fair as the fairest thingsin the world," and she leads him through the three Paradises of Good-Thought, Goodinto the place of the Endless Lights. Word, and Good-Deed

soul has

days

to

"

";

But

to

the soul of the wicked

it is

time

of terror.
as

On of the

each

of the three

nights,
the

"

his soul tastes

much

the whole of as suffering at the beginning of the

three
to

hells

of

livingworld can taste." And fourth day, it passes through the Evil-Deed and Evil-Thought, Evil-Word
Darkness.2
cross

the

the

place of Endless righteous alone that

In

the of

Gdthds

it is

the

Bridge

Separation,3

but in the later Avestd

of the (dae.no) A well-shapen, strong, and wTell-forrned maid is she, with the dogs at her side."4 the wicked Whether the cross bridgeit is not clearlystated, but, as in one passage we read that has killed the hedgehog shall fail to whoso
";

it. The conscience all alike go over the bridge. righteous escorts the soul over

"

cross

the

it would bridge,'"5

appear

that

the Avestd books

accepts

the the
pass pass,

doctrine, which
over so

the
a

later Pahlavi

express

of picturesquefigure

it,narrow

as

the

bridge,broad when the when the edge of a*razor,

over

by righteous
wicked

that the wicked

fall

into hell.6

Zoroaster clearly hoped that the Renovation

1
"

would
Chinvat

come

Vdd., III.
Vdd., XIX.
e.g.
F

105. 30.

" *

1-36. Yt.,XXII. Vdd., XIII. 3.

5.

"

The

Bridge.

"

XXL Dadistdni-i-Dlnik,

B.E., XVIII. (."'

pp.

48, 49).

82

ZOROASTRIANISM

[n

speedily. coming
many
are

In and
are

the

later

teaching,
that
come

the
it

faithful

pray

for
it comes,

its

certain

will, but

before

events

must

happen
.

The

Deliverers shall seed be of

(the Saoshyants)
born from
three lously miracu-

three

in who

number.
will conceive

They
from

maidens,

Zoroaster,
Greatest

preserved
is
"

by

99,999

Fravashis.1

of
his

them

the
shall

last,
restore

the

Supreme
the when

Saoshyant,
which
dead

who will will

with

helpers
never

world,
the when

henceforth

grow

old

"... will the

rise,

when grow

life

and

immortality
and
"

come,

the
"

creation and
"

will

less death-

Druj
bow

shall and

perish
flee

the

evil-doing

Angra
In the

Mainyu
later
is
seem

will

becoming

powerless."2
restoration thus

Pahlavi

books,
A

the molten
milk

universal

implied
shall
their

made but

explicit.
as warm

fire
will

which

to

the wicked
will

righteous
from

purge
and

the
all

sins. voice It

Families and
is the in

will

be
and

united,
His

become

of

one

praise

God
to

Archangels.3
the

customary

speak
Ahura

of

dualism is

of certain

Zoroastrianism,
from
the

but
Even is
so

victory
the

of

Mazdah where

first.

Pahlavi
to

writings,
Evil
that will

still

greater

importance Mainyu),
Renovation
4

assigned
certain be
is

the issue It

Spirit
the take

(Ahriman=
exact

Angra
of
the

the

date in
A.D.

can

foretold.

place

2398.

Yt., XIII.
e.g.

142

and

62. XXX. the 20. 21

Yt., XIX.
V.
p.

89

and

96.

Bundahishn,
West

(8.B.E.,
evidence

126).
XLVII.
p.

So

interprets

Pahlavi

(S.B.E.,

xxxi).

III."

THE

FURTHER

HISTORY THE

,OF PARSlS

ZOROASTRIAXISM"

The As
to

Further
has the been

History of

Zoroastrianism.
the

already stated,
of the first

Avestd

owes

its

compilation
who
threw over-

piety
the

Sassaniaii
and

king Ardashlr,
a

Parthians,
A.D.

established
The

dynasty,
thus

which
was

reigned completed

from

224-650.

work

begun
a

by
and
was

Shahpiihr
the thus

II

(A.D.
of

309-379),
all

zealous

Zoroastrian,
the
canon

bitter

enemy

heretics.1 busied

Alter
selves them-

closed, devout
commentaries

scholars
and

with
some now

Pahlavi
seem

original
A vest
an

works,

of which
lost.

clearly
the

to

be

based

on

material,

In

A.D.

650

Empire
and,

was

completely
a

overrun

by
and
are

Muhammadan
were

armies

after
Most

while,

the

Zoroastrians
the

fiercely persecuted.
of about the
assert.s

accepted
few,
and

Islam, to-day
fled

Zoroastrians
to

Persia

became
in

said India there.2

be

only

10,000
founders
that

number.
the

Some

to

and

became

of

Pars!
in

community
A.D.

Tradition
on

they
"

landed
with

716 their

at

Sanjan
fire.

the
a

Gujarat
Pars!

coast,

bringing
the

them
the

sacred the

As

scholar

says,

India,

land of

of

devas,
whose there
are

magnanimously religion
are

welcomed

fugitives
as

Iran

had

branded

their

devas

evil."3 half
out

To-day,
of whom

about

100,000
and

Parsis

in
an

India, about

in
to

Bombay,
their
1

they

have

importance

of all relation

numbers.
had

He

put
of

to

death

Mani,
that

from
came

whom
to

Manicheism
India
s

derives because
op.

ite

name.

Some

scholars

hold trade.

they

not

of persecution,

but

in

the

interests

Dhalla,

cit., p. 304.

83

84

ZOROASTBIANISM

[m

The
Of

Pdrsi
the

Community. history of immigrants into India there before the British period. The struggle probably prevented any literaryactivity centuries,but it would appear that learning
the Pars! twelfth
were

is little record

with

poverty
in the

in the first^ew revived

and

thirteenth made of of

centuries, when
of the
some

Sanskrit Pahlavi

translations
version

large parts
later

of the

Avestd, and
the

works.

In the fifteenth
in their

century the Parsis of

such

India

sought guidance
Persia, and
for
was

from religion three centuries

the

Zoroastrians
intercourse
were

of

nearly

maintained.1
duism. by Hinpriesthood

It is clear

that

Parsis

much

influenced

and the marriage became common, late as the Even so was changed into a hereditary caste. lost their not time of Akbar, the Parsis apparently had missionary zeal,for they responded eagerlyto his invitation As Parsis gained wealth, their faith.2 to explain to him some bought slaves and received them into the Zoroastrian fold. Their action was approved by their co-religionists of Persia, but was opposed by the majority of Parsis,who be affected,3 afraid that their social standing would were and who also have been influenced by the caste ideas may Child of Hinduism. It is

agreed

that

at

the

century the

Parsis

shared

of characteristic religion, but and the Parsis were influential, by then prosperous sacred learning had decayed, and most of the priesthood In so far as teachers. too were ignorant to be spiritual ceremonial than .observance, it had more religionmeant its basis the theology of the late Avestd and the Pahlavi as honoured as were potent texts, for although the Gdthds of a great the medium studied not as they were spells,
1 * 3

beginning of the nineteenth in the general stagnation of time. at that India Many of

See

Dhalla,
op.

op.

305-8. cit.,

In A.D.

1587.

See Treasure
324-5.

of the Magi,

p. 129.

Dhalla,

cit., pp.

in]

THE

PARSlS
last

85

prophetic
shared in

message.
the

century the Parsis have revival in India, due to the great religious
In the
the

rediscovery of ancient scripturesand repulsionof Christianity.

Western
1820.

attraction

and

education
1835

was

introduced

into

In

Dr.

Wilson

there, and

in 1843

began Christian published his book of

the

in Bombay tion College educaPars! religion.1

Inevitably it not a religion

made
a

dealt of the

with

Zoroastrianism
the

of his The

time,
book
ments move-

Gathds, but
reform.

VendMad.
to
were

great impression, and

for

helped
These

stimulate

vigorous

by the results of Western scholarship. No knowledge of the Avestd to rely on Pahlavi versions and the study of the Avestd revealed the priority of the Gathds became and the battle-cry reformers of some of the young Back Gathds ; away to the from spurious traditions to the pure teaching of the Prophet." They protested against the unintelligentrepetition
, "

strengthened longer had

of prayers
should be

in said

corrupt Avestan,
in in

and

desired

that

prayers
to

about

reforms

Gujarati or faith and practice. Thus

with
the

English, and
Fravashis

sought
had

bring

the identification

of the souls of the dead

led to views

opposed to the scholarship had shown, were earlier scriptures. Why, for the dead, then, offer masses when, according to earlier teaching, the destiny of the dead is fixed on the fourth day after his decease ; or again, for modern is it to wash for what use men morning every with the urine of an ox or she-goat ? Naturally the orthodox party has indignantly repelled such views, and have of them been glad to utilise the sort of argument some that theosophy is able to provide for any such observance
which,
as or

belief.2
1

Parsi

by the Zoroastrians

and propounded and defended religionas contained in the Zand-Avesta tianity. India and and contrasted with Chrisof Persia, unfolded, refuted

8 The importance symbolic of- conscience

of the
!

dog

in

the

Avestd

is

doe,

e.g., to

the

fact

that

it is

86

ZOROASTRIANISM

[in

The

Ceremonial

Life.

but the priestly priesthoodis hereditary, rightlapses if, for the third generation,a family has refrained from qualifyingfor the priesthood. Most of the priestsbelong
to the

The

lowest if he To

rank

of Ervad.

At

the age
a

of twenty,
a

an a

Ervad Fireof the

may,

desire do

to, qualifyas
must

Mobed,

priestof
the
or

temple.
Tasna.1

so, he

know
are

by

heart

whole

Highest

in rank

the

Dasturs,

High

Priests.

Usually their office passes from father to son.2 A Pars! community has two requirements a Fire-temple for the living, and a Tower of Silence for the dead. sacred Most of the Fire-temples is the Atesh Behrdm, of which there are eightin India. The buildingis plain and of the Fire is very inconspicuous, but the establishment other fires, for it is compounded out of sixteen and costly,
"

the of

process

of

consecration

is elaborate.

The

next

class

has a fire combined from four Fire-temple Atesh Adardn the third fires only, whilst class,Atesh Dddgdh, has an Parsis ordinary house fire. Devout go often to the Firebut they are temple and recite their prayers before the fire, not fire-worshippers.The fire is not the object of their and sacred devotion, but the ancient symbol of their

faith.3 For
the

dead,
to

the

DaTchma,
the dead

the

Tower

of

Silence, is earth,
and of fire. the
some

required,as
to

bury
on

would

defile the
sacred

burn
dead

the
are

dead laid

would the

defile the

element

The

floor of the circular

remove

tower, and
After dried
the

vultures

swoop

down

and

the and

flesh.

days
into is

the
the

return corpse-bearers central well, as by now

throw

bones

their power

to contaminate

gone.4
1 a

There

is

no

to obligation

understand.

Dr. Dhalla, to whose

Zoroastrian
his

Theology frequentreference
but this

has

been

made,
to

is

an
3

exception.
Dr.

Dhalla

preaches at

Fire-temple at Karachi,
Malabar

is

contrary

usual custom.
4

An

obliging attendant
of the

in the ther^.

of Bombay hill-gardens

shows readily

model

famous

tower

in]
The

THE

PARSlS
of the
for Pars! and and

87

life private religious

ceremony the between

initiation

which,
years shirt

boy

begins with an girl alike, takes

fifteen.
At the

place

of and

seven

the ceremony, the investiture

"

sacred
with
be the

girdleare

put

on.

Before

the
most

shirt,the child repeats the creed.

holy righteous the wisest the most which is the giftof Mazdah. Law and the best Mazdayasnian which God has sent to The good, true, and perfect religion, has brought the prophet Zoroaster is that which this world the the of is in here. That Zoroaster, religion religion communicated to holy Zoroaster. Mazdah, religionof Ahura Righteousness is the best giftand happiness. Happiness to is righteous for the sake of the best righteousness." him who
Praised

Later prayer
"

the
:"

child

joins with
God

the

priest in

the

following
Ahriman of is the

The evil

Omniscient

is the back

greatest Lord.
the advancement all his

the

spirit that
that evil

keeps
O

world. fallen sins.

May and dejected.

spiritwith
Omniscient

accomplices

remain

Lord,
that words

I repent of all the evil deeds in my mind, of all the evil be The

I repent of all my I may have tained enterthat I may have

Mazdah performed. May Ahura be condemned. the evil spirit, the most praiseworthy."

praised. May Ahriman. will of the righteous

child's
:
"

is

The

girdleis
with the

then

put round

the

waist, and

he

repeats
"O God.

the followingcreed priest

come

Almighty,
I
am a

to

my

Zoroastrian

help. I worshipper

am

worshipper

of

of

God.

religion and to believe praise the Zoroastrian I praise good thoughts, good words, and good which praise the good Mazdayasnian religion which and quarrels, brings about
brotherhood,
that have which is

I agree to in that religion. actions. curtails I cussions dis-

holy, and

which

of

all the

kinship or religions
in the

future, is the is the which

that all

and are likely to yet flourished the and the most best, greatest,

flourish

excellent, and
I believe
the

religiongiven by
things proceed
thus
"' See The

God

to

Zoroaster.

good

from
l

God.

May

asnian Mazday-

religionbe

praised."

Treasure

of the Magi,

pp.

162, 3.

88

ZOROASTRIANISM

[m

or repeated seven eight times, and are commonly repeated three or four times a day ; but the prayers in a language unknown who to most are if many use them, and it is little wonder complain of the lifelessness of their religion. Of the future of the Pars! community it is hard to speak with confidence. No community in India is more advanced, has gained more from Western education. Its women or educated and have The are a munity comEuropean freedom. is wealthy, and numbers its members some among of the greatest of India's merchant princes. Its philanthropy

These

prayers

should

be

is world

famous, and
movement

to

some

of its members
is

the
debted in-

Social

Reform

in

India

immeasurably

widespread dissatisfaction at the leads present state of Zoroastrian religion. Pride of race fails to meet to support an the some orthodoxy which needs who of educated cannot reverence an ignorant men, recital of priesthood nor be satisfied by the unintelligent in a language now little studied. There is much prayers and some indifference to religion, of the reform party seem
to have

j1 but

there

is

littlemore

than

have

so

far lost the to

vague zeal of the admit

any

Theism,
converts

whilst

the orthodox

great founder
into
to

of their faith their

see

that

they refuse although without

Parsis
can

fold,2
the

such

additions
even

it is hard

how

maintain

their

birth-rate

is, with
to

modern whether
secure an

present position,for the the decrease. conditions, on

the

It remains Dhalla

be

seen

efforts of

men

like Dr.
an

will avail

to

educated
a

priesthood and
Zoroastrianism

and intelligent

devout
and

to allegiance

freed

of its accretions
1

restored
who

to its ancient
did

purity.

Especiallyto
Act which

B. M.
the his

Malabari,
age of

the

raised

consent

much the passing of to secure very within the marriage state from ten to
to expose the

twelve, and
of celibacy
*

who,
the

by
Tata

writings,sought
of Hinduism.

cruelty of
desired

the
to

enforced

virgin widows

One

of the
that

family
was

married

French to

lady

who
her

share

her

husband's lawsuit
were

religion. The
followed many

orthodox

refused The

recognise

indecisive.
poorer the

orthodox would of the

admitted,
lavish

of the

Hindus
poor

admission, and the afraid that, if outsiders are seek admission to gain a share

of the

philanthropy which

Parsi

community enjoy.

Ill

BUDDHISM

I."

INTRODUCTION

EARLY derives

Buddhism from but

in it

is many

part
of

of the
its
an

complex
doctrines inestimable founder his of

of Hinduism and
most

and of
its

mythology,
Hinduism

it possesses
a

advantage
whose of
serene

over

having
the

historic actual

and

gracious personality
and found
so

made

teaching
his

redemption,
that

inspired
in

devotion
a

followers
to

they
hism Buddseem

his

message

genuine
devote different
to

gospel
their

whose

tion proclama-

many

were

glad
in very

to

lives.
some

To-day
of which

is found
to
can

forms,

have

little

relation

early Buddhism,
its

but, before'we
we

study
understand
as

Buddhism

in

present
of the
the and

forms,
and

need

to" try of
its

to

something presented
about in both
the
to
us

life

teaching
Buddhist have has

founder

in

earliest
his

books.
come

Traditions
down
to
us

Buddha
and
to

teaching
As Pali

Pali

Sanskrit. Western
were

only
earlier

recently English
sources

become
accounts
;

known of
it is

scholars,
based
texts
on

the

Buddhism that the

Sanskrit
an

but
more we

clear
authentic

Pali

represent
it is
to

earlier alone

and that

tradition,
turn

and

these

need

to

for

our

understanding

of

primitive
1

Buddhism.1 dictionary
Until
of Pali for ^Yestern two books

The

first and

scholars
had been
a

was

published
translated,
Buddhist

by
the

Childers Chronicle

in

1870

1873.

then, only
and the

of Ceylon
(FausbSll,

(Tumour, 1855).
the

1837)
Sir
Edwin

Dhammapada,
The

short

hymn-book
which
so on

Arnold's
their Charita

Light
of

of Asia, Buddhism,
CowelL

from
was

many two

English
Sanskrit the Lalita

readers
poems,

have

derived
Bn"Mha

knowledge
(translated
89

based

by

S.B.E.,

XLIX.)

and

Vistara.

90

BUDDHISM

[i

form of the vernacular literary spoken in Magadha in the first period of Buddhism. Pali scriptures The have down to us in the form of palm-leaf books based come written in the first century B.C. ultimately on books by scholars Buddhist feared lest the rigours of in Ceylon, who of those who should destroy the succession could war pass
a on

Pali is

the tradition It may

of their

contents.

safelybe
the and

assumed

that of
some

the

Pali

Canon
into first two

is at least

prior
241

to

introduction
it is held
our

Buddhism that the

Ceylon
parts

in of

B.C.,

by

it, on
will be within

which

study
were

of the

Buddha's

life and
and

based, chiefly
a

already compiled
Buddha's
death.1 twice is about of three

teaching recognised
as

century
the
Bible.2

of the Pali

In

extent

Canon

as

long

our as

English
the

It consists the

collections

known

Tipitaka.3 The word pitaka, or Just as, in excavating, basket, denotes something handed on. Indian workmen passed baskets on, one from the other, of teachers succession of these baskets a so by means of Buddhist passed on the treasures learning.
1. The the

Three

Baskets,

DisciplineBasket, the
order. The
and

monastic

Vinaya Pitaka, deals with first part, the Suttavibhanga,

hundred the monks
and ancient
on

embodies
rules which

explains the
form
the used month.

two

twenty-seven
instrument fast the

Pdtimokkha,

of self-examination

by
The

the

days

they
or

hold

twice

second

part, the Khandhakas

Treatises

detailed
So

the Mahdvagga and the Chullavagga), (i.e. gives of monks and nuns. regulationsfor the behaviour
who is inclined of the
to

Oldonberg,
the

the of

view

that

the

bulk

of these
B.C.

books

were

recognisedby
Leben, seine
that

time

Council
p. these

Lehre, seine

Gemeinde,
of

Vesali, held 92). Poussin,

are

about
on

380

the

other

(Buddha, sein hand, believes

authoritative

only
T. W.

some

fragments

books

thus

ancient

and

(Bouddhisme, pp. 35-50).

2

Rhys Davids, Buddhism,

;
use

p. 52. In and

Tipitaka Pali
Pali

Tripitaka, Sanskrit.
the Pali
:

describingthe early Buddhism

technical
terms

of

the

texts, I
ia
more

form e.g. I

of
use

names

Sanskrit

familiar

the

Sanskrit

the except where nirvana, karma, and dharmq,

instead of

the

Pali nibbdna, kamma,

and

dhamnui.

i]
An and 2.

INTRODUCTION

91

Appendix
The

which forms (Parivara.) apparently of little importance.

the

third

part

is late

Sermon
the

Basket, the

Sutta

Pitaka, is

our

chief

It consists of teaching of the Buddha. four great collections (nikayas). The first two of these, of the Dlgha and Majjhima Nikdyas, consist long and medium length dialogues,arranged according to size, whilst and fourth the third Nikayas, the Anguttara and the Buddha's teaching in more Samyutta, deal with systematic order. 3. The sists Pitaka, conExposition Basket, the Abhidhamma of a more advanced chieflyof manuals type intended

authority for

"

"

"

"

for the
There

use

of members
a

of the

Order.

is also

Collection

of Smaller
put
more as

Works, the Khuddaka

is sometimes Nikdya, which Exposition Basket, but which the best fifth collection

appendix to the usually is regarded as

an

of the

Sermon

Basket.
the

It includes

the

of Virtue, the an Dhammapada, anthology of Buddhist teaching in poetic also is the Psalms form. Of great beauty and significance collection of a of the Early Buddhists, the Thera-therl-gdthd, (theras)and nuns assigned to prominent monks poems with the Buddha. famous Another associated (therls)
known of Buddhist

books,

Path

book
which

is the

Birth

Tales, the Jdtaka,

collection

of stories

and profess to deal with the five hundred fifty tales are These of great previous births of the Buddha. much for us Indian folk-lore interest, for they preserve the and and reveal amalgamation of early Buddhism which alone form popular beliefs. The verses part of the Canon are explained by prose stories of a later date.

requires to be mentioned as, although the it is of importance for the understanding outside Canon, the Questions of King Milanda, a series of early Buddhism, of dialogues assigned to a Greek king of Bactria called and Milanda Nagasena, a Buddhist sage.
more

One

book

92

BUDDHISM

[i

It
has his

is
to

on

these

Pali

books
will

then deal

that

our

study
with the in

of the

Buddhism

be

based.
and

We
his
"

successively
thus

Buddha,

Doctrine
the

Order,
creed
"

following
take

arrangement
the

of
his

Buddhist and

refuge

Buddha,

Doctrine

his

Order.

II."

THE

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

To and

his it

disciples
was

the

Buddha
that

was

pre-eminently they
were

the

Teacher,
to

his

teaching
have the
most

most

concerned

preserve. doctrines his

We
that The

many

early taught,
we can

Pali
but

books
no

narrating setting
is
some

the

Buddha
that

book
reach

forth
ception con-

life.

hope
which
he

to

of the
which in which his

environment made his

in

worked,

the

impress
the
way

personality
he conceived

on

his

disciples,

and

mission.

1. The

Age
is

in

which

the

Buddha
to

Lived. the of age

in wlu'ch have the
come

It Buddha down the

difficult

to-day
for
the

reconstruct

lived,
to
us

sacred Brahman

books

Hinduism
and in

through

editors,
Yet that
even

naturally
the

reflect

Brahman

standpoint.
it is clear of

Brahmanically
the in

edited had
no

Upanishads, monopoly
a

at

this

time

Brahmans
one

wisdom.
can

Whereas,
find
no more

of

the

Brdhmanas,

Brahman words \\ords

are

contemptuous
to

epithet
"

for

the
the

of of
a

an

opponent

than
in

say

that

they

are

like

Kshatriya,"1 certainly
are

the
to

early
the classic

shads, Upanitime
texts

which the

almost

anterior

of

Buddha,
deal

to

Kshatriyas
the
two

assigned
doctrines

the of

which

with the

great
the

karma So

and is

the

identity
supremacy

of

Self
the

with

Brahman.2

little
in

the

of

Brahmans

recognised
called
It
"

that,
"

Buddhist

books,
with
1

they

are

sometimes

low that
32-4 p. 60.

born

in
was

comparison
not

kings
Sat. See

and

nobles.3
1. 4. 10.

is clear

there
and

then
IV.

Br., VIII.
T. W.

"

See

pp.

cf. Kaush.

Up.

Rhys

Davids,

Buddhist 93

India,

94

BUDDHISM

["

the

of characteristic rigid distinction of caste afterwards tales were when the Jdtaka at the time India, and, even and written, Brahmans Kshatriyas engage freelyin trade
without

loss of caste.
age
was

The

one

marked Thus
in the

by

intense

interest

in

lative specu-

problems.
Basket1 and
eager
men no are

first

dialogue
are

of the

Sermon

less than heresies

sixty-two
of
a

heresies

enumerated,
men

they

kind
or

which
even

only

of

subtle,

intellect could

evolve

understand.1

Earnest

might, or might not, rejectthe complex of animism and the popular religionbut polytheism which made up they sought outside this to discover a path to redemption, And to peace. arose so, in this quest for nirvana, there be what neither called can precisely philosophies nor is not for their aim religions. They are not philosophies, truth for their but deliverance not religions, ; they are
is restricted to those message world-order. The Indian word
a

who

have

gone is

out

of the

for them
"

way,

or

ydna,

vehicle. Poussin
and
"

Prof,

de
are

la Vallee

Perhaps suggests, the

sometimes

mdrga, a path, discipline is, as

"

best

translation.2

They

"unsocial" of

even,

by

their

hibition pro-

They are not concerned with the with morality, but with the nor These from the bondage of karma. quest for deliverance follow different directions. Thus, as we paths may have in our seen sought study of the Upanishads, some redemption by the realisation of the identity of the soul with Brahman, others by practices through which cataleptic could be artificially states be, induced, others, it may already held the theory afterwards developed into the the paths led,whether Sankhya system ; but, whatever way through monism, mysticism, or dualistic atheism, all alike The ascetic did not were prized as paths of deliverance. marriage, anti worship of God,
-social."
" " 1

The
The

Brahma

hypotheses are
2

Jala (the Perfect Net), Dialogues of (he Buddha, pp. 26-55. in T. W. conveniently tabulated Rhys Davids' Buddhism, pp.

The
30-3.

Way

to

Nirvana,

p. 4.

ii]

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

95

deny the existence popular mythology.

karma

ruled,
at

and

something
many
"

which time

gods and the paradises of the These belonged to the world in which find he sought beyond this world to could And there were bring him peace.
of the
who
"

that

claimed

to

be

"

ford-makers and the

"*

or

enlightenedones
lower
castes

(buddhas).
were

Even among

women

members after

of the

found

seekers

redemption wrho,alone
mendicants,
gave

in the

forest, or
up
to

as

groups
one

ing of wander-

themselves

this

quest.

2.

The Our

Birth

and

Early Life of the

tell
us were disciples

Buddha.
the

earliest

texts

little of
not

early
with

life of the
the child

Buddha,
and the

for his

concerned teacher

youth,
himself

but
"

with

the

great

who,
men

having
the

become

enlightened," proclaimed to of redemption. way of the Buddha The home was Kapilavatthu,
miles
north

about

one

hundred who
era,

of Benares.
fifth and

The
seventh

Chinese

pilgrims,
of
our

visited
saw

India

in the

centuries

them

which one ruins, and, using the information in 1896, in the grove gives, Fiihrer discovered
near

its

of of

Lumbini of
the

the

modern

Nepal, King
Buddha
was

Asoka's born.
as

of Paderia on village inscription statingthat The

B.C.2

the

borders

in this

place
caste

date
He

of his birth is uncertain.

It is often

given
the

560

belonged

to

high

family called
in later

domain.

Sakya.3 His father,Suddhodana, became tradition the powerful king of a rich and vast It is more not a likely that he was king but
the ford which (lirtha)

Who further

knew shore

led

aeross

the

ocean

of

transmigration
p.

to

the
*

Dr.

Rhys Davids Spooner

hundred

of peace. See puts his birth

s

Poussin, especially

Chap. I. op. cit.,

(Buddhism, 90).
of
"

forty years
Knrnrahar

earlier
near

discoveries
"

at

Patna, of the remains

the
him to to

hall

of

columns

of Persian the

type, in conjunction with

led the view his letter

sister-marriagewith
were

Sakyas, have

ating legend associthat the Sakyas

of Iranian

or

Magian origin. (See

latter's The

the is
a

theory, in

the

Moulton, who accepted Teaching of Zarathuthtra, pp. 93, 94.) The theory
stronger evidence
stock is
to likely

Dr.

that

interesting one, but very the Buddha of Indian was

is

be

required before the abandoned. generally

tradition

96

BUDDHISM

[11

rather
to

noble,
he

member
was

of the

which

belonged
The
one

ruling clan, and the state probably a small agricultural

do not mention of the Pali died
seven

community.
name,

earliest texts

his mother's Canon

it is after

but
as

in

of the later books She

is said
to

given
his

Maya.

have

days
to

who also was birth, and her sister, dana, brought him up in his mother's The
this

married stead.
was

Suddho-

personal name
he renounced
we

of the when find he

Buddha
left his

Siddhattha, but
home.
"

ancestral

In

the

Dialogues
name

him

frecently called

the

ascetic

Gotama,"1
the ages
to

Gotama
of
an

familiar as being a family surname In after ancient family of Vedic bards. best
man

he

became

known who

as

the

Buddha,
the
"

"

the
true

lightened Enway
"

One," the

first discovered the word

redemption.
not

In

the
occur.

early texts
The

Buddha

does
as

very

often
"

Buddha

speaks
"

of himself

who at redemphas arrived the one tion,2 Tathagata, whilst his disciples most commonly speak of him as the Blessed the Bhagavat, The other One," the Lord. title, Sakyamuni, the sage of the Sakyan race, is a poetic portance, but of great imin the earliest literature, rare expression, it is by names derived from it that he is as to-day in China and Japan. commonly known information In the earlier texts there is scarcely any which events the preceded the Buddha's given about the
"
"

abandonment
one name

of home. later books Bhaddakachcha. became know

to his
were an

We of the

know
Pali

that

he

married, and
wife's
son,

of the
as

Canon3
him

gives his
a

She obscure

bore member

Rahula,
Buddhist which
a

who order.

later

of

the

We

little of the

spiritual experience
He
win

led Gotama when would

many

great renunciation. leaving the world to

Gotama became

lived at

time

appear

that

redemption. It satiated with pleasure

Gautama.
term

1 2
3

In Sanskrit
Such
seems

these

names

become

Siddhartha,
of this obscure

to be the

meaning

(see X.B.E., XIII.

name as

83).

I he Buddhavam"a.

The

Sanskrit

Buddhacharita

givesher

Yasodhara.

IT]
and eager for the Sermon
a

LIFE truer

OF

THE

BUDDHA

97

of

that a dialogue It is possible peace. it Basket history when gives authentic

narrates

how when

the
he

Buddha
was

later

told

his

the

time

surrounded of the and

with

to him

the realisation and sickness

disgustmen
as

old age

death, and,

that at disciples luxury there came feel at the sightof he pondered these

things,his enjoyment of life vanished.1 details with Later fancy has filled in these meagre suffice to illustrate briefly luxuriant legends. It must
from
was

the prose in such

introduction

to the

Jdtaka
the

tales
.

The

world

great
Buddha born be

commotion in
as

that Tusita

the him

future to

the the

gods approached heaven and besought

;

be
to

then

Buddha middle

the

future of
as

Buddha India
at

decided

born

in

the

country

Kapilavatthu, and
and
queen

to have

king

Suddhodana

his

father,

Strange marvels Maya as his mother. told of his conception, and at his birth he is received are deliver him to the into a golden net by four angels,who and bid her rejoicebecause a mighty son has been queen her. born to Immediately he receives the offeringsof
Maha
and with a gods and men of victory,beginning The
' "

noble chief he
was

voice
am

he shouted I in

the

song
'

all the
there

world.'
came

And

at

the

same

time

as

born
were

into

existence

his future

wife, two
was

who
the

to

be his courtier

friends,Kanthaka, who Bo-tree, and the four

future

king

of

horses, the great

When the

urns,

full of treasure.

of namedays old, the ceremony were performed,and eight learned Brahmans giving was of his person, and prophesy the marks summoned to observe foretold that,if he continued of them Seven his future. Universal he would become householder's in the a life, Buddha
was

five

Monarch,
but here
1 2

and,
to

if he

retired

from

the

world,
household

a
"

Buddha

the

youngest
the

of

them,
him

Kondanna,
in the

said,

There
life.

is

naught
From
T. W.

make

stay

He

era

Angntiara Nikdya, Oldenbcrg, op. cit., pp. 120, 121. Davids assigns this prose introduction to the fifth century of (Buddhism", p. 87).

Rhys

our

98

BUDDHISM most

[IT
a

will

veil of
"

undoubtedly ignorance from

will my
son see
"

become
the

Buddha When

and the

remove

the

world."
him

king asked,
the world?"
man,

What

to make

retire from
"

Kondanna
a

answered,
man,
a

The
man,

four and

signs
a

decrepitold
And
a

diseased

dead

monk."

the

king,
gave

not

willing that
that
was none

his such

son

should

become

Buddha,
him. for him

orders Gotama

should years him

be allowed

near

When three

sixteen

old the

king

built

palaces,
yet
he with when

would the

dancing girls, his feared lest, enervated by luxury, neglect manly arts, he proved that he had a skill bow could equal.1 that none
and

gave relatives

forty

thousand

3. From

the Great

Renunciation

to the Attainment

of Buddahome,
to

hood. In
young

his

twenty -ninth year, wife, and Ms infant son

to
"

Gotama

left his

his

that, stripped of all earthly

ties,he might,
own

quote the Sutta which

crave

narration,

the

give his incomparable security of a

went at to

claims

Nirvana

free from

birth."2 who

He

first to have

famous
as

teacher, Alara Kalama,

consented

him he

his

pupil

and

soon

Gotama

learnt from had

not
"

him been

all that

could
"

teach, and
occurred
not to

still the

secret

gained

; for

it

that this doctrine does me," said Gotama, of passion, cessation, quieslead to aversion, absence cence, wisdom, and Nirvana, but only knowledge, supreme
as

as

far

the

realm famous
this

of

nothingness."
could
"

So but

Gotama when

sought
he had

out

another

teacher, Uddaka,
teacher

give, he found that he still had not reached but only so far as the realm Nirvana, of neither perception nor yet non -perception." It is clear the Dialogues that Gotama had a profound knowledge from of the philosophiesof his age, and it may safelybe assumed gained
1

all that

From The

W.B.T.,

pp.

38-50. Sutta of the

Ariya Pariyesana

Majjhima Nikaya,

see

W.B.T.,

pp.

334-8.

n]
that it
Mas

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

99

from

these

teachers

that

he

gained

this

knowledge.
ledge, redemption by the way of knowof ausdetermined to seek it by the way Gotama terity, and in a grove Uruvela, by the most near rigorous His of that the possibilities austerities, exhausted way. watched by five ascetics, who hoped that, by strugglewas the secret of enlightenment his extreme self-mortification, from food did not bring would be gained. But abstinence the abandoned enlightenment, and, in the end, Gotama of asceticism. The ascetics left him, for they felt that way that Gotama had now given up his exertions, and returned As he had failed
to win
"

to

an

abundant

life,"he

would

not

"

be

able

to

obtain
full and

power

surpassingthat of men, nor holy knowledge and insight."1

As Gotama
sat

the

of superiority

beneath
came.

the

deserted, illumination
the
"

Bo-tree, disappointed and he is the Buddha, Henceforth

as

Enlightened
He

One."

Just

after

His in the

call

to

His

Messianic that
so

work, Jesus

spent thirty days

face
the
to

wilderness

might
Buddha,

there

the

according

problems of His mission, early tradition, spent four

near
2
.

weeks he
we

in

had

fastingand meditation received enlightenment

"

the the

tree

under
seven

which

For

first

days,
the

read,
In

the

Blessed

One

sat

at cross-legged

foot

of the

Tree, enjoying the bliss of emancipation.'' the scheme this period,we are told, he pondered over
Bodhi

of

"

Dependant
later have

Origination,"
as

his

analysis
basis

of

personal

existence, which,
we

the
to

intellectual

study. at the foot of a banyan tree meditation, he sat cross-legged near by for seven cipation. days, enjoying there the bliss of emanA Brahman of a haughty disposition drew
vv

shall

of his message, Arising from that state of

"

near

and

asked

him,

"

What

are

the

characteristics

that

Mahdvagga,
The

I. 6. 13.

period

is described from

Our

quotations

are

(S.B.E., XIII. p. 93). in the Ariya Pari"/ec'.ina tiutta and the latter (S.B.E., XI1J. pp. 7C-84).

The

Maitebagga,

iOO
make that
a man one a
"

BUDDHISM

[n
and

Brahman who
"

"

the

Buddha

tells him

only

is free

from
is
a

behaviour restrained," whose the world," can justlybe called week

A

haughtiness and selfto nothing in uneven

For
tree

Brahman.

the next
near

he

sat, in like fashion, under

another

by.
it,
veloped en-

screened from was great storm arose, but the Buddha for, according to Buddhist tradition, a great serpent
him
"

with

its folds

and
storm

extended

above

him

its

large

hood."
a

When

the

abated, the
to

serpent
Blessed

turned

into

youth,
to

who
him

made

obeisance

the
to

One, who
In the

declared

where

happiness is
to

be

gained.
another him
at

last week,
two

he

sat, in like fashion, under

came

tree, and
rice

merchants

him, and
down
thus in

brought
reverence

cakes feet take

and of
our

honey,

and

"

bowed and
in the

the
'

the

Blessed

One

addressed One and

him,
the

We

refuge, Lord,
the

Blessed
us as

Dharma,
from
this

may

Blessed

One
our

receive

who, disciples
taken their

day forth, while

"
:'
.

life lasts,have

These were the first in the world to become refuge in him and his teaching lay-disciples, taking refuge in the Buddha only, because the Order was not yet instituted. Later The tradition
has

added

much

to

this

scanty story.
"

Gods, knowing that the time for Prince Siddhattha's four enlightenment was near, arranged to show him the into a of their number signs." First they changed one him and showed to the future Buddha, decrepit old man, And but him." that only he and the charioteer saw so
"

the
was,

future that

Buddha his hair

'

asked
was

the
as

charioteer men's.

who And
"

this

man

not
on

other

when

he

heard, he said, Shame

is born

old

age

must

that birth, since to everyone come,' and, agitated in heart, he

thereupon
vain
man.

returned

and

ascended

his

extended hearing of this,in great grief,

; for

palace." The king, the guard, but in

sign, a
he the

the

gods

fashioned Buddha

the

second asked

diseased

Again

the future

who had

was,

he returned

in sorrow,

again

the

king

again guard still

ii]
further the extended.

LIFE

OF

THE

BTTDDIIA:

1"H

And

the

gods

showed

him

the

third

and

and monk. At night time, a signs,a dead man his dancing girlssought to distract him, but taking no he fell asleep awhile, and pleasure in their dance song, and and they were slept ; and the they lay clown where and future Buddha the women awoke saw lying asleep, that of their slumbering, and repulsive in the abandon like a cemetery, magnificent compartment began to seem filled with, dead bodies, impaled and left to rot, and he He determined the forth on to great Retirement. go him saddle summoned his courtier, Channa, and bade first to see his little son, He went Kanthaka, his horse. Rahula, who was side, and then lying by his mother's holding on by the tail, mounting Kanthaka, with Channa he sallied forth. Mara, the tempter,1 met him and offered him world-wide dominion, but the future Buddha spurned the offer, I shall catch the very and Mara thought you first time you have a lustful, malicious,or unkind thought:" And, like an ever-present shadow, he followed after,ever the watch for some on slip." the story of Gotama's With attainment of Buddha ship also legend has been busy. The earliest record tells us simply that, after his four weeks of meditation, the Blessed fourth
"

One

hesitated

to

reveal
"

his

secret.

The

doctrine

he

had

penetrated was profound, difficult to perceive and understand, unattainable by reasoning,abstruse,intelligible If I proclaim the doctrine, and other only to the wise." not able to understand men are preaching, there would my
"

result but
Blessed

weariness

and

annoyance

to

me."

"

When

the

this matter, his mind became pondered over inclined to remain and not to preach the doctrine." in quiet, be destroyed, came Brahma, fearing that the world would and to him pleaded with him to preach the doctrine, and the Blessed full of compassion, toward One looked
"
1

One

"

Mara, the ruler of the sisth, and highest, heaven Introduction to the Jataka,\W.B.T., pp. 56-06.

of sensual

pleasure.

102

BUDDHISM

[ii

sentient

beings,over

request.x
of Mara's

world," and yielded to Brahma's With this as basis, the later tradition speaks much terrific attempt to divert the Buddha from claiming promessage. The the earliest

the

his
occur

reference

seems

to

in the

Sutta,

entitled

Book
Ananda

of the
came

Great

Decease,2
him
and

where he

the Buddha

tells his friend

that,immediately
to

had

reached
"

enlightenment,

Mara

the time for the Blessed One to pass was urged that now I shall not answered die him, away," but the Buddha of mine shall have become until this pure religion successful, widespread, and popular in all its full extent." prosperous, must These traditions embody history. The Buddha may his was felt that have a teaching hard to understand, been well have and tempted to keep to himself the may enlightenment he had won.
"

Mara's
power follow in

attack the

upon

the

Buddha
the

is described

with

vivid We
to

Sanskrit Pali

poem, version

Buddha

Charita.*

here

the

of the

Introduction

the

Jdtaka.* When
"

the future
the

Buddha

was

about
'

to attain

ment, enlightenSiddhattha
I will
never

is desirous allow

of

god Mara exclaiming, Prince passing beyond my control, but

and announced war-cry, the drew
news

it,'went
the army

to

his army,

and

sounding
Mara's

Mara
extended

out

for

battle.

Now

in front

of him

for twelve

leagues,
in the nine of the
was

and
rear

to
as

the
far

right
as

and

left for twelve confines the shield

on
'

leagues, and
and
"

to

the

of the

world,

it made

leagues high."
Ten

And
his

future
and

Buddha
his
"

Perfections

sword," and
And Mara drive
will

remained

sitting,and

reflected

them.
this

caused

whirlwind, thinking
different

By

Straightway the east wind, and winds began to blow," and yet they

away all the

"

hattha.' Siddother
not

were

"
2

"

I. 5. (S.B.E., XIII. pp. 83, 8-1). MaMvagga, The Mahdparinibbtlna RvJta, Chapter III. (8.B.E.,XI. p. 53). " Bk. XIII. (8.B.E., XLIX. W.B.T., 76-83. pp. 137-147).

n]
able
to
cause so

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

103

much he

as

of fluttering
a

the

edge
his
"

of

his but

priestlyrobe. this mighty

"

Then

caused
was

great rain-storm,"
able
to wet

inundation
as a

not

priestly
caused

robe
a

as

much

dewdrop
"

would of

have

done/' and
"

He live

shower
when

of rocks," and

weapons,"
future his

coals,"
became his

but

they
flowers.
but

reached At

the

Buddha

they

celestial

length, in
a

fury, Mara
the
"

hurled
at

discus,
the

it became

canopy

of

flowers, and,
hosts

last,
has

followers

of Mara
'

scattered, and
is defeated. go celebrate

of the

gods cried out, Mara conquered. Let us they sang four verses begin with the line :
"

Prince
the

Siddhattha

extolling his

victory.''1 and each victory, which

The

victory
of his

now

hath

this

illustrious

Buddha

won."1

Because

glorious,and
were now

the ten thousand worlds were made victory, the eight-thousand-league-longhells even
"

flooded

with

radiance," the
blind from

"

ocean

became
their

sweet

to

the

taste,"
from

"

the

birth
the

received

sight,

the the

deaf
use

birth

their
; and

hearing ;
the bonds
"

of their limbs
And which
:
"

cripplesfrom birth and fetters of captives

forth
the any solemn of the

fell off."
utterance

the had

Buddha
never

breathed
omitted

been

by

Buddhas
278.

Through Seeking
To

birth

and

rebirth's

endless
on,

round,

in vain, I hastened who framed

!
"

find

this edifice.

What

misery
I've

birth

incessantly !
thee
! !

279.

builder,
fabric rafters

discovered shalt
are

This

thou all

ne'er

rebuild
now,

Thy
And This And

broken demolished

pointed
mind
seen

roof

lies !

hath the

demolition

reached,
!
"

last of all desire

es

27-1-7. form

It is the is
a

verses

of the

Julitia

that

are

canonical.
verses.

The

Book

in its

present

late

commentary,

embodying

these

104

BUDDHISM

[IT

4.

The Of

Buddha
the

as

Preacher. of the
a

an

beginnings early text gives us

his first utterances it is that possible

Buddha's

work

as

preacher,

detailed

account.1

It is natural

that

should

be most
an

remembered, clearly
authentic
shall this it to
was

and
"

this embodies

tradition.
I

The

Blessed

One

thought,
Who
will

'

To

whom

preach
his

the

doctrine
'

first ? At

understand
to

doctrine

easily? "by
who that
an

first he Kalama

desired
and
"

proclaim
but
were

old

teachers, Alara
determined had
he
saw

Uddaka,
that

he

warned

invisible
to

deity preach the

they
and them

dead.
the

So

he

doctrine

to

five ascetics,
to

witnessed

his austerities
to

travelled
his

Benares When
no

might
him

communicate

teaching.
to

they

coming they
when him
one

determined

show

him

courtesy, but
but did

he all

came

they
them

did

not

keep
him call him

their
"

ment, agree-

honour,
'

and
"

called
to
"

Friend."

And
and
"

the

Blessed

forbad

by the preach

appellation
the doctrine.

Friend.' If you

'

To

by name, you," he said,

in the
to

mil have

walk

way

the will, ere long, penetrated you you, will live in the possession of that highest truth ; and you for the sake of which noble youths goal of the holy life,

I show

fully give
state."

go up the world, and Thrice demurred they and

forth

into

the

houseless

knowledge
could abundant
not

insight when
them
now

he

that, as he did not win he practised austerities,

he
"

have

that

had

turned

to

an

and thrice the Buddha life," At

the

offered to

give them
listened which
is

his doctrine. and willingly, known In

as

length they
Buddha

were

convinced,
the

and

uttered

discourse

and

.2 of the Kingdom of Righteousness it he proclaimed the Middle Way he had discovered, explained the Noble EightfoldPath and the Four Noble
the

Foundation

Truths.
1

The

Mahdvagga,
weeks
sermon occurs

I. 6.

"

continuation
was

of the

narrative

on

which

our

account

of the
2

four

in the

wilderness

based

(8.B.E., XIII.

This

also in the

Anrjuflara Nikdya

89-102). (8.B.E., XI. pp. 146-55).

ii]
"'

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

105

given up the to devoted A life given to pleasures, world ought to avoid. pleasures and lusts, this is degrading, sensual, vulgar, life given to mortification. a ignoble, and profitless ; and By avoiding these two extremes, the Tathagata has gained leads to insight, Path which the knowledge of the Middle
There
are

two

extremes

which

he who

has

which

leads
to

to

wisdom,

which

conduces

to

calm,

to

ledge, know-

This Middle enlightenment,1 to Nirvana. Path is the holy eightfold Path, namely, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, RightMeans of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Memory, Right Meditation." the The the way medical lore its of that time dealt its cause, with disease under

categoriesof
to

symptom,
cure

its cure,

and

the

Buddha, as a physician of and proceeded to state the souls,adopted these categories, Truth of Suffering, which is the symptom of human Noble of the Cause the Noble of suffering, need, the Noble Truth Truth of the Cessation of suffering, and Truth the Noble of the Path which leads to cessation of suffering, which is And the holy Eightfold Path because already mentioned. Buddha the possessed with perfect purity this true knowledge and insightinto these Four Noble Truths," he knew had obtained the highest universal that he ment enlightenand and this in the world of men knowledge gods ; and in his mind. The emancipation of my insightarose mind be lost ; this is my last birth, hence I shall cannot be born again! Thus the Blessed One spoke." His not five hearers were delighted and rejoiced at the words of the Blessed One." They received ordination,into the Order of which the first members. So, as the they thus became narrative six Saints2 concludes, at that time there were
obtain the
; the
" " '
'

"

"

in the

world this

"
"

the

Buddha
at

himself

and

his five

With
1 *

sermon

Benares,

in Buddhist

disciples. phrase, the

"

Sambodhi.
Arahat not

(Sanskrit,Arhat), one

who, like the

Buddha,

having

reached

Nirvana,

had

to be reborn.

106

BUDDHISM

[n We Buddha
were

Wheel if not
which

of the Law the actual

began
words

to move."

have
at

in this least

sermon

of the

the

ideas of his

believed early Buddhists teaching. It is clear that the is redemption. The Buddhist
of God
:

the

essentials

central
not

thought is that of troubled by problems

is
one

and how

the
can

world.
I be

To
free

him from

there

supreme this

tion quesworld of
we

sufferingin
this
sermon

? suffering may well

And

to that
was

question
was

gives what
noble

believe
to

the

Buddhist

answer.1

youth of Benares, whose lay disciples. parents and wife became Many of Yasa's friends, belonging to the highest families in the country, and to those next to the highest,"accepted the Buddha's teaching,so that speedilythe Order numbered and wander sixty. And the Blessed One bade them go
Next

join

the

Order

Yasa,

"

"

for the

sake

of the

many,

for the

welfare

of the

many,

out

of
the

compassion
welfare
of

for the

gods which the doctrine is the same Preach way," he said. gloriousin the beginning, gloriousin the middle, glorious and in the letter ; proclaim a conat the end, in the spirit summate, There are perfect and pure life of holiness. beings whose mental eyes are covered by scarcelyany dust, but if the doctrine is not preached to them they cannot the doctrine."2 attain salvation. They will understand
"

for the good, for the gain, for many, " men." Let not of you and two go

The

Buddha

himself rested in

set
a

out

for Uruvela.
; soon
a seen

As

he

was

going there,he
men came

grove if he them
"

band
a

of rich young

and when

asked
he

him

had what
were

woman

passing

by,
the

and
woman,

asked

they replied: thirty friends,rich young

had
no

We

they had to do with sporting in this grove,

our

men

with

wives.
a

One

of

us

wife

;
we

for him did

not

we

had

procured

harlot.
were

Now,

Lord, while
1

pay
The the

attention, and
Four Buddha's Noble Truths

indulging
discussed
at

Oldenberg, op. cit.,149. greater length in our exposition of

*

See

will be

teaching.

Mahavagga,

I. 11. (8.B.B., XIII.

112-13).

n]
in
to
"

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

107

our us

sports, that harlot has taken

and has would
run

away."
be the
or

And

up the articles belonging the Buddha asked them :

Which

better that

for you,
you that

that

you

should

go

in search

of

a
"

woman,

should

go in search
be
sat

of

yourselves ? that they should

and the under listened
to

And go his

they

admitted

it would and

better down

in search

of themselves,

preaching, and
he

seeing the truth, joined

a

Order.1
the

At

Uruvela

found

thousand

ascetics

And these, leadership of three Brahmans. tradition,he converted by according to the early Buddhist his mighty miracles.2 From the Buddha Uruvela went to Rajagaha, the capital of Magadha. Its king, Bimbisara, went with a great out to welcome him, brought him into the palace, company waited of his people, became on a him, and, with many and and to Buddha his monks a pleasure lay disciple gave there the Buddha converted two men garden. Whilst whom the Buddhist Church afterwards held in highest honour two Sariputta and Moggallana. They were Brahman had abandoned their that homes youths who they might seek the path to redemption, and had vowed reveal it to the the path, he would that, if either found other. And Sariputta saw in the street one day a disciple of the Buddha, and, admiring the dignity of his deportment,
"

went

up to Mm
name

and

said, Your
retired
was
a

"

countenance

is serene. ?
"

In the

whose

of the Blessed One, disciple and Of all objects w^hich proquoted to him the words, ceed from a cause the Tathagata has explained the cause, and he has explained the cessation also." And Sariputta summoned his friend and togetherthey went to the Buddha, and he bade them also lead a holy life for the sake of of suffering," ordained and they were complete extinction the And into Order. so distinguished young many led life under the direction a religious Magadha noblemen
" " " "

monk

you repliedthat he

have

from

the

world

And

I. 14. Op. cif.,

"

I. Op. cit.,

15-21.

108

BUDDHISM

[n
the

of the

Blessed
"

One

"

that

complain, no sons,"
families
to

The and become

"

ascetic1

wives

people began angrily to Gotama fathers to beget causes to become widows, and causes

extinct."2

5.

The
The

Work Pali

of the

Buddha.

life of the
his first His

history of the scripturesgive us no connected in the long period between Buddha the time of
and

success

the time

when

he

drew

near

to

death.

not biographers,and, besides, a life such were disciples his would Numerous as inevitably have lacked incident. the records of his conversations, it is impossible to as are in them trace development of teaching ; the Buddha any and his disciples are presented rather as types than as

individuals.

During
resided
with months which

the

three

months'
in
one

rainy
or

season,

the

Buddha

with

his monks the

other endowed. from

of the The

monasteries other nine

Order
year

had he

been

of the

wandered of

villageto village,

redemption. His field of labour Eastern the so-called was Lands," the ancient kingdoms and Kasi-Kosala of Magadha the neighbouring free and states.3 It would that only rarely did he journey appear Western influence was to the Lands," where Brahmanic Numerous and stronger and his teaching less successful. beautiful parks were given to the Order, in the shade of trees the Buddha whose and his monks could rest in quiet and receive the people who to learn their message. came the Buddha's admirers were Among wealthy men many who delighted to invite him and his followers to a feast after which he would such preach. When hospitalitywas and his companions would lacking, the Buddha go from to beg their food, the Buddha, to house house for all his preaching
" " 1 "

his message

Samana. i.e.the modern

provincesof

Bihar

I. 24. Op. cit., and Oudh, with the adjacent part of Nepal.

n]

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

109

fame, holding

out

his

beggar

bowl

with

the

modesty
seem

and

humility he enjoined on all his monks. of the Buddha the first the disciples From with the Order formed a regular monastic
head. The
names

to

have
as

Buddha
occur

its

of

some

of its members

very

in frequently
we

have

Buddha,
who

Dialogues. Of Sariputta and Moggallana with the in influence already spoken. Next man, and Ananda, his kinsfirst in his friendship, was
the made the

comfort

of the
the

Buddha

his first

care. own

It is of interest
son

to find among
name

monks

the Buddha's with been

Rahula, whose
who

is often
not
seem

associated
to

the chief

prominent Order in the Order. Outside the monastic were pious laymen who, unlike the monks, did not aspire to win in their present birth, but improved their future Nirvana lot by obeying the moral precepts applicableto them, by works of charity, and, above all,by giftsto the Buddhist the yellow robe of the Order. The monks themselves wore
does

but disciples,

have

ascetic,had
and
care. were

their hair from

within

tonsured, and
all bonds the of Order
no

lived lives of

poverty
hold houseof caste

free chastity, And

family love

and

differences

recognised.
modern who
poor he

Some
was one

writers
the

have

spoken
of caste

as

if the

Buddha

broke and

chains

to

the

which

despised a place in founded. Certainly he

of the

sought to bring the spiritual kingdom opposed the arrogant

it
was

and

exclusiveness

Brahmans,

and

doubtless

teaching that early Buddhists proclaimed that the true Brahman the man whose passionsare extinct was and his knowledge perfect,"1 but it is misleading to speak of him Social a as a social reformer. as democrat, or even the thought of his age alien from reform movements wrere and land.2 social He to change the concerned not was through
"

his

"

customs
1

of his
Chapter

time, and the "sorrow," which

of the

is the

symptom
(S.B.E.,X.

See

XXVI.

Dhammapada,

entitled the Brahman

I. pp. 89-95).
1

Cp. Oldenberg, op. cit., p. 172.

110 of human

BUDDHISM

In
" "

our

need,
sorrow,

is not

sorrow

as

the
of The
concern

poor
a

and

oppressed count
of the world
were

but

rather

the

sorrow

leisured

conscious aristocrat,
not

of the
his

of futility
concern, the
nor

life.

injustices
of his
of

the

monks, for they had

caste
were

renounced
the

world.

Differences

ignored within
were no

Order

justbecause, like family

which
was

ties, they
had
now

part of the earthlylife with

connection. In this the Buddha the
sacred

the monks in
no

way Brah-

there had pretensions, been, before his time, bands of ascetics1 who ignored caste because it was they had renounced part of the world-order and deemed of their birth, but were holy, not because because of their renunciation Actually it would appear that very few low caste people entered the Order in the Buddha's lifetime. The Buddhist texts tell us with some complacency that his converts deed were wealthy and of noble birth. And inthe message that the Buddha not one preached was the ignorant could understand. A great scholar has said that most to acknowledge probably the world will come
.

original. Side by side with and probably hostile mans,

caste

of the

to their

"

many t eachers religious

him

as

in

respects
is

the

most

intellectual
this may

of

the

of mankind."2

However

be, the
and
ill-

form

certainlyintellectualistic adapted to the needs of the simple. He would said of children, is the Kingdom For of such teaching
"

of

his

not

have

of God,"

for his message the Women

admit

was

not

for children distrusted

nor

the

childlike.3 for
which that

Buddha

and

refused

long

to

into his Order.

the his
to

Thus,
Buddha's
are

in the

Discourse

deals

with asked

close

of the
"

we life, we

read

Ananda
with
them.

master,

How
?
see
"

to

conduct
not
are answers.

ourselves
to
we see

regard
"

womankind
we

and

is told what

But

if

should

them,
the

to
"

do But
as

"

"

Abstain
1

from
And

speech,"
Gotama ia

Buddha

if
the

Hunt
ana

anas.

often, in the Dialogues,described

p. 117.

by

others

Sam
2
3

Gotama.

T. W.

Rhys Davids, Buddhism, Cp. Oldenbcrg,op. cit., p. 176.

ii]

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

111
"

they should Keep wide

"

speak
awake,
asserts
women

to

to we Lord, what are the reply.1 Ananda," comes us,

do

Tradition

that

his aunt

Mahapajapati
to enter

three

times

begged
state
as

that
nuns,

might
each
time
on

be allowed the

the

homeless
At

but

Buddha

refused. robe

length
ascetic,
where feet in

she

cut

off her many

hair, put
of the and

the

yellow
of her

of the
to

and,
and

with

women

clan, came
"

the Buddha
covered

was, with

stood

at the

porch

with

swollen
and

dust, sad
interceded

and

sorrowful, weeping
thrice if
women

tears."

Ananda
her

for her, but asked

him

the

Buddha

refused
be the

desire.

Ananda
left

capable, if they
fruit

of

conversion that

Buddha

admitted

might not their household state, of realising The or even becoming saints.2 pleaded they might, and Ananda
had

that, since Mahapajapati and aunt mother, women

from
the the

been

to the

Blessed
"

One
to

both forth under

should
enter

be

allowed

go

household and

life and

the homeless

state

discipline proclaimed by the Tathagata." The Buddha yielded, but laid down eight stringent rules and for the ordering of nuns, prophesied gloomily that, if had received then not women permission to become nuns, would the pure religion have stood fast for a thousand it would years," but now only stand fast for five hundred did not refuse years."3 Yet it is clear that the Buddha and from women, of the Psalms some giftsnor hospitality of the Sisters4 of a later age give beautiful expression to the joy with which those who were honoured matrons once live a homeless life of poverty and or gaudy prostitutes, chastity,having put away all desires and reached Nirvana. the converts of which the Pali scriptures Many as were was success speak, it is clear that the Buddha's by no have resented his must means complete. The Brahmans than of more merit teaching that giftsto the Order were
;'

doctrine

"

Mahaparinibbdna
Arahfif.

Sutln, V. i":j(X.B.E..
"

X. X.

p.

91). 320-6).

ChuUavagga,
Mrs.

(8.B.E., XX.

ThzrlgatM,

translated

by

P.livs Davids.

112

BUDDHISM

[n

sacrificial but have

in the

and offerings,

doubtless
he

opposed
Hindu

him

vehemently,
would

lands
much
not

in which

worked

their influence

been
were nor an

less than the

the

Scripturessuggest.
an

They
It
was

powerful priesthood of
sects

authoritative

Church,

was

the supremacy

of their caste
and

of many actually,several of the

age

schools
converts

of

unquestioned. thought, and,

came

Buddha's
serious

from

the the

Brahman Brahmans

caste.
were

More
the

than

the

opposition of
the Order.
utilised

dissensions
was

within

Most
the

malignant
or

in his influence caused

Devadatta, who
Buddha
were

dissatisfaction

by
and

the

enjoin
schism

the

austerities age,

which

ascetics
a

of that in the

in this way

refusing to practise the expected from in forming succeeded

that, not
death
content

Order.
to

Tradition
secure

asserts

with

this,he sought
take his

the

Buddha's

that

he

might
6. The

place.1
Buddha. be

Death Buddha

of the

The

lived to after 480

eighty years
a

old.

He

died

not

long
Of Sutta
rare

before his

or

B.C.2

last

days
Pali

we

have

detailed
with
a

account

in

the

of
in

the Great

Decease,3

written

these became

Buddha

his illness in order

scriptures. At the restrained ill,but, by self-control, very that, before he died, he might take leave
desired for
the that

glow of feeling the rainy season,

of the Order. him

some
"

Ananda

he should But

leave the

behind Buddha
any The

instructions I

Order. truth

said,

have

preached
no

the

without

making
"

distinction

between

exoteric such

and

esoteric

doctrine."

Tathagatha has who keeps some

instructions
"

thing as

the closed
"

fistof the teacher

things back."
any
unto

in

Be
1

ye

lamps

Why should he lay down Order ? matter concerning the Betake yourselves," he enjoined.
"

"

See Chullavagga, VII.

So

(8.B.E., XX.
221.

pp.

224-271). 1-136).
There
are

Oldenberg, op. cit., p.

Mahdparinibbdna-sutta (S.B.E., XI. W.B.T., pp. 95-110.

3

pp.

extracts

from

it

ii]

LIFE

OF

THE

BUDDHA

113

yourselves
as a

to

no

external
fast
one as
a

refuge. refuge

Hold
to

fast truth.

to

the Look

truth
not

lamp. refuge
to

Hold
any the the

the

for

besides Buddha
and he it

yourselves."1 accepted produced

Ananda of death
to

With

gracious
from With
any

condescension

boar's

flesh2

Chunda,

smith,
kindness

dysentery.
spare drew him in

thoughtful feeling
he if
as

bade

Chunda
near.

of
he
was

remorse.

His

day
the

Before asked
them

died,
there
to

summoned
any

monks

and
the all

doubt,
or

or

misgiving,
but

mind
were

of

any

the he

Buddha

his
"

teaching,
the
most

they
backward

silent,
all

and five

testified

that

even

of and

these
is
no

hundred liable
to

brethren
be

has in
"

become
a

converted,
of

longer
of

born

state

suffering,
Blessed
now,

and One

is assured

final

salvation."
and
:

Then
'

the

addressed
I

the
you

brethren

said,
is

Behold
in

brethren, component
!
'

exhort

saying
out

Decay

inherent with

all

things
was

Work
last

your

salvation

diligence

This

the

word

of

the away

Tathagata
one

!
the

"

So His ashes

passed body
divided
was

of

greatest great
nobles.
a

of

the

race's

teachers.
and the

cremated
among buried
an urn

with

reverence,

various under

Those
and
to

his here

kinsfolk
in

received,
was

they

monument,

1898

discovered
"

which,
of the

according
exalted Buddha

the

inscription,
the

contained
clan."

remains

of

Sakyan

Op.
Some

cit., II.
suppose

32.

33. that the

word

denotes

mushroom.

III."

THE

TEACHING

OF

THE

BUDDHA.

THE take

second

article the

on

the

Buddhist

confession

is this

refuge in
that

What

Teaching, the Teaching was it is

no

Dharma.
hard
to

say. the

The Pali
to

Buddha

left behind which until

extent

Mm

written

records,
not

and

Canon,

embodies
after

his

teaching,was
It is his

committed

writing
to

long it reallyreproduces
be

his death.

impossible to
and
"

say

what
that

words,

it may

be

it would

better

to

call this
"

of

the

Buddha,"

but

The

chapter not Teaching

The
of
*

Teaching the Early

Certainlyit is hard to believe that the founder with of a world religioncould have expressed his message the abstruse scholasticism depicted in the Dialogues. Part be due to our of our difficulty expectation that may the Buddha, like our own Master, would have spoken with words of timeless simplicity; and such an expectation is unreasonable. He lived in an of acute speculation, age that seems and much pedantry to us would have sounded
Buddhists." natural
to

his

hearers. founder of

Besides, the
a new

Buddha
an

was

not

consciously the
thinker, who

but religion, other had

to

illumined after

to graciously showed the way deliverance by which he himself ignorance. Although we cannot say

seekers been

freed from
extent

what

the

it seems disciples, that, in the main, they reflect faithfully possibleto assume the general outlines of the Buddha's teaching. Pedantic at times its expression, the puras seem may pose of the Buddha's teaching was practical. It had only
114

Pali

books

reflect the

afterwork

of his

in]
one

TEACHING aim the deliverance

OF

THE

BUDDHA

115 text

"

and
as

an

ancient

him

words,
taste
one

"

Just of

the

great
so

ocean

has

assigns to only one

and

taste, the
Part
was were

salt, just
"

has

this of

doctrine

discipline only
of
the the desire

flavour
which

the

flavour

emancipation."1

desire
to to
man

irrelevant Will the

discipleshad to eh'minate to questions which know the answers redemption. Is the world eternal or
who

his

finite ?
or

has
?

won

deliverance

be existent
will

non-existent

after death These

were

Or

if

reborn, where
of
the

he

be

reborn
to

? the

questions
age,
to
answer
"

interest

thinkers Buddha

of that

but

when

profoundest a wandering
is rebuked.

ascetic

asks

the

them, he

a Every such theory, he is told, is jungle, a wilderness, a puppet-show, a writhing, and a fetter,and is coupled with misery, ruin, despair, and and does not lead agony, of passion, cessation, quiescence, to aversion, absence when And wisdom, and Nirvana.'' knowledge, supreme if Gotama the ascetic asks has any theory of his own ? Gotama replies, The Tathagata is free from all theories ; of form, but this does the Tathagata know the nature and how form arises,and how form perishes; the nature of sensation, and how sensation sensation arises, and how of perception ; and how perishes; the nature perception how of the arises, and perception perishes; the nature and how the predispositionsarise, and predispositions, how the predispositions of consciousness, perish ; the nature and how consciousness arises,and how consciousness perishes. Therefore say I that the Tathagata has attained all deliverance, and is free from attachment, inasmuch as inaginings, or agitations,or false notions concerning an Ego or anything pertaining to an Ego have perished."2 Here the Buddha states clearlythat he will neither affirm One truth only is at this time. nor deny theories current
" " "
"

he concerned
1 *

to

know

"

the

Irnpermanence
p.

of the

Ego,

as,

Chuttavagga, IX.
Svtta 72 of the

1. 4. (S.B.E., XX.

304).
pp.

Majjhima-Nvkaya

(W.B.T.,

123-8),

116

BUDDHISM

[m
freedom from

by
and

this
so

knowledge,
Nirvana.

he

can

win

attachment,
a

In

another

Sutta

of the

same

book,

we

find

had
had

joined the Order, deeply disturbed these problems. He not elucidated

asks
him whether the the he

because
goes

sage, who the Buddha Buddha their

to the

and
answer.
'

does,

or
"

does Did
me,

not, Tmow
I
ever

But
lead either eternal

Buddha

replies,
world
that ?
'

Come,
you

life under religious the

or

and
or

say to you, I will elucidate the

to

that
...

is eternal the saint His

that

world
nor

is not does that And

not

neither

exists

exist
was

after death
on

it the

not

these

terms

Buddha

tells him
were

that

has to disciple that he joined the to refuse to join the

admit

Order.
Order

until these
as

problems
who had

elucidated wounded refuse

would
with
to
an

be

as

foolish,

if

man,

been

arrow,
a

smeared
or

with
to

poison, should
remove

allow what the

thickly physician
of
man

surgeon thrown and

it,until he told him

;

sort nature

had

the
arrow.

arrow

and

what

was

of the

bow

The

dogmas dealing with

of the
Buddha
nor

religiouslife does not depend on the eternityof the world, or the possibility
of the saint them

existence
not

after death, and for

so

the

had
to

elucidated
This

they
the
to

do

lead

Nirvana.

had

he elucidated and

of
to

misery,
the

the

cessation of

of

misery,
For does

profit origin path leading

not ; the

cessation

fundamentals
Thus

of

misery. and religion,

declares that

this has

do

with

the

lead to Nirvana.1
is not
are,

Gotama

his work

speculative,
as we

therapeutic. His Four Noble an applicationof the medical seen, He a revelation brings to sick men
but

Truths

have

categoriesof
of the symptom
to
secure

his time.

of their
this
cure.

disease,its
Our
to

cause,

its cure,

and

account

of his Four

teaching
that

these he

"

Noble

arranged according dition, Truths," which, according to traSermon

at

the way will be

preached in
his work
Sutta
63 as

Benares, with

which

he

began
1

teacher.
Majjhima-Nikdya (W.B.T., pp. 117-122).

of the

in]

TEACHING

OF

THE

BUDDHA

117

The

First Noble
said

Truth
the

"

Suffering.
at

"This,"
Truth

Buddha

Benares, "is

the

Noble

; decay is suffering Suffering: birth is suffering ; is suffering. Presence of objects illness is suffering ; death hate is suffering objects we love is we ; separation from desire is suffering. we suffering Briefly, ; not to obtain what is the fivefold clingingto existence suffering."1 disease of man's This, then, is the symptom misery. have the symptom And would not the Buddha ignored. He bids a monk of his own life. contemplate the sordidness the sole of his feet to the Let him consider his body, from

of

"

crown

of

his

head,
his and

and

remember If he
see

all the
in
a

uncleanness
a

contained

by
his

skin.

cemetery

corpse him

swollen, black,
compare has
own

full of

festering putridity, let

"

this nature,

body, saying, this destiny, and

would have
it has

Gotama's

age, this first truth writers but

Verily, my body also is not exempt."2 To have required no proof.

of
the that

Western
"

spoken
to

much

Buddha's he claimed

pessimism,"
the way

be remembered

to show

We
that

misery he indicated. cannot unless we feel justlycall his system pessimistic, the redemption he taught was inadequate.3

to deliverance

from

the

The
"

Second This

Noble
is the

Truth Noble

"

the Cause Truth

of Suffering.
Cause of
: Suffering

of the

by pleasure and lust,finding its satisfaction here and there. (This thirst is threefold), thirst for existence, namely, thirst for pleasure, thirst for prosperity."
Here
1

Thirst, that

leads to rebirth,accompanied

we

reach

the

most

difficult part of the

of the

Buddha's
found

in the
" "

quote in this section from Mahawgga (8.B.E., XIII.

22 of the

Oldenberg's translation
pp.

Sermon,

as

95, 96).

See Sutta See Mrs.

common

the

Digha-Nikdya (W.B.T., 369-62). Rhys Davids, Buddhism (pp. 161-72),for an indignant protest against view is pessimistic. that Buddhism

118

BUDDHISM

[in

teaching. It is well to realise its central significance in the details of his elaborate before becoming immersed have the most characteristic psychology. As we seen, a permanent teaching of the Upanishads recognisedin man habitation another soul which to one passed on from in the cycle of rebirth,and could to rest through only come the realisation of its unity with Brahman. The Buddha
denied that
was

there
to

was

such
an

soul.

What

men

had

called

the
the

soul

temporary
It

occurrences.

ever-changing appearance of various concourse bodily and is thirst,1 or craving,which holds

in
a

him

due

to

mental

all

living
nexus

beings together
rebirth.
is

state

of existence

and

necessitates

When
and

thirst is

eliminated, then

the causal
ceases.

broken,

the miserable

cycle of

rebirth

This

of Dependant theory is expressed in an abstruse scheme not Origination which, if tradition is to be believed, was own teaching, but the means only part of the Buddha's through which, as he sat at the foot of the Bo-tree, he sists conexperienced the bliss of emancipation.2 The scheme of twelve links.

On On On On On On On On On On On

: ignorance depend the Sankhdrd the Sankhdrd depends consciousness ; and form consciousness depend name ; the six and form depend of sense name ; organs of sense the six organs depends contact ; contact depends sensation ; sensation depends desire (or thirst) ; desire depends attachment ; attachment depends existence ; existence depends birth ; birth depends old age and death, sorrow, tion, lamentaand despair.3 misery, grief,

1 *

Pali tanM. Translators

vary in the text much

"

See

earlier, p. 99.

in their
on

rendering of

the
84.

more

difficult terms.

The

translation

is based

Warren's

B.T.t p.

in]
Our
space

TEACHING does
not

OF

THE

BUDDHA

119

allow

more

than

brief note

on

this
here later

difficult and, in parts, obscure denotes

not

analysis.1 Ignorance
nescience Four
our

the but
a

Upanishads,
Sankhdrd
is

Maya, the creative ignorance of the

term
our

of the

Noble

Truths.

technical

for

systems, and
The

consequently
Sankhdrd Warren
here denote

philosophical language, have no equivalent.

makes word
or

which

all that the

is made.
"

In this scheme, for

the

translates
are

by

karma,"
one

Sankhdrd

the

aggregate of

immaterial ence exist-

and qualities
to

which from capabilities, pass over another, where ignorance of the Buddha's makes further existence connected

of deliverance
denotes
"

inevitable
.

' '

message Name*

'

here
"

the functions the

with

sensation, whilst
unites womb is
to

form
name

denotes
"

body.
"

Consciousness
maternal existence
"

with

"

and

"

form
and
so

in
a new

the

form
It is

the

individual,

begun.

clear, as Warren itself,that the

twice
"

the formula points out, that human being is brought into under the
name

repeats
existence

the

first time

of

consciousness

and
the and much

name

and

form,
in

and

by
time

means

of

ignorance and
of desire

karma

second karma

time

birth, and
that

by

means

(thirst)
"

again, this
to surmise

called

existence, and
in its
two

one

is

inclined
is
were
a

the full formula

present
or more

shape
that

piece of patchwork put together of

current

in

the

Buddha's

time

and

by
at

him

"

perhaps expanded, perhaps contracted,

made Two treatment into

but

any

rate

one."2

doctrines
"

implied

in

this

scheme

require further
of Karma.

the doctrines

of the Soul

and

The

Doctrine
message
a

of the

Soul.

The

of the

Buddha,
It
was

as

we

have
"

seen,

did

not

constitute
"

religion.
which
a man

rather
be

way," by
1
'-

might
see

freed

a discipline," from the cycle of

For

commentary,
p. 115.

Oldenberg, op. cit., pp.

251-90.

B.T.,

120

BUDDHISM existence.

[in

miserable
was

thus

But, although primitive Buddhism it was Indian rationalism, which an rationalistic,

absorbed the

popular beliefs in transmigration, and in paradises and hells,and it is not easy to reconcile definition of man with these beliefs the early Buddhist as to selflessness (nairdtmya)1 Yet this definition seems be the teaching. legitimateexpression of the Buddha's Thus, at the very beginning of his teaching work, at the
utilised and
" "

conclusion
the Buddha

of his

sermon

to

the

five ascetics

at

Benares,

the existence denied of the self as definitely absent. distinct reality. All signs of a self are Form, a of these none Sankhdrd, consciousness sensation, the things are the self,and it is by considering this that a of these things, and learned,noble hearer becomes weary becoming "weary of all that, divests himself of passion," and there is for him no further return and so is made free,
"

"

"

"

to

this

world."2 Buddha's Buddhas

And

in

the

passage

in it

which
is

Warren
that
not

finds
"

the

central

teaching,
or

stated do

whether

arise,

whether

Buddhas

a fact, and the fixed and necessary constitution arise,it remains of being, that all its elements are lacking in an Ego."3 As the great scholar Buddhaghosa puts it,in the Visuddhi-Magga
.

"

Misery only
No doer Nirvana The Path

doth

is there

miserable. exist, none the deed save ; nought

man

is found. it.

is,but not the exists, but not

who

seeks
on

the

traveller

it."4
"

book puts it : Just as chapter of the same rolls only at one wheel in rolling a chariot point of the tire, and in restingrests only at one point,in exactly the same the life of a livingbeing lasts only for the period of way that thought has ceased the as one thought. As soon

Or,

as

another

See

Poussin's

Way

to

Nirvana,

pp.

30-56, for
pp.

an

expositionof

the view

here

adopted.
2

Mahavagga,
W.B.T.,

I. 6. 38-46.

(S.B.E.,XIII.
XVI.

100, 101).

p. xiv.

"

Visuddhi-Magga, Chap.

(W.B.T., p. 146).

ni]

TEACHING
to have

OF

THE

BUDDHA

121

being is said
affirmed for
that any

ceased."1

the

Buddha's
a

unnaturally it has been ever teaching leaves no place whatNot Yet

of that
no

belief in

soul. that
so

heresy
who and

is

more

vigorously
absolute

denounced
at

than death

those

taught
evil deeds

annihilation alike be

good
the

the unrequited. And the continuity of Jdtaka, clearlyassume

would

Birth

-stories,the
Buddha which with

the

meritorious
a

characters discourse

of the

past
the

with

they
Yama,
It
was

deal, whilst,in
the ruler

assigned to
a

Buddha,
"

of the

dead, condemns

sinner, saying,
you

yourselfwho did this you feel its consequences."2

The

wickedness, and
is

alone

shall

apparently to be found in Warren's phrase, Rebirth, not Transmigration." So kindles the metaphor of a lightwhich a later dialogue uses another light without passing over, transmigrating to it ; be rebirth "without there migrating." so even anything transmay for there Although there is no transmigration, is no identity,yet there is no annihilation, permanent because if the new the old it is as being is not the same
solution of the

problem

"

not

unconnected

with

it. Pali

As
texts

Professor describe
a

de

la

Vallee
not

Poussin

points out,
';

the
"

existence

only by the only when also by the

static

metaphor
are
"

of

chariot, which

exists

its constituents
"

associated

together,3but

turns to dynamic metaphor of milk which the curds, which, though different from milk, are yet of the grownor produced from it without interruption," up who is the the not child-bride for whom same as girl the dowry was of the continuation paid and yet is a And child. in exactly the same way," the Buddhist is and form which although the name sage Nagasena adds,
" "
"

"

"

born

into which

the

next

existence

is different

from

the

name

and

form

is to end at

death, nevertheless

it is sprung

from

it.

" * "

From

Op. cit., (W.B.T., p. 150). Chap. Vm. the Anguttara Nikdya, III. 35. (W.B.T., pp. 255-7). The Questions of King Milanda, XXVII. (W.B.T., pp. 131. 2).

122

BUDDHISM

[in
one

Therefore
seem

is one

not

freed from the

's evil deeds

.

"

It would like their

"

then

that

although
"

early Buddhists,
"

Master, refuse to recognise the existence of a soul as a metaphysical entity yet in its stead they recognise a fluid complex, both livingcomplex, a continuous bodily and mental, a person which, in fact,possesses nearly all the
characters of
a

soul

as

we

understand

the

word."2

The

Doctrine Buddha

of Karma.
assumed
as we as

The karma
the

axiomatic
had

the

doctrine

of
in

which,

have

seen,

already been taught

Upanishads and used it with great effectiveness. It is clear that, although he rejectedthe view that the soul a was metaphysical entity,he used the hope of winning aid good karma and the fear of winning bad karma as an in his moral teaching,and an incentive to generous giving. Thus, as we are told, a queen asked him why one woman is ugly and another ugly and rich, another lovely poor, and poor, another lovely and rich,and the Buddha replied that if a woman was lovelyit was because she had not been and if she was rich it was she had given because irascible, Brahman in a previous birth.3 or a generously to a monk And he warns that those who do evil do not truly men love themselves. It is those who do good deeds who truly
love themselves
'*

oldest

for

His

good deeds
a

and

his wickedness,
does while here
;

Whate'er

mortal he
can

'Tis this that This This And Let A For Will

1

with

him

take follows

call his own, he goes hence. as after ne'er deeds

is what like
a

him,

shadow noble

all,then,
merit

departs. perform,
weal
;

treasure-store

for future

gained this life within, yield a blessing in the next."4

3 "

* XLVII. Op. cit., (W.B.T., pp. 236-8). Poussin, op. cit., p. 65. the Anguttara Nikdya, TV. 197. (W.B.T., pp. 228-231), From Samyutta Nikaya, III. 1. 4. (W.B.T., pp. 213. 4).

m]
This

TEACHING

OF

THE

BUDDHA

123

doctrine

was

more

the

concern

of the the

monks, for monks

had
to

passed beyond
a

laitythan of stage of desiring

next

by good
their That
to

deeds
was were

win

nobler

lot in of the

their

birth

aim

Nirvana, the end

born
was

cycle of

existence. them in
a

they

in circumstances the

which

enabled
deeds

win

Nirvana

result

of meritorious
were

previous birth,1and, even win Nirvana, they have the evil of past misdeeds.
of karma
as was

although they
to

destined

to

work It would

out

in

their that

present

life

seem

the doctrine

must

annihilate could

free
be

will,but the Buddha

spoke

if self-restraint

the
were

by all. He himself the Enlightened One," but not only the Buddha, Hero (Vlra) the Conqueror (Jina), and his followers his triumph.2 As the Buddha called to emulate
cultivated
"

warned

his

followers, in his last address

"

to them

before

his

salvation their own with out had to work death, they deliverance, diligence." He did not claim to bring to men the path by which them but only to show they could attain after him, sought to find in their it,but he, and his disciples the past which hearers roots of merit from they could bring
to

maturity
In
one

and

thus

enable

them

to

accept the

message

of deliverance.3
moralised the important respect the Buddha of karma, for he emphasised that the intention
as ception conwas

important
who

well

as

the

deed.

Thus

we

read

of

treasurer

miser. wealthy, but childless,and a miserable The Buddha explains that he was wealthy because of a he had afterwards in a previous birth of which gift generous of his gift he was born in a heavenly repented. Because times held the post of treasurer, but, world and had seven he had suffered in hell he had repented of his gift, because thousands of years and, as a further result hundred for many died
1

Cp.

the
some

frequent
op.

references

to

such

meritorious

acts

as

doing service

to

Saint in
1 *

previousexistence
cit., p. 98.
was

in the

Psalms

of the Early
a

Buddhists. robber because he covered dis-

Cp. Poussin,
Thus
a

the root

Buddha of merit

able

to

convert

celebrated

under

his many

sins.

124

BUDDHISM

[m
the
seventh time

of

his

mean

was feelings,

for

dying

no new and, as he had accumulated merit, was childless, in one of the hells.1 torment suffering Not the under but only men, gods themselves, were who reaches Nirvana has reached karma, and the monk

higher stage
The
"

than

they.
Truth
"

Third
This
ceases

Noble
is the with

the Cessation of the

of Suffering.
of
this

Noble the

Truth

Cessation of

Suffering:
thirst
"

it

complete

cessation

a
"

cessation

which

consists

with
with

the

abandoning
because
that

of every passion of this thirst,with the doing away of desire."

to

in the absence

it,with the destruction

was

It

he

claimed became
his

have
the

found

the and

way
to

to its

Nirvana

Gotama he devoted
to say.

Buddha,
"

proclamation
means as

long
word

life. But denotes

a

what

Nirvana

it is hard
a

The

of

flame
.

It has to do with for

the cessation whether

of

going out," the thirst,

' ' ' '

the

craving

existence, but
is much

it involves

also

absolute
is

annihilation

clear, Nirvana

denotes

disputed. One thing at least the highest good, the state of

"

the master with was complete painlessness.The Buddha have only to turn eye divine, the quencher of griefs."2 We to the Dhammapada the Psalms or of the Early Buddhists to realise how actual was the joy of this deliverance.
"

Let
!

us

live

happily then,
men

free

from

greed
us

among

the

greedy
greed
Let
own

Among
live shall

who

are

greedy, let
we

dwell

free from

!
us

happily then, though

be like the

! We !

nothing our bright gods, feeding on happiness

is unhappy. conquered and defeat, he, the victory
; there

call

Victory
He
who contented There
1 1

breeds has is

hatred,
up

for

the

given happy.

both

is
From

no

fire like

passion

is

no

losing

throw

the

Samyutta Nikdya,

III. 2. 10. 3.

IV. Mahdpariniblana-Srita,

(W.B.T., pp. 226-8). (S.B.E.,XI. p. 65).

in]
like hatred

TEACHING
there is
no

OF

THE

BUDDHA this

125

pain like
of

body

there

is

no

happiness higher Hunger is the

of

than
worst

rest.

pains

if

one

knows

diseases, the body the greatest the this truly, that is Nirvana,

highest happiness."1
Of
the Psalms

of
"

the

Sisters
where

Mrs. the

Rhys
poem*

Davids, their
breathe
rest

translator,remarks,
and peace,

Even

their tone

is exalted

and
'

of hedonistic,telling

Of

joy

and

of

exceeding store impassioned quietude.' "2

was

of

lady, like Metta, who, before she joined the Order, because rejoices princelyrank, now
"

To-day Enough
Heart's

one

meal, head
me.

shaved,
110

yellow robe,
of

for

I want

heaven have

gods.

pain,
who

heart's

pining,

I trained

away."3

courtesan,
a on

reached
us

saintshipthrough
how,
of the
at his

the

preaching
she had

of her son,

monk, tells
the foulness
throb

command,

meditated
"

body
out,
of desire.
"

Till every

of lust

is rooted

Expunged
Cool
am

is all the I
now

fever calm

and

Nibbana's

peace."4
at
once

Entrance
sense

into the

Order We read
:

did not

always

secure

the Order

of peace. at the death of

"

of Sanaa, who

joined the

friend

Full But

five and

twenty

troubled in my Could*! discern the The peace of

since I came years in no heart yet way path of victory.

the
not
on

forth,

mind,
I found

Long
I dwelt To

sought,

of thoughts, governance with and : anguish thrilled

in memory

the

Conqueror's

word.

I strove

free my breedeth path from with I ardour and passionate is dead is

now

all that

ill,
won.

Craving
To-day
Was
1 " "

and the up

the

Lord's

will is done. since ancient first

seventh within

day
that

withered

thirst."5

Dhammapada,
Psalms

199-203

Op.

of the Sisters, p. xxxiv. XXVL C anto cit.,

(S.B.E., X. I. pp. 53.64). * Canto XXV. Op. cit., * Canto XXIX. cit.t Op.

126

BUDDHISM

[in
the

Nirvana
man

then has

may

denote this

peace

who

already in
will

life won

Arahat, the deliverance, and for

Buddha's there will be

of the

whom

there
seems a
"

be

no

rebirth.
view

Logically the
that
at death

system
for such
"

to lead to the
man

thirst

breaks
Buddha

seen,

the

The cessation of complete annihilation. have up the cycle of rebirth, and, as we does not recognise any permanent soul.
us

It is difficult for
seems

Westerners

to

whom

not life,

death,

good

to understand
was

the attractiveness his

of the Buddha's have

message, Prof. Max for the

if that

meaning
that

some

accepted
meant
a a

Miiller's view and

the

Nirvana

cannot

have

Buddha

which had religion religion. The argument

"

annihilation, for early Buddhist's to be nothing as its goal would cease

seems

insufficient. appear longing after

not

As

Rothe

said,
and

man

to

whom

this life does

have
no

elevated
a

worth To the

can living,

true

future

life."1

and to him, as to many suffering, have seemed would of his time, the cessation of suffering sufficient good. Nirvana was a only for the monk, who all ties of wife and child. had abandoned Yet, as Oldenberg be mistaken if we should thought of Buddhism says, we in this the kernel of its as a religionof nothing and saw of the Buddha's not was teaching.2 The essence message Buddha
life
was

annihilation refused
was a

but
say.

Nirvana.

What
the saint

that would
to

Nirvana
exist with

was,

he

to

Whether had

after death deliverance. school

question which
of the later

nothing
of the

do

only Nirvana annihilation to mean and postponed understood its operation to a distant Possibly they were right in age. accommodated his teaching to their view that the Buddha Many
the
that

Buddhists

Mahayana

needs
the

of his hearers, and Buddha

did
not

that

it

was

on

this account
means

say

plainly that
be those
who

Nirvana would
not

annihilation the

lest there should

tread But
und

path

he

taught

because
p.

its

goal was
in

unattractive.
Bertholet's Buddhismus

1 Stille Stunden, From Christentum,* p. 50.

219 ;
*

quoted

A.

Op. tit., p. 307.

m]
such
a

TEACHING

OF

THE

BUDDHA

127

We cannot question is reallyirre'evant. go behind the Buddha's pragmatic agnosticism. His purpose was that either the existence of a physician,and he would not assert
or

the non-existence

of the

saint

after

death.

The
"

Fourth This

Noble

Truth. Truth of the Path

which

is the

Noble

leads to the

cessation

: that suffering holy Eightfold Path, that is to say, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speed, Right of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Conduct, Right Means Right Memory, Right Meditation. The called his path a middle Buddha path ; sensuality

of

must

be

avoided,
much

and

yet there

is

no

virtue

in asceticism.

Doubtless
in

the

of the power of the Buddha's nobility and the sanity of his moral
his message

teaching lay
ideal.
an

He

preached
ruler
or a

without

any

reference

to

almighty

ing categorical imperative of duty ; but if his teachignored God, it emphasised what corresponds to a belief in God's justice, for he so moralised belief the current in karma its operations,although mechanical, to make as and adaptable "x and able yet wonderfully well informed to deal not with acts only but with thoughts, and especially with that pride of heart to which the monks have would been peculiarlyliable. Most of all did the Buddha praise a peaceful, kindly stories illustrate the truth that hate disposition and many cannot end hatred ; only through love will hatred cease. Thus there are assigned to him the words :
" "

Let

no

one

deceive

another, let him

not
out

not
or

despise (another)
resentment

in

any harm to another. As

a

place, let him

mother,
at

of

anger

wish

the

risk of her also

watches life,

over a

her

own

child, her only child, so

friendly mind
1

towards

let every one all beings."2

cultivate

less bound-

Prof. L. de la Vallee Poussin, Bouddhisme, p. 70. Sutta Nipcita, I. 8. 6. 7. (S.B.E., X. II. p. 25).

128

BUDDHISM

[m

But,
so

to
to

Oldenberg points out, the love thus praised is not much relation positive as negative. It bears the same the love which Christ preached Christians fail however doctrine of Nirvana does practise it as the Buddhist
as
" "

to the
not
so

Christian
much
to

doctrine love
as

of salvation.
not to

The To

monk
none

is meant

hate.1

should

he

blessings of the solitary life are extolled. bidden to refrain from murder, were Lay disciples theft, adultery, lying and the use of intoxicating drinks, and and were encouraged to live lives of kindliness The generosity. But they have no part in deliverance. best they can hope for is a better state in their next birth. could win Nirvana, and he wins it by the Only the monk truths. path of the Buddhist So, from the first, faith,in the
sense

be

attached,

and

the

of assent Buddha
to
save

to the

Buddha's desire

teaching,was
assent.

required,but
showed
men

the

did

not

blind the

He
were

how
pass

themselves,
faith
to

and

monks

intended

to

from
use

sight.
Intent

The

Buddha

recommended

for

their

the

Four

might realise that there is of their own bodies and the thought of the uncleanliness foulness of putrifying corpses, the might be freed from glamour of human beauty. The Buddha promised his that monks if they practised these contemplations they either to attain to perfect knowledge in might expect
"

Contemplations by which they no permanent Ego, and, by the

this life or, if at death

the

groups

still remained,

to

never-

returning."2
tradition the
can

These be

disciplineswere

intellectual, but
did
not

if

believed, the Buddha

leave

unused

typical
which
non

by
and
1 *

trance or disciplineof concentration the very ideas of being and not-being,perception to have -perceptioncease any meaning.3

Indian

Op. cil., p. 335. Dlgha-Nikaya, Sutta 22 (W.B.T., pp. 353-75). " Samyutta Nikdya, 36 (op. cit., great scholar Buddhaghosa gives p. 384). The elaborate directions of trances for the induction (Visuddhi-Magga, IV., W.B.T., in which be recollected previous births may pp. 293-6), and speaks of trances unusual in Hindu a claim XIII., W.B.T., p. 319). writings(op cit.,
"

IV."

THE

ORDER

As
the he who

we

have

seen,

the

Buddha
as

was

consciously, discipline
an

not

so

much
and

founder

of

religion,
a

of
but

of

salvation,
for

instituted,
had
"

not

Church,
from

Order

designed
ties.

those of

broken
"

away is devoted

all
to

earthly

The
with

first

the

Baskets of the

books

dealing
that these

the

lation regu-

Order.

It is

probable

Vinaya
the

books
Buddha

represent
gave
not

the

codification

of instructions but
as was

which
arose.

systematically
into
entrance

occasion
made in

Entrance
came

the

Order
the

two

stages.

First made beard that Order.

the
any

into The in

inovitiate had

which his and

might
hair

be and

before
cut

monk. himself
in

candidate the

off,
took

clad

yellow
the be

robe,

declared and
an

he

refuge

the

Buddha,

Teaching
taken before
unless

the

The of
was

second
the

stage
and

could
was

only
not

assembly
candidate

Order,
from

granted
diseases.

the
the

free chief

disqualifying
for and

From

first, the life, sexual

power
;

four

prohibitions stealing
on

monks

forbad of

taking

intercourse,

boasting
are

supernatural
which

obligatory
them
also

all

monks

the
in

precepts

prohibit
at

from

indulging dancing,
the

fermented
or

liquor, eating attending

a

forbidden

times,
or

singing body,

to
or

shows,
broad
the
must

adorning
couch
or

perfuming
and

using

high

seat,

receiving complete
into

money.1
poverty.

Entrance
The

into

Order
"

thus from

involved home
The

monk

go
a

homelessness,"

for from

all

property

is

bond.

Buddha

accepted
service in

wealthy
W.B.T.,
395-401.

laymen

For

modern

ordination

Ceylon

see

129

130

BUDDHISM

[iv
the monks

for dwelling-places
"

the

Order, and

resided in such

When rainy season. monks on were begging tours, the younger encouraged to associate with older monks that they might learn from them, but the monks base not to speak much bidden nor on were have with things. As we great reluctance, seen, very into the Order admitted women were stringent ; the most Even to ensure made regulations were perfect decorum. the oldest of nuns had to treat with humility the youngest of monks, and in no rebuke circumstances a might a nun
monasteries

"

for the three

months'

monk.1

early Buddhism worship, for there was in a month, at full

district had
senior
to

In

there
no

was

prayer
new

naturally nor praiseto

the fast

no

corporate
Twice of each when Words but monks the of

offer.

and

moon,
a

monks

assemble
recite

for the

solemn

day,2
"

monk

would

Pdtimokkha,
was

the

Disburdenment."

So sacred

this that

none

as a might hear it, and it does not exist in the Canon with its commentary separate text but only in connection in the first part of the Vinaya Basket* It begins with the recital of offences against the four chief commands, and the monk it asks his brethren who utters if they are pure. If any confess his guilthe is,for these sins,expelled from the Order. Those to be who keep silent are assumed innocent. offences The recital proceeds,mentioning grave for which serious is enacted, until at length it penance deals with trivialities of indecorum. Later, two other fast instituted so that the Buddhist is divided month days were into weeks months are. as our by four sacred days much Once held the a was year, at the close of the rainy season, Ceremony of Invitation,4 designed to prevent the perpetuation of quarrelsamong who monks had lived together.

1
2

See the

chapter on

the Duties

of Nuns,

XX. X. (S.B.E., Chullavagga,

320-69).

Uposatha.
It is translated

Pavdrana,

see

in S.B.E., XIII. 1-69. Mahavagga, IV. 1. (S.B.E., XIII.

327-9).

TV]

THE

ORDER

131

Each
to

monk,
tell if the
him

beginning
of
any
an

with he he

the
has will in

senior, committed,
atone

invites

the

others

offence

and for it.

promises
It is

that,
from there

he

see

offence,
texts

clear

Vinaya
many

that,

spite
the

of

such

provisions,

were

dissensions

in

Order.

V."

THE

FURTHER IN

HISTORY INDIA

OF

BUDDHISM

1. The BEFORE
to

Councils.
the

Buddha

died, he

is said

to

have

handed

over

Kassapa the superintendence of the Order, and he, in his but these turn, appointed before his death a successor, to have had great authority. Tradition patriarchsdo not seem
tells
us

that
now

at the
"

Buddha's

death

one

of the monks
we

rejoicedbecause
like," and

we

shall be able to do whatever

Kassapa chose out at once hundred and monks to arranged for them spend rainy season together at Rajagaha and there recite Buddha's teaching and his regulationsfor the Order.1
this "Council" and which
were a was

in consequence

five
the

the If

held, it failed
of the
made
a

to

prevent dissensions,
ten

large party
would
have
at

monks their

desired lives less

concessions

rigorous. They
a

condemned

council
2

held at Vesali about of the next had wide

him

By the time which at Pataliputra, Buddhism met champion in Asoka who spread far and
of Buddhism,
and

after the Buddha's

death.

century council,
a

found the
as a

royal knowledge
man

whose
the
to

"

edicts

reveal
the the

who

sought
of the
as

to

combine

piety of
India
a
"

monk

with

the wisdom of
a

king, and
some

make

he conceived

it

kingdom theocracy without

this Council

ness righteousGod."3
In

the
1

opinion of
An
account of

scholars,to
Council
is

the

formation

370-85). Many scholars doubt

in

given in the Chullavagga, XI. (S.B.E., XX. of this Council story,as there is no mention the corresponding narrative of the Mahdparinibbdnasutla. * See Chullavagga,XII. (S.B.E., XX. 386-414). V. A. Smith, The Early History of India, p. 167.
the
"

this

"

132

v]
of the India Buddhist

MAHAYANA
Canon
a

BUDDHISM

133

is due.

After

Asoka's
;

death, North

again became
of

land of small
was

states

Graeco-Bactrian vasion by the inend, a powerful Most

the

influence

increased, but

at

length
in
was

checked

Indo

Mongolian tribes and, -Scythian or Kushan empire

of its rulers
was

the

established.

famous
or

Kaniska,
"

who

reigned in
"

first

second the

century of
tradition which

our

era.

Northern
a

Buddhism
at Jaland-

accepts
hara

that he convened sanctioned

council

in Kashmir

the addition
in
a more

to the Canon

of Sanskrit

commentaries views of
a

embodying,
Buddhism
"

systematic
claimed
to

form,
be the

the

modified
the
more
"

which
"

Mahayana,
from

Great

Vehicle

of salvation which

in it

distinction called the

the

primitive

Buddhism

Lesser Vehicle." It is impossible Hinayana, the to speak with certainty of any of these Councils, but we that by Kaniska's assume reign the Mahayana school may already existed, and had begun to find literary expression.
2.

Mahayana
As the

Buddhism. of China
and

Buddhism

Japan

is

Mahayanist,

is obviously one of the most ential influMahayana Buddhism it originatedis still uncertain. phases of religion. How Its earlyhistoryis only partially whilst investigated, those

of its texts of views.

which The

are

available
ideal

present
a

confusing
is here

medley
a

moral

of Buddhism

transformed.

Instead reach
and

of Buddhism

being
to

way

might postponed,
a

few

Nirvana, the goal of Nirvana

are a

by which is commonly
to

men

bidden

instead

seek

become

future-Buddha,
to work many
are

try

in the

Bodhisattva, and meanwhile, not to out their own salvation, but to put their trust exalted Bodhisattvas who, instead of entering

Nirvana,
very

hell from

engaged in the service of others. like polytheism is thus introduced, and are realistically portrayed. Different as the Buddha's teaching, it does not seem
that any alien influence has been

Something
heaven
and is all this

to suppose

necessary work. at The

134

BUDDHISM

[v
a

Buddha's

teaching
a

lacked

and religion, of

it is not

for apparatus necessary surprisingthat, in the environment the of Buddhism should

have

Hinduism, such

modification

taken in the

place. Nor Hinayana

does it representa violent break. there

are

Already

tendencies had
than
a

in its direction. far

It is clear that the devotion In

Buddha

of his followers

his

quite early texts, great miracles to do him at his death, all the gods assembled honour, and his remains those of treat treated his disciples as men Buddha tells Ananda of the earthquakes a king of kings."1 The mark the birth of a Buddha, and speaks of which
"

greaterplace in the dying words enjoined. are assigned to him ;

his birth mother's

as

descent

"

from
one

his

temporary

form

into

his

womb."2
Third

And

of the

heresies

condemned
is reign, not really

at the so-called

Council, assignedto Asoka's

that
he
seen
"

the

"

Docetic"

heresy
of men, have

Sakyamuni
a

has

lived in the world

men

dwelt

in the Tusita

heavens him."3 there

were

and

gods

only

then that, in appear which doctrines about the Buddha would

phantom of early Buddhism,

could

It

well lead up

to the

of the Mahayana texts. grandiose Buddhology of some doctrine of Bodhisattvas the Mahayana Nor was an abrupt in for the Jdtaka, which departure. It was amply prepared folk-lore to describe the previous existences utilises Hindu
on

earth,

as

Bodhisattva,4

of

the

Buddha,
diverse
to

and

extols

charity which had marked doctrines The Mahayana concise description. It must
the

his acts.
are

too

admit the
a

of
two
as

suffice to

indicate

chief
"

systems, the
Lotus
"

"

full

"

Mahayana
and the

of such

text

The

of the
"

Good

Law,"

simpler Mahayana
great textbook
15.

of the In
1 1 4

Paradise Lotus

Scriptures.
the Good
26.
is

the

of

Law,5 the
8

of

Mahaparinnibanasutta,V. Literally,
"

III. Op. cit.,

Poussin, Bouddhisme, p. 259.

he

whose

essence

becoming enlightenment," i.e. " future, or by

Kern

Buddha. potential,
6

Saddharma-Pundarika,

translated

(S.B.E., XXL),

v]
orthodox

MAHAYANA

BUDDHISM

135

climax. its reaches Buddhology In such a text as Asvaghosa's Buddhacharita,1 is depicted as a god in human form, although the Buddha the story of his temptation and enlightenment is retained, is as exalted but, in the Lotus of the Good Law, the Buddha of the Bhagavadgltd. Thus, in an a being as the Krishna

Mahayana, Mahayana

utterance

addressed
declares number in
an

"

to

the

entire

.host of supreme has of

Bodhisattvas,"

the
an

Lord

that

he

reached
ago, number and

infinite
creatures
an

of ages
infinite

enlightenment preached the law

and he will

to

worlds,

live final

infinite number

of years,
does
was

and

extinction, he
on

not

become
a am

although he announces extinct. finally

an

His

Nirvana

earth

only
"

semblance,
the

educative

device, and
the

he concludes

Father

of the

world,

Self-born, the
them
to

Healer, the
be

Protector

of all creatures.

perverted, infatuated, and ignorant, What I teach final rest ; myself not being at rest. reason I have should continually to manifest myself ? When become fond men unbelieving ; unwise, ignorant, careless, into of sensual run pleasures,and, from thoughtlessness, Knowing
misfortune,
declare
:

then
so

I,
and

who
so,

know and

the
consider
can

course
:

of
can

the

world,

am

How

I incline

them of the
"

to

enlightenment
?
"2

How The

they

become

partakers
this the

Buddha-laws
chief

Buddha
the

then

is,in
of

book,

gods, in this school taught that but, as the philosophy dominant the ultimate reality was vacuity,"3 the praise of the Buddha is so expressed that "it is still capable," as of an orthodox, i.e.Atheist interpretation.''4 Poussin says, Yet for the purposes of religionhe is the Supreme God, of the Bhagavadgitd is,although identified just as the Krishna
greatest
" "

the

Lord

of

Lords,"

with
" *

the attributeless
in

absolute

of the Vedanta.

Translated

S.B.E., XLIX.
the

Chap. XV. (S.B.E., XXI. pp. 298-310). The brief statement of its doctrines school. For a see Madhyamaka (S.B.E., XLIX. "larger" and "smaller" Prajnd-paramitd-hridaya-sfttras
1

II.
145.

pp. 145-154).

Its best known

exponent

was

Nagarjuna.

"

E.R.E., VIII.

136

BUDDHHIM

[v
mentioned of her
in the

Of the

many

Bodhisattvas In
view

book,

it is

importance, it is of interest to read of the goddess Tara, who changed her An epilogue to the book Bodhisattva.1 to become a sex the growing reliance on of magic, and illustrates the use Thus have the grace of the Bodhisattvas. we a long list of spellsprovided for the protection of the preachers of the law againstgoblin, giant,ghost,devil,imp, or sorcerer.2 Another chapter is devoted to the praiseof Avalokitesvara, from whose can save name peril. No executioner every monster or hurt, any can slay,no fetter hold, no demon To cherish his name is to acquire his name. who call upon merit as by the adoration of myriads a great as that won This universal Lord, chief of kings," of Lords Buddhas.
"

impossible to speak.

later

will himself for hundreds To

"

become

Buddha,
is
assumes

but

not

yet
the

; for

now,

as

preach
With
such

of ages, he the law, he inconceivable that

as

engaged

in

help

of

men.

many
to
or as

different the

forms.

qualitiesis
the

Bodhisattva that he He all of of

endowed,"
would
"

he the

can

appear

creatures
or

save

Buddha,

god

goblin.

possesses beings with adoration."3 With

enter

perfection of all virtues, and beholds ocean compassion, and benevolence ; he, an itself, he, Avalokitesvara, is worthy virtues, Virtue
the this Nirvana belief in
in order exalted that

Bodhisattvas, delaying

to

their they might continue natural service to others, there came a change in ethical the virtue ideal. chiefly Charity is now prized, and by charityis meant, not the cold pity of an illumined aristocrat is for the folly of the ignorant, but a fervid love which accumulated in long years that the merit of willingeven if so another be consumed should be helped.4 virtue may
XXI. Chap. XI. (S.B.E., p. 253). Chap. XXI. (op.cit., pp. 370-5). * who of the monk case Cp. the famous of chastityfor 42,000 years faithful to a vow the desire of a licentious woman, though, by
" 2

"

Chap. XXIV.
had and accumulated

(op.cit., pp. 406-18).

of

yet,

out

by being charity, yielded to

merit

so

doing, he

forfeited

his merit

arid

earned

hell (Poussin, op. cit., p. 338).

v]
This ideal has
of who

MAHAYANA
found classic

BUDDHISM

137

Indian
in

books, the
the

expression in one Bodhicharyavatdra

century
the of
our

of the loveliest of Santideva, Here

on

lived
of

seventh
is not in

era.

the

seeker Nirvana

salvation for

monk

intent

winning
human

himself
who
"

the

present life,but
the grace

the

Bodhisattva,
Bodhisattvas.

seeks to imitate
I

of the

celestial

yield myself to all livingbeings to deal with me as they list ; they may smite or revile me for ever, with bestrew me dust, play with my body, why shall I works make do whatever ? Let them me bring them care never by mishap befall any of them pleasure ; but may of me." reason May all who slander me, or do me hurt, There is or jeer at me, gain a share in Enlightenment."1 no equal to longguilt equal to hatred, no mortification therefore should one diligentlypractise suffering ; and the arrow While of hate is in the patience in divers ways. have in equipoise,or feel can a peacefulmind heart, none win And the joy of kindliness,none can sleep or calm."2 since there is no work of mortification equal to longis like a treasure in my found house, suffering," an enemy without I must labour of mine. cherish him, for he won So by is a helper in the way to Enlightenment."3 our those of service must doers to creatures," we repay bodies and immeasurable tear their own kindness," who into the hell Avlchi, all for the welfare of others ; go down then do who most to them must us we even sorely wrong the book with the of good."4 And concludes all manner so As long as the heaven's and the earth abide, may prayer, I continue the world's sorrows. to overcome May all the be cast upon and be the world world's suffering me, may made happy by all the merits of the Bodhisattva."5 A simpler type of Mahayana is found in the Paradise Scriptures. Here philosophic theories are ignored. It
" " " " " " " " 1 * "

L. D.

Barnett's

The partialtranslation,
s *

Path

of Light, p.

45.

Op. Op. cit., p. 71.

cit., p. 59.

cit., p. 69. Op. cit,, p. 28,

op.

138

BUDDHISM

[v
and

is the
not

bhakti

school

of Buddhism

the

worshipper

does

He thinks of the Buddhas a Buddha. aspireto become as gods and prays to them, hoping thus to be born at death in their world. is the Most praised of all the Buddhas Buddha of infinite splendour (Amitabha), of infinite light land of (Amitayus),who reigns in Sukhavati, a Western tation happiness and glory. One whole book deals with medithose who him, and we are told that practise upon this meditation when will, they die,be born in the presence of the Buddhas."1 This is praised in Western Paradise small scripturedevoted in a larger and a glowing words to its description2 and the promise is given that whosoever
"

shall that

"

make

mental

prayer

for

the

Buddha
will

country
never

of

blessed but

Amitayus,
"

the

Tathagatha
in that
a

return

again,"
it is
a

will be of the

born

Buddha humbler

land."3

if in this school

Mahayana,

goal which may be reached by a one, instead of in myriads of lives. Not unnaturally the representatives of the more primitive Buddhism complained of the novelty of the teachings of the Mahayana schools, but the Mahay anists asserted that revealed it was the perfect teaching of the Buddha now to men they through the grace of Bodhisattvas, and the earlier system as the Hinayana, the little characterised could only carry a vehicle which a Vehicle, because it was theirs was the few along the way to redemption, whilst great Vehicle which put redemption within the reach of all.
There the is yet
a

goal is shorter path, in

So, offered,

third
a

Vehicle, the Tantric, which

represents

paganism. Magic was nothing new Lotus in India, and even of the Good Law is not free from it,but, as the Chinese pilgrimsof the seventh century Tantric took back books, the full development of the no Tantric probably subsequent to that date. system was triumph
of gross the
1 2 8

Meditation The

on

Buddha
and

Longer

S.B.E., XLIX.

II. p. 181). Amitayus, 19 (S.B.E.,XLIX. II. pp. Sukhavati-vyuha (8.B.E., XLIX. of is Amida modern Amitabha II. p. 101, 2. the
Shorter

1-103).

Japanese

Buddhism,

v]

MAHAYANA

BUDDHISM

139

In

its

numerous

pantheon, magic
Most

goddesses
the of
all

are

naturally
the Jewel
which

inent. prommay

By
utilised.
om

formulae,

powers

of
is the

gods
-lotus

be

powerful
hum.

spells
a

spell,
the

mani

padme
became the
a

Thus

religion,

ignored
as
"

divine, Hinduism,
and

theurgic
of

polytheism,
female
deities

and,
had
a

in

Tantric

worship
form
.

left

hand

"

obscene

Of We

the
hear

last

centuries

of

Buddhism
at

in

India the

we

know lower
the

little.

of
as

Buddhist eleventh

kings

Magadha
but Buddhism

on

Ganges
Muslims
this time

as

late

the their
to

century1

there,
was

too,

extended
too

conquests.
withstand

by
the

weak birth

persecution, practically
extinct.

and

in

country

of

its

became

S.

Lane-Poole,

Mediaeval

India-,

p.

22.

VI."

BUDDHISM

IN

CEYLON,
TIBET.

BURMA,

SIAM,

AND

1.

Buddhism earliest

in

Ceylon.
now

THE

records
to

extant1
to

assign
of the

the

introduction

of Buddhism

Ceylon
Tissa,
of
his

the

work became

great
of

missionary, Ceylon
an

King
251
to

Asoka.
B.C.,

who Asoka's

king
sent

in

hearing desiring
Mahinda,
As the
a

greatness,
and
to

embassy
his
son,

him,
monk

friendship,
to

Asoka

sent

the

Ceylon
and sister with

preach
of
her

there
women a

Buddhist
desired
nun,

doctrine.
to
enter

princess
his

many

Order,
and

Sanghamitta,
her
a

learned of
the

joined
Bo-tree,

him,

brought
which the

branch

famous

under The
tree

Buddha in

had

received

ment. enlightenwhere
tree centre

was

planted

Anuradhapura,
and venerable the

it

still the

stands,
world

the

most

interesting Anuradhapura

in of

to-day. activity
where in

became Near believed

Buddhist

the

island.
is
at

by,
to

is

the

hill,
dwelt.

Mihintale,
A
was

Mahinda
was

have
in

great

dagaba
a are

erected of the

Anuradhapura,
Buddha. The reveal for go
to

which of the of the

placed
which

collar-bone
now

ruins the

city,
the

partly excavated,
and It

extent
use

monasteries

gardens
is

reserved
to

the
this

of

Buddhist without

Order.

impossible
influential
with

ruined
must

city
have and the of

realising
and
to
one

how familiar

Buddhism the

been,
the

grotesque
the

images,
quiet
of

movement

of the

great

Hindu
in

temple,
the
in

place
1

and

simple
and the the

worship
Mahavamsa,

Buddhist
the 4th One
sent

shrine

The but

Dlpavamsa
based
on

composed
now

and of

5th
the

centuries

A.D.,

far
among

earlier
the

Mahavamsa,,
countries to

lost.
he

edicts

of

Asoka

mentions

Ceylon

which

had

missionaries.

vi]
the

BUDDHISM

IN

CEYLON

141

kindly, placid, images

Later,
in
a a

of the

Buddha,
Buddha

are was

unforgettably
sent to

attractive.

tooth

of the

the

splendid building,where it remained until it was transferred in the eighth century to Pollunarua, which had the capital of the island. by then become Later it was where sent to Kandy, a spurious tooth is tooth having been destroyed venerated to-day, the original of the Portuguese. by the vandalism city and
received

The
and

Buddhist

monks

were

the

teachers As

of the
we

island,
seen,

the custodians
care

of the sacred
that
our we owe

books.

have

it is to their

traditions
is

on

which

preservation of the Pali knowledge of originalBuddhism

the
them
was

based.

Greatest

of

the

famous
the

scholar,
Visuddhi-

Buddhaghosa, who,
Magga,
been the Path The
to

in the fifth century, wrote

Purity, to
Order
are

which

reference

has

already
it was.1
some

made.

is less

numerous

than

Many
are

of its members learned

the

ignorant
scholars.

and

indolent, but
ordination

Buddhist

Their

rites

resemble
"

moral

primitive rites already described,2 and differs little from what system, as taught now,
sacred
at

the
we

find in the of Buddhism ancient

books.
this
moment

The

aim, indeed, of
is to teach

the

leaders the

the taught."3 In this,they are new knowledge gained of early Buddhism by the researches of Western scholars and, partly, through the influence of some have become Buddhist Europeans who monks, is now endeavour to some being made adapt Buddhist methods Tamil -speaking people, to modern needs. The who for are chieflyin the north of the island, preserve,
the
most

books

exactly as helped by

part, the Hinduism

from India them
of 1891 op.

of their ancestors
are

who

invaded

Ceylon
and
1

; the

Sinhalese

generally Buddhists,
intellectual
number 393-401.
and
was

among
The A R. Census

Buddhism

is stillthe dominant
Ten is and

7,331 (Hackmann,
* "

showed 9,598 monks. cit., p. 118). ordination

service Primitive

years

later the

full account

of the

given in W.B.T.,

pp.

S.

Copleston,Buddhism,

Present, in Magadha

Ceylon,

p. 242.

142

BUDDHISM

[vi
a

force.
which dancers

But has
are

it is

Buddhism with ward

to

with

difference, a Buddhism

compromised employed to
are

devil

worship, so
and from

that
the

devil monks sacred

off disasters passages

themselves books
as

trained

use

the

charms.

2. Buddhism

in Burma. tradition Burma holds that Buddhism who

was came

Burmese
in

lished first estabthere from

by Buddhaghosa

show Recent excavations Ceylon in the fifth century A.D. that Mahay ana Buddhism in Burma,1 and found was once it is probable that, long before Buddhaghosa's time, Asoka's
that that

missionaries

had

travelled

there. the

It may time

well of

be

Burmese later

Buddhism

dates

from

became Mahayana Buddhism revival of and that, in Buddhaghosa's time,2 there was a Hinayana influences so that Mahayana Buddhism began until at last it became extinct.3 to wane practically fluentia inand Nowhere attractive so to-day is Buddhism
as

Asoka, influential there,

in Burma.

Its monasteries

are

numerous.

In

and often of his largerhalls are images of the Buddha chief disciples, also two whilst sometimes there are statues of the three Buddhas spicuous Especially conprevious to him. the are dagabas, here called pagodas. At the ancient capitalof Pagan, now 9,999 of ruined, there were these. To-day the most famous pagoda is the Shwedagon of Rangoon under hairs of which, it is asserted, some

their

Gotama Buddhas.
to

are

buried, and
It is old
a

also of
or

some

relics of the three for

a

earlier
man

work

greatest merit
to erect
a new.

rich

regildan
The monks the

pagoda
made learn

have

education

their

care,

and with

from
the

them
1 *

children

simple
no

poems

dealing

See E.R.E., III. p. 38. 39. The Ceylon chronicles make India. so-called Shan tribes have
The

mention Buddhism

of

Buddhaghosa
which
seems

himself much

going

to

Further
3

to

owe

to the

Mahayana.

vi]
Buddhist
enter
a

BUDDHISM of

IN

BURMA

143

way

and life, life

even a

those

who

do

not

intend

to

the

monastic

spend

period,

sometimes

only

of
at

of three' rainy seasons, days' duration, sometimes Full entrance thus win merit. that they may a monastery into the life is possible only after the monastic age monk the title the After ten gains twenty. years, few
pongyi

of of

and

from

these Order

alone
is
a

can

abbots

be

chosen.

At

the

head

of the whole
the

Grand

Superior, now
in his
are

nominated office

by

higher abbots,
Government.
and has their

and The

confirmed monks

British

much The
a

revered undue

by by

the the

people
of
some

needs

are

amply
the

met.

luxury
which

brought
the

about

rise of
return

reform

party

desires

that

monks

should have which

to

European
modern Buddhism Great
and much
as

influences
movement to

here,
seeks

as

in
to

primitive poverty. Ceylon, led to a a purified adapt

Buddhism
centres

the

demands

of Western which

culture.
is

is the
as

respect with
social
at

held,

the

life of the

people

around

clear that the pagodas, it seems in popular religion is the worship effective element most inactive. is patient and of the The Buddha The nats. nats are everywhere and full of energy, and so the Burman devotes
has

the

festivals

held

the

much

attention each

to

their appeasement.

Each

house

to cut down village. It is not wise even without a tall tree propitiating the nat who controls it,and the people are careful, by offerings or by devil dancing, with the to keep on and to avert their nats good terms

its nat, and

malice

at
as

times
a

himself
animism the

epidemics. Buddhist, not

absorbed
as

of

has

been

Buddhist

priests act
condemn for the

regards devil The a worshipper. into and at times Buddhism, exorcists, although the more
nat

Yet

the

Burman

learned
as

of them

this

worship,
fear
to

or

condone

it

suitable

only

ignorant
would

whose be

of

malignant

spiritsa

purer

Buddhism

unable

remove.

144

BUDDHISM

[vi

3. Buddhism

in Siam

and have

Cambodia. from

Siam

and

Cambodia of North

earlytimes
It would

been
appear

influenced
that

by
in

the the

culture

India.
was

only

seventh

century

Buddhism

was although by then Buddhism here it superseded Brahmanism. The Buddhism was tury, apparently of a Mahayana type, but in the fifteenth cenfrom Ceylon, the through the influence of Buddhists Buddhism became Hinayanist, and the kingdom of Siam,

introduced, and, losinginfluence in India,

which

was

formed
this

in the fourteenth

century, has become

The number and

stronghold of
richness

type of Buddhism.

the

pagodas, and the great influence of the monks, witness to the popularity of Buddhism, but in Siam, has reached in Burma, Buddhism a working compromise as with the animism of the people. In one respect only is the Buddhism of these countries distinctive. They have in Church their own kings who are heads of the Buddhist in Siam their realms. Thus the chief the king nominates to have of the royal household monk, and appoints one oversightof the conduct of the monks, and provides amply he visits the more for their needs. Once a year important monasteries at Bangkok to renew his vows Buddhist a as The interest layman and to make presents to the monks. of Siamese in recent has been shown kings in Buddhism by their generous expenditure on the publication of years
of the Pali texts and
the

encouragement

of Buddhist

research.

4. Buddhism Buddhism
was

in Tibet. introduced
its into

Tibet

in

the who

seventh
became
one

century through
a

king Srong
China,
; the

Tsan

Gampo
from

Buddhist

under
came

the influence
the
as

of his two

chief wives,

of whom wives
consort
are

from

other

Nepal.
the white made

These

to-day worshipped
as

incarnations wife
as

of Tara, the

of Avalokita the

Chinese Tara.

Tara,
little

the

Nepalese

green

Buddhism

vi]

BUDDHISM

IN

TIBET

145

headway
next

against the
when

devil the

century,
the
means

worship of the people until the from then reigningking obtained

teacher

India

great
of

Buddhist

Padma-Sambhava,

who,

from the Mahayana texts, is believed to spells of Tibet, sparing only have vanquished the chief demons defenders of Buddhism those who on promised to become still fed and worshipped. In this condition that they were and Tibetan Buddhism that amalgam of Tantric way arose Lama called Lamaism, is commonly demonology which monks. In being the name given to the higher Tibetan its power the thirteenth greatlyextended century Lamaism Mongol through the influence of Kublai Khan, the famous Tibet was of China, to which then subject,who emperor decided that Lamaism the religionbest adapted for was the less civilised people of his empire. The established Church of Tibet to-day owes its origin to a reformation of religionbegun by Atisa, a Bengali

by

Brahman,
centuries
was

in

the

eleventh

century,

and

consolidated

four

later
"

by Tsong Kapa.
virtuous its
was

called
a

the

Lama,
that

its

nephew of grand Lama

elaborated
a

sect Tsong Kapa's new order," Gelugpa. Its first grand founder, propounded tlje theory
a

divine the

incarnation,

and

the

fifth Lama Lama

most

this into

is

reincarnation
in

present theory that the of Avalokita, the Bodhisattva

and

worshipped
Chinese

Tibet,
the

obtained

in

A.D.

1650

from which

the

emperor

title of Dalai

Lama,

by

his successors.1 Lamaism Europeans generally name extends golia, to-day far beyond Tibet, and the Lamaists of MonManchuria and the part of China adjacent to Tibet several number million,whilst in Nepal, where Buddhism is gradually giving way the Buddhists before Hinduism, are chieflyLamaists. The Lamaist At
1

order its head

i.e. "
vast
as

in
are

Tibet Lamas
ocean."

is very

numerous a

and

fluentia in-

in whom
Tibetans

Bodhisattva
of
"

Dalai
oi

ocean,

the

speak

rather

the great

gem

majesty" (see

L. A. Waddell, Buddhism

of Tibet,p. 39).

146

BUDDHISM

|vi

is

incarnate. of
near a

Greatest Dalai the Avalokita time Lama of has

to

of

these
successor

is

the is

Dalai chosen
it incarnate. is

Lama. from held

the
a

At

the
child Bod-

death
born

his

death

in become

whom

hisattva thus the

and
not

again
Llasa
tonsure

The of

infant
assumes

chosen monkish four

receive years

is taken

and,

at

the is

age

four,

garb
later

and
is

and
a

enthroned

in

state,
does

made

full

monk,
he
is

although eighteen.
and
and human

he

the has

temporal
an

power

till of

Lamaism

abundance

gods

demons
;

to

worship.
hisattvas, Tara,

There of whom

are

Buddhas,
Avalokita, wife,
are

celestial

Bodand

Maitreya,
most

Manjushri
;

Avalokita's

the

important
the

tutelary
witches;
and

spirits
Indian local

chiefly

demons

defenders

of

Faith

and
;

Brahmanical

gods,

godlings
Statues
in
are

and

genii
are

country
made

gods
mache.
"

personal
Of of
angry
are

gods.1
Buddha,
there but

usually
to

of

papier
"

the

addition

the

ordinary
him

saint

type
as an

image, god

images
fierce fiend.

depicting
Charms

not

only

as

of

various

kinds
or

extensively
a sorcerer.

employed.
Devil devil
"

Every worship
are
"

monastery
forms
a

keeps large

patronises
of

part

religion,
are

and

dancers

kept
in is

busy.
the

Especially victory
of

important
Padma-Sambhava

miracle
over

plays
the demons

which

depicted.

Waddell,

op.

cit., 327,

8.

IV JAPAN

THE

RELIGIONS

OF

CHINA

AND

A."

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

I. IT
is

"

THE

ANCIENT

RELIGION of the and Three

OF

CHINA of China

customary

to

speak

Religions
"

"

Confucianism,

Taoism for rather

we

Buddhism
in

but

the

phrase

is
ligions, re-

misleading,
but

have three

not

China
in
one

three

separate

elements
nor

religious complex.
authoritative
it is

Neither

Confucianism and Chinese

Taoism

has

trines, doca

Buddhism,
of
as a

although
and

has
too
or

vast

Canon,
of alien

lacks
ideas

definiteness
to
our

thought,
distinct the

receptive
a

persist
word

religion
Chinese Of

stable has words

now

Church.
indeed
no

For

religion,

language
the the
its
two

corresponding
one

expression.
rites

employed, generally
"

denotes (li)
to

and

customs,
has
as

other,

used

translate

religion,

first

meaning

teaching."
called

Thus the three but

Confucianism,

Taoism

and

Buddhism
are are was

are

teachings
three schools So the the

(san-kiao).
of

They
and who

not not

three

religions
or

thought,

exclusive Pontifex

distinct. of and
avail

Emperor,
state

the
in his

Maximus Buddhist
will

ancient

religion,
and

had

palaces
Chinaman all three And

Taoist himself

temples, to-day
of

the

ordinary
offered

the

help

by

phases
the

of

religion.
Confucianism in
no sense

word

may

itself among transmitter

be the

stood. misunderfounders
and
not
a

Confucius of

ranks
be
147

religion.

He

claimed

to

"a

148

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[i
and
his

maker,
interest

believing in and loving the ancients/'1 in religionbut in correct lay not chiefly

conduct

and

statecraft.

The

Sources

of our

Knowledge,
of China
are

The

ancient

books
are

not

although they
The

regarded
are

with

primarily religious, religious veneration.

known
as

oldest of them
The

the

Five
"

Classics

the

Five

the warp-threads of a web King denotes is what to denote and their adjustment," and so came and thus the Five King regular and insures regularity,"2

King.

word

"

are

the five canonical The Five

books.
as

King
Shu
a

are

follows Book

(1) The
This of
is not

King, the history in the

of

Historical
sense,

Documents. memoranda

modern

but

of to various or early emperors, speeches, attributed Its materials them and their ministers. dialogues between believed to belong to the period 2000-700 B.C. are (2) The Shi King, the Book of Odes, a collection of 305 character. of which are of a religious ballads and songs, some Five of these ancient, the rest may are perhaps be very century assigned to the period from the twelfth-seventh B.C.3

(3) The
curious

Yi

King,

the Book

collection

of

of Changes or Permutations, a diagrams used for divination, with

In of Rites and Ceremonies. apparently dates only from
it contains much its the

commentary.

(4) The

Li

Ki, the Book

present form this book second century A.D., but

earlier material,

dating from
(5) The

before

the time and

Autumn

of Confucius.
or B.C.

Spring
Lu

the Annals This book

of
1

from

722-480

pality of the Princiis assigned to

p. 1.

I. II. p. 59). Ana., VII. 1. (G.C., der Chinesen, W. Grube, Religionund Kvltus

I. Legge, op. cit.,

p. 17.

i]
Confucius.
is

THE

ANCIENT

RELIGION

149

It is the

his,and

possiblethat the brief narrative by a disciple. commentary

of events

The

Primitive
are

Religion.
still

Scholars the ancient

most traces

sharply
China. of
the

divided
De

as

to

the has

nature

of

of religion

exhaustive back that

"

account

given the in China, present-day religion

animism

Groot, who

to

the

past

of the from

holds
on an

of every
"

of China religion was, implicitbelief in the animation exists being or thing which
the thus fillthe

present, and based the first,

and the And
as

of the universe
in it." both

which spirits

good and bad, the system is thoroughly polytheistic and polydsemonin that it explains the istic."1 His theory is attractive complex phenomena of Chinese religionby one unifying clear that the dualistic belief,but it does not seem
are

universe

animism

of the the

present is
translator the that

to be found

in

our

earliest

sources. on

Dr.
the

Legge,

of the

Chinese

Classics,held,

of China not was primitivereligion animism but monotheism,2 although he recognised that, side by side with the worship of the Supreme Being, there also the worship of inferior spirits. As these spirits was have a real,if subordinate, importance, it seems probable, Grube Professor of as suggested, that the ancient religion much not China a was so as a primitive monotheism received special primitivenature -worship,in which Heaven of all the powers exalted of nature. worship as the most describe the Accepting tentatively this theory, we may ancient religionof China under the four heads : Nature Worship, the Worship of Ancestors, the Cultus, and the of Superstition.3 Elements

contrary,

1 2
"

The So

old
"

Religion of the Chinese, pp. 3. and 5. Giles, Confucianism and its Rivals (p. 264), speaks Unitarian worship of four thousand years ago."
Professor
op.

of

China's

Grube,

cit., pp.

19-54.

150

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[i

1. Nature

Worship.
of the
we

In

one

earliest that

parts of the
the

Book

of
"

Historical

sacrificed Emperor Shun but with the ordinary forms, to Shang-ti ; sacrificed specially, with reverent Ones ; purity to the Six Honoured offered their appropriate sacrifices to the hills and rivers, his worship to the host of spirits."1 The and extended thousand two passage is of importance as it shows that, over
read years before
our

Documents

era,

sacrifice

was

an

essential
some

part of
forces

the

imperial worship,
nature to

and

also indicates
were

of the

of

which
was

sacrifices

made.

Worship
translates
was

offered in the first place to word

Shang-ti. Legge
he
'

the word

the

simply by God, for corresponding to our

same,

held

"

that

Ti

God,'
of
'

and

that

Shang-ti was the to Supreme.'

' '

with

the addition

Shang,' equal Tien,

in

Another and
same
"

word

for the
term

this vague

is Heaven, Supreme Power is constantly interchanged

the the that that

paragraph, not to say the same Ti and Shang-ti."2 personal names

the
two

sentence, with
It would appear
but

words
a more

do

not

denote

separate Gods,

personal designation of Heaven (Tien).3 If Dr. Grube's theory be correct, Tien, Heaven, or Shang-ti is primarily worshipped as the supreme object of nature. in the Vedic Like Varuna sends down hymns, Heaven and calamities the wicked and is all-intelligent on Heaven observing."4 "It is virtue that moves ; there is it does not reach. Pride brings loss distance to which no 5 and humility receives increase : this is the way of Heaven. Shang-ti is
" " " ' '

Shu-King, II. 1. 3. It is quotes a Chinese commentator,

1

not the

clear who
who stars and

"

the Six Honoured

"

Ones
"

"

are.

Legge
cold

suggested that drought

and
2

heat, the sun,

the

moon,

the seasons, they were III. (S.B.E., p. 39).

Op. cit., pp.

xxiii and the

term

xxiv.
to generallyused by Protestant missionaries although Dr. Giles now sense, suggests

Shang-ti is
word
more

translate that
Tien

the

God

in the

Christian

is the
4 "

Shu

appropriateword King, IV. 4. 2, and

2. 3.

(op. cit., pp. 12 and 265). IV. 8. 1 (S.B.E., III. pp. 93 and

115).

II. Op. cit.,

(p. 52).

i]
The such

THE

ANCIENT

RELIGION

151

Emperor
must

is the

rule

mandatory justly. And

"

of Heaven the

on

earth, and
of
a

as

dethroner
was
"

tyrant,

Shang,
"

claims
at

that

Great

Heaven

filled with

tyrant'scruelty. The iniquity of is full. Heaven If I did not to fulfil it. gives command Heaven obey Heaven iniquity would be as great." my the people desire, compassionates the people. What Heaven is creator will be found Heaven to give effect to."1 of men and so they love virtue.
the
" "

indignation Shang

Heaven,
To The And every

in

giving birth to the multitudes annexed faculty and relationship

nature,
its normal

of the

people

its law.

people possess this normal they [consequently] love

which
are

virtue."2

of Odes, Shang-ti is spoken of in anthropomorphic language. In the first of these Shang-ti is described as sation holding a converwith a king,3 and in the second there is a passage curious narration of the miraculous conception of a mythio
two

In

passages,

also

from

the

Book

emperor,

Hou His

Chi,
mother

now

revered

as

the

Father

bandry. of Hus-

"

had

presented
on
a

pure

offering and
be taken

sacrificed,
was

That She

her then

childlessness trod

might toe-print made

she she

by

away. God and (Shang-ti),

moved,
In She She Who the

large place
birth Hou

where
;

rested. dwelt retired

;

became gave
was

pregnant
to, and
Chi."4

nourished

[a son],

Next with

in

importance
is

to

Heaven,
The

and

closely associated
word
seems

him,

Earth, Hou-tu.
been
was so

Chinese

at

first to have

pomorphism masculine, and it is probable that anthrolittle

developed

that

its

sex

was

not

1 * "
4

V. Op. cit.,

1. 1.

(pp. 126, 127).

Shi King, IH. 3. 6. (C.C., IV. II. p. 541). Shi King, III. 1. 7. (op. cit., pp. 452-4).

Op. cit.,III.

2. 1

(p. 465).

For

Hou-Chi, Legge

writes

How-tseih.

152

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[i
"

considered
of all
as
a

j1 Heaven
and

and

Earth

are

described
is

creatures,"2 and
we

later Earth
as

parent regularlythought of
as were

goddess
have

worshipped

Mother-Earth.
prayers

As
to the

seen,

sacrifices and
these

also offered and four

hills and
were

and of rivers,

four mountains

The four quarters of the especiallysacred. sky, the five elements, and a great variety of tutelary two oldest books, the also worshipped. The were spirits Shu King and the Shi King, apparently do not refer to the worship of the stars, but in the Book of Rites, the Li-Ki, this is already prominent and probably dates from the
rivers

earliest times.

2.

The

Worship of Ancestors.
appear in the that

It would Thus

the

worship
we

of ancestors
detailed

is

tive. primi-

Book
to

of
the

Odes

have

accounts tatives represen-

of sacrifices offered of the the ancestral

ancestors

before
and

the

dead,3

but

in this

book,

in the Shu

King,

worship described is usually that of ancestors In the Book of the Imperial House. of Rites, the Li-Ki, to the worship by private persons reference is made of their The ancestral worship is obviously closely ancestors. own with the patriarchaland conservative of nature connected Chinese society. The Emperor was regarded as the father of his people and his ancestors worshipped, and the son
must
reverence

too

his

own

father

and

render

him

ence. obedi-

Thus been esteemed

both
as

in

private and

public life filialpiety has

the first of all virtues.

3. The

Cultus. sacrificial

The been the

1

system

seems

simple. Sacrifices to air, whilst those open

op.

early period to have Heaven were naturally made in to tutelary house were spirits
z

in this

Grube,

cit., pp. 34, 35. e.g. Shi King, II. 6.

3

Shu

King, V.

1. 1

(8.B.E., III.

p.

126).

(C.C.,IV. II.

368-73).

i]
made the
to

THE

ANCIENT

RELIGION

153

indoors.

The

altar
was

to

Heaven for
the

was

round,
was

whilst

altar
be

to

Earth

square, The

Earth alone Rites

believed
to

four-cornered.
and Earth.

Emperor
Book
;

sacrificed
the ceremony it became

Heaven

In
is

the

of
animals

prescribed grandiose
were

for
in

him

simple

in

later

times used

the

extreme.
ones
"

The the
as

in

sacrifice

the

six and

domestic of these
In

ox,

horse,

sheep, pig, dog,

was

and
to to
was

hen,
Heaven. make

the

ox,

the

noblest,
the person
sit

sacrificed
son

the

worship
whilst

of ancestors the dead had

to to to

eldest

had

the

offering, by
a

worshipped
and
mobile.1 im-

represented
The

boy

who

solemn

spirits were
from
and

believed and

gain pleasure
reward the

and

nourishment with

the

sacrifices life.2

offerer

happiness

long

4.

Elements We find

of Superstition.
in these ancient

books

many
or

references

to

tion divinawere

by regarded

means as

of
omens,
was

tortoise-shell, seeds,
and

grain.
were

Dreams
in
as

oneiromantists

held
events

honour.

Astrology
dreaded.

already
that

studied,
were

and

such
to

eclipses tion predicdate

Astronomers
if

helped
gave be

accuracy

of
wrong

by knowing
for there of Book reflect
an

they
of

the to

king

the

eclipse they
were

would

put

death.
in

But,
the

although
life and

such

elements the Book

superstition
Historical secular

ancient

China,

both
are

of

Documents

the
to

of
a

Odes

predominantly
in which secular

books,
were

and

seem

society
at

interests

supreme.

From

least

the

third have
"

dead,

ancestral

tablets

been

century of our era, used, on which King,

II. 6. 6

instead the
name

of

impersonators
of the dead

of, the
is

person

inscribed.

e.g. Shi

154

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[n

II. It has orthodox instead been usual

"

CONFUCIANISM scholars
to

for Western China

as as

describe The

the

of religion describe
as

Confucianism.1

Chinese of the
a

it
we

the

School,
in
no

or sense

Teaching,
was

Literati,and,
founder of
a new

have
,

seen,

Confucius

reformer. a great religious religionnor even He was would have regarded a conservative, and essentially innovation as impiety. Yet, in one sense, it any religious is not inappropriate that this element of Chinese religion should bear his name, for his personalityhas had a decisive influence in Chinese thought, and the moral ideal which he and his disciples proclaimed, has given to Chinese ethics their authoritative To the Five and classic form. added The
the

King were simply Writing or Books. (1)The

Analects
and

Four

Shu.
are

Shu
as

means

Four

Books

follows

of Confucius, a compilation of aphorisms

of conversations between him and his

of Confucius

disciples. (2) The Great

of disciple

Learning,

now

commonly
the State
a

assigned

to

Confucius.

(3) The -Doctrine of the Mean or and Harmony is assigned to which (4) The
It is with Works
the

of Equilibrium grandson of Confucius.

great
that
we successor.

of Mencius,
the

Confucius'

first and

last of these

shall be

concerned. chiefly

Confucius of

was

born
is
now

in 551 in the

B.C.

in the

little

principality

Lu,

in what

father
his
1

died

when
was

he
one

was

early life
The State Confucianism

of
China and

province of Shan-tung. His it appears that a little child, and When I was poverty. young,'*
"

Religion of

would

be

more

accurate

but description,

the

term

is familiar

convenient.

n]
Confucius told his

CONFUCIANISM
"

155

later, my condition was low, disciples and therefore I acquired my abilityin many things, but In his twenty-second year he matters."1 mean they were became He would a teacher. give his instruction to pupils I do not who could only pay him small fees, but he said, who is not eager to get knowledge open up the truth to one is not to explain himself. who anxious nor help anyone When I have of a subject to anyone presented one corner
"

and

he

cannot

from

it learn

the
"

other

three, I
" "

do

not

repeat
reached

my

doubts."3 Court of

his return
state to
a

and thirty he. stood firm settled had opinions, whilst at forty he When -four years of age he went to thirty to study the ceremonies in use there. Chow to Lu, many pupilsgathered around him, but
in

lesson."2

At

had
no

the On the

was

great confusion, and

Its Confucius
to

Confucius

left it and
grew

went

neighbouring territory.
fifteen
years

prince soon
returned
home any

tired

of

his admonitions, and for

to Lu

and

refused
to

devoted and

himself At
town

the

ritual.

length in
and
was

public office but study of ancient history, poetry 500 B.C. he was made chief magistrate
so

take

of

successful of
that

that Works his

he

was

soon

appointed
Minister

Assistant

Superintendent
Tradition
asserts

and

then

of Crime.

appointment

of an manners. brought about amazing reformation the characteristics of the Loyalty and good faith became and men chastity and docility those of the women."4 The neighbouring princes began to fear lest Lu should get its prince, sent too powerful, and, to distract him eighty beautiful and dancing girls and a hundred twenty-five horses. In consequence, Confucius was neglected and slighted and he left the state sorrowfully,journeying by But stages in the hope his Prince might recall him. easy
"

no

message
to
1

came, state
6 4

and

for thirteen

years

he travelled

from and

state

meeting everywhere
(C.C., I. II. p. 82). II. p. 10). (op. cit.,
s "

disappointment

Ana., IX. Ana., II.

II. 61). Ana., VII. 7. 8 (op. cit., 1. p. 75. Quoted by Legge, op. cit.,

156

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[11
was

sorrow.

At
to

length,in
and

return

Lu,

sixty-ninth year, he spent the remaining five

Tradition
the
asserts

his

able to
of

years

his

life in

he

labours. literary wrote a preface to

that

at this time

Shu

King,
the
"

continued
wrote

his studies himself the

near

of ancient

poetry and
Autumn.
to

divination,
When

and

Spring
he
arises
;

and

time

of death

drew

remarked
there

his

attendant,
one

is not

in the
come

his master.

My

time

has

monarch intelligent me empire that will make And to die." seven days for
in the
to

No

after he
His

expired.1
preserved
us seem

teachings are
account

Analects, the
a

Memorabilia

of the Master, which of his interests

a

present
The

worthy trust-

and

opinions.
in

Analects
the views
as

is in

no

sense

book. religious moralist

a

It reflects rather

of

pragmatic
was a

interested

observance
its rites
conserve.

part of

in so religion good deportment, and customs which

far

its

prizing
to
were

part of the
"

ancient

he desired

His

frequent

themes

of discourse of the

the of propriety." like

was

Odes, the History and

"

the maintenance

Rules of did

states
to

of

Extraordinary things ; feats disorder, and spiritual beings," he

To his conservative
with

strength,
not

talk about.2

mind

filialpiety

prime virtue,and he observed ancestral worship but he would of the dead which of the spirits
the
"

scrupulous care worship

how "know

the

say
that
men

little of the

existence

presupposes.
you
serve can

While

you

are
"

not
"

able to While
?
"3

serve

can

their
you not

? spirits

you

do His

not

how life,

due

lay pi this world, To give one's-self earnestlyto the duties in the next. to men, and, while respectingspiritual beings,to keep
"

know

about

death

interest

aloof from of his

them

may

be called wisdom."4

It is characteristic

by

the

Tien.
1

that indifference he refers to Heaven not religious more Shang-ti but by the impersonal personal name and He knowrecognises indeed Heaven's power
88.
"

I. p. Op. cit.,

Ana., XI.

11

II. (op. cit.,

p.

II. pp. 64, 65). Ana., VII. 17 and 20 typ.cit., * II. p. 55). Ana., VL 20 (op.cit., 104).

ii]

CONFUCIANISM
"

157

ledge
"

He
"

who
i1
"

offends
There very

againstHeaven
is Heaven few.
"

has

none

to whom

he

can

pray

that

knows

ine,"2 but

such

references ethical

are

His

ideal

is that

of

courteous

conservative,

obedient to superiors and just to inferiors, parents. The has all the self-conscious he praises, dignity superior man of the great-souledman of Aristotle,a man more perhaps
to

be esteemed

than
an one

loved.
extent

It is of interest
the

to

notice when
as
a

that

he

to anticipates
was

golden rule,for
may
"

asked
rule

if there

not

word

which

serve

of

practice for
a

all

he answered, life, you

rule

What

do not had

to

others."3

Lao-tze When

reciprocitysuch want done to yourselfdo not do said, Recompense injury with

Is not
"

kindness."
he

Confucius

was

asked

about

this

maxim

said,

"

and Recompense injury with justice, with kindness."4

to

recompense with which

kindness

It is not Confucius

easy is

understand

the

veneration
"

He threw no new regarded. As Legge says, world-wide have light on any of the questions which a interest. He impulse to religion. He had no gave- no 5 have owed His popularity may sympathy with progress Secular in his interests something even to these limitations he was in his influence. conservative Through him the ancient treasures of Chinese literature received a new value, and his lofty and self-respecting character seemed an bodiment emof the golden age of China. Over-preciseand prim he appears, when as standards, it is judged by Western clear that he was able to win the affection of his followers,
"
. .

and

to
we

their

devotion
seen,

some

of his fame died

was

due. that
no

As would

have

Confucius

lamenting
after
his

prince
he
was

obey
and ordered

his

instructions, but

death

honoured

the
a

prince who temple to be

had erected

slightedhim

in his lifetime

in his memory.

Such

1 " "

Ana., IIL
Ana.,
XV.

13

23

Ana., XIV.

IL p. 23). (op. cit., IL p. 165). cit., (op. 36 (op. cit., n. p. 152).

Ana., XIV.
5

37 (op. cU., II. p. 153). I. Op. cit.,

p. 113.

158

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[11
an

fame first

only local. China was Emperor, desiring to keep

was

decreed,
those should
200
B.C.

about

213
with

B.C.,

that

dealing
be Its

medicine,
The Han

burned. founder

empire. The the people in ignorance, all existing books, except divination, or agriculture, about dynasty succeeded
not

yet

sought
the
A. D.

to

have

the

ancient and

books
ficed sacri-

recompiled,
an ox

and
him.

visited

tomb
57 it
was

of Confucius
decreed the
were

to

In
to

that

sacrifices In
in the his

should
seventh

be

offered

century
and
twice

throughout separate temples

a

him

empire.
erected

honour,
ceremonies

year

there

were

of great attended

solemnity.
in
state

At

Emperor
"

and

performed in them the Imperial College the himself did homage to

of

the

Perfect of

Sage."
all

Greatest MENCIUS

the

later

teachers
is

Confucianism
"

is

(371-288 B.C.),who

works His a Inspired One."1 More more speculative form. he emphasised the natural From the feelings proper for the to it, it is constituted is good." Benevolence, righteousness, practice of what infused into from not us knowledge are propriety, and with them."2 without. We Like are certainly furnished his master, he accepted the current worship of spiritsand he had in religion. of ancestors, but less interest even Man's prime duty is filial piety,not service to God nor love the to him. did much to increase So, although Mencius in which the teachings of Confucius esteem were regarded, he did not of them a religiousmessage, attempt to make and the desire to know something of God or gods, which is and never quite absent from any people, found in Taoism the answer could Buddhism which Confucianism not give.
" "

the Second regarded as ethics give to Confucian than Confucius strongly even nature. goodness of human

1
a

title bestowed
1. 6

on

him p.

in A.D.

1330

(see Giles, op. tit., p. 88).

VL

(C.C., II.

278).

in]

TAOISM

159

III." Taoism contributes

to

TAOISM elaborate
its

of China an religion complex of polytheism and polydaemonism, and are regarded as the most expert of magicians and the

priests

exorcists.

Yet

Taoism

is, at the
Taoists

same

time,
that

an

ancient

and

abstruse
is to be

philosophy.
found

claim

this

philosophy

ofChanges, Yi-King, and the Book of Rites (Li-Ki),but, as these are appropriated by Confucianism, they have as their distinctive books the writings ascribed and Chuang-tze. to Lao-tze Of Lao-tze know little. His we was personal name Li-poh-yang,whilst Lao-tze is a title of respect given later If this by his followers.1 His birth is assigned to 604 B.C. date is correct, he was born fifty-three before Confucius, years the tradition is therefore and improbable that when he visited the capitalin 517 B.C., him Confucius met his proud air and his many and rebuked was by him for is assigned a short, obscure desires." To him book, the Book of the Too and Virtue.2 the Canonical Tao-teh-king,
in the Book
"

The found

first clear

and

credible

references

to

him

seem

to

be

in the and

fourth
to make

writings of Chuang-tze, a philosopher of the third centuries, who sought to induce the Chinese
not

Lao-tze, and
in this
a

Confucius, their teacher.

Central It
was

Taoist

teaching
and
"

is the

concept of
Books.
to
comes

too.

already familiar way," primary meaning is

word
"

in the
so

Sacred
it

Its
mean

course," method," it is used to literature,

the

"

"

"

order,"
denote

or

norm."

In Confucian

the
moral

way

of

heaven,
which
preserve

and

so

rational

conduct

principleor the should be guided.

of the
"

ideal

by

human
this

Taoist
more

writers

meaning
1

word,
Old
Master

but,
"
"

the characteristically,
Boy."
him

It

means

either

or

reference
the
*

to the

legend that
so as a

his mother he
was

carried
"

sacred Giles
second

number),

that, when

regards it
century

the

B.C.

compilation (op. cit., p. 147).

If the latter, then there is a for 81 years (i.e. 9 x 9, 9 being born, his hair was already white. by a not too skilful forger," possiblyin

Old

160

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[TIT
first

too

is with

them

symbol

for the ineffable

the eternal,immaterial, and

conserves

principle, omnipresent something, which

and
to which
even

and

rules the universe The

Heaven

highest knowledge available for men is to know the tao, and the highest virtue is to live according to it. As the tao does everything without doing anything, the wise man and will not will make not -doing his norm will suffer injustice act and from personal motive any is thus meekly. Taoism panlogism, primarily a quietistic and rather the of to belongs history of philosophy than religion. It is not likelythat its doctrine of pure passivity would have had much popular appeal, and its adherents would have been and restricted to mystic thinkers templative conIt is clear that it has far more recluses. affinity
with

is subordinate.

Buddhism

than

with with

Confucianism Chinese
atheism

and, in its later and,

a

history, it
Buddhism,

interacted from
an

Buddhism

like

ethical

passed

into

the mystic and oracular polytheism. Doubtless of Taoist teaching produced in the people an

profuse obscurity impression

of mystery

and

power,

and

some

of the recluses themselves

sought to find in the tao a potent force which, like the base of Europe's quest, could turn philosopher's stone metal into gold. And gradually,as theosophy degenerated illwith into magic, Taoism to be associated came an of superstitions and ritual. assorted mass fluenced The introduction of Buddhism into China greatly inthe development of Taoism. The Buddhism was and Taoist of the school, and polytheistic, Mahayana From Buddhism, Taoism borrowed polytheism grew apace to make thus enabled the belief in transmigration,and was of China vivid and the popular animism more pictorial. deities and host The traditional gods of China of younger a into introduced the Taoist were pantheon, but these the help of With no longer vague abstractions. gods were ancient modern folk-lore and more fiction,they became them made the heroes of fantastic legends, which appear
.

iv]
real and

BUDDHISM

161

marvellous

to

the

common

people.

Of

great

of earth and heaven, importance are the Genii,1 spirits is number Their spiritshuman, divine, and devilish. have a infinite. Eight of them, known as the Eight Genii,2 very largeplace in popular worship. deified as the highest incarnation Lao-tze himself was
are strange wonders his is one of the triad of images which, of Buddhism, the Three Precious Ones

of the too, and

"

of him

recorded,
in imitation have

and

of

place of honour in the Taoist temples. Of the other two images usually associated with his, one is of doubtful meaning, but possibly represents Pan-ku, the Chinese Demiurge3 ; who the other is of the Jewelled-Sovereign-Lord,4 seems to be a vulgarisation of Shang-ti. Of the Taoist priests, celibate and live,either some are Most alone, or with others in temples or monasteries. of livelihood, and carry on their ordinary means marry, and robes only when their priestly wear performing their that of exorcism. functions. Their work is chiefly priestly the head is the so-called At of all the Taoist priests, earth Master of Heaven,"4 who, as the representative on is regarded as the chief of the Jewelled-Sovereign-Lord,
"

"

the

exorcist of China.

IV. The introduction the

year

"

BUDDHISM
into

of Buddhism
A.D.

China

assigned to
in consequence returned
two

of

the 65, when dream, sent messengers

commonly Emperor Ming-ti,

to

is

India

who

brought
Two
a

with

Buddhist later with two monks, who years them Buddhist images and the Siitra of Forty The
nature

Sections.

of the dream of

seems

to indicate

previous knowledge dreamed of a golden man

1

Buddhism,
a

for

the

Emperor
his head,

with

brighthalo
-

round

Sien. Or
"

Pah-sien.

abstraction. possibly Great Beginning,"a personified 6 Tien-shi. Yu-hoang-shang-ti.

162

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[iv

and

this to be a vision of the Buddha interpreted that later traditions are to be Sakyainuni, and it is possible believed which speak of much earlier attempts to introduce into China. Buddhism This Sutra of the Forty Two Sections1 who was a Hinayana document, which promised to the man that if had left his parents and embraced the religious life, and he follows constantly the two hundred fifty precepts, walks in according to the purity of conduct, and perseveres four The
true two
vows

his brother

of

salvation, he
later until from

should

become book
into

saint.2

monks monks

set about
came

this translating

Chinese.

Other
was

India, but century

no

made.
to

Not become

the

fourth

little progress Chinese were

allowed attained the

end

until the of that and

was conspicuous success arrival of Kumarajiva from India towards he taught was century. The Buddhism

monks, and

Mahayanist,
much

he
a

is famous treatise and

as

the

translator

of

the

Diamond-Cutter,
admired Hsien Fa

short

in China
to

travelled

India

Mahayana metaphysics, Japan.3 At about this time, that he might study there the

of

books. and obtain some Buddhist more religion, He brought back with him in A.D. 414, as a result of his relics. sacred books and fifteen years' absence, many Buddhism became popular in this century and very So numbered its devoted converts. an Emperor among Bodhidthat Buddhism become important did Chinese
Buddhist

harma,
Much
was

the

Patriarch

of

India, himself
many

came are

to

China

in

the sixth

century, and
as

of him

marvels
are

related.
close
as

Taoism

and

Buddhism

alike, and

their

and
now

the two was long interaction,the strife between bitter and, although the Imperial house persecuted, Taoism and now Buddhism, it failed to unite the two the

religions.At
was
1

beginning of
favour
in S.

the ninth

century, Buddhism
received
a

in such
This Sutra

high

that

the

Emperor

bone
the

is translated

Beal, A

Catena

of Buddhist

Scripturesfrom

Chinese, pp.
2

190-203.

Arhat.
For
a

Cp.

J. J. M.

De

Groot, Le Code
Sanscrit

du

translation

of the

see original,

en Chine, p. 8. Mahayana II. pp. 111-44. S.B.E., XLIX.

iv]
of the the

BUDDHISM

163

Buddha

into

his

palace.
at

This

act

greatly angered
endeavour In
A.D. was

Confucianists, and,
to

his

death,
was

the

made
the
court
a new

restrict

the

power

of monks and

Buddhism.

835
the later

ordination freed

of Buddhist
its issued should than

forbidden, and
Ten
years he

from

images
a

altars.

Emperor
Buddhism
more

famous

edict, in which
six

decreed
that
teries monas-

that
"

be four

extirpated, and
thousand

claimed

already
had

hundred

destroyed,and their inmates, to the number of both of two and hundred thousand sixty-five persons had been to the world," and compelled to return sexes, of temples and shrines than had more forty thousand
been
"

likewise

been

demolished."1

Two

years

adherent of an although himself has not recovered stringency of the decree, but Buddhism from this persecution. Theological study has waned. Many of the Buddhist Scriptureshave been destroyed, and the propaganda of the faith,which in Mahayana Buddhism is the most has almost sacred of obligations, Yet ceased. has not Buddhism of perished. Although the Buddhism

his successor, later, the Taoism, relaxed

the Buddha

was

concerned has
come

with seemed which

this
to

and life,

not
a

the next,

Mahayana
about
the

Buddhism life to could

speak

with

neither

Taoism

message fucianism Connor

supply ; whilst the secret sects of Buddhism, ment, though often cruelly persecuted by the Chinese Governstill exist and witness are a that, in spite of the
indifferentism been those who of Confucianism, have
in

China

too

there have

have been of
a

prized

the

and spiritual
in

and ready to endure suffering life.2 deep religious

death

the

interests

Alone message
1

of pagan claims Buddhism to have a religions, of world-wide but it lacks one essential validity,
the

For For

Edict,

see see

these sects,

Giles,op. cit., pp. 220, 221. T. J. M. De Groot, The Religionof the Chinese, pp.

200-23

164

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[TV

which intolerance an springs from positivereligion, convictions too deeply held to allow principles to be And it fails to relate the laityadequately compromised.

of

to its

apart from the Buddhism system. In consequence, Buddhism be truer of the monks, it would that to say Buddhistic."1 became became Chinese, than that China
"

And

so

in

China

it has

twofold

for monks, who alone can religion and it is a pervasive influence It will Chinese religious culture.
with In
not

significance. It is a trulybe called Buddhists, in the general complex of

be convenient
to deal

first

the

ideal Buddhism the

of the
and

monks.
the

China
as

Hinayana opposites, but as

are

Mahayana are The complements.

monasteries

regarded
Words
a

of
at

Disburdenment2 his
to

used

in the

and

monk

preliminary
their behests.

ordination Two

second

ordination, when
commands

eight

of
which
so

solemnly promises to conform three days later he receives a or he has to promise to obey fiftySutra The text. of Mahayana
to not

Brahma's Bodhisattva be
a

Net,

is meant

enable

him
save

to

become

that

he

may

merely
is
a

himself, but

saviour

of others.

The

Sutra

of
on or

Brahma's
it the

Net
Buddhism

work

importance, as
No
and

of China
as

greatest is ideally based.

discovered,
to professes to
an

of the

Sanskrit the

Pali

originalhas
book of of

yet been
It

origin of
the

the

is obscure.3

have

been

utterance

Sakyamuni
a

Buddha It has

innumerable translated for the

the

company

Bodhisattvas. book which The

men,

been

by study

Dr.

De

Groot, in
not

is invaluable

of Chinese

Buddhism.4

Sutra
but
to

enjoins
animals.

greatest benevolence,
monk redeem

only

to

It bids the

the slave, and

heal the sick, and

1
2

Grube,
Sanskrit
The

op. cit., p. 139 ; cp. p. 155. PrdtimoksJia (=Pali Pdtimokkha), see

earlier, p. 130.

In China

it

is called the
3

Book
has du

of Preceptsin
of the
same

Four

Sections.

Pali text

title translated

by Rhys Davids,

in the

Dialogues

of the Buddha,
*

Le Code

different subject matter. Mahayana en Chine.

TV]
to
save

BUDDHISM

165

from

death
son

all

living beings. Confucius,

conduct

when
or

asked

how had

should

himself
him
"

whose

father

sleep only on straw, with a shield for a pillow,not to take public office, under the same the murderer to live with not sky, and, if he meet it be in the market in the royal or him, whether his weapon, but to fighthim" ;l court, not to turn away
been

mother

murdered,

bade

but

here
even

the

monk

is forbidden

to

take

revenge

on

any

of father or mother.2 though it be the murder The monk and insults he receives, must ignore all injuries hide his own and virtues lest they eclipse those of others.3 He be ready to save others must even though to do so he he has has to destroy the merit Greatest accumulated. of all obligations is the obligation to preach to others the way of salvation, and, especially, the doctrine of this So he is bound Sutra. to use opportunity to preach every but he must the commandments, do so intelligently, for is a sin.4 And monks to preach an are ignorant sermon bidden to spread the knowledge of the Truth by copying and if they lack materials for this, out the commandments, bidden their own to use blood for ink, and are pieces of their own for pencils.5 The bones duties of hospitality has nothing are extravagantly urged. If a Bodhisattva is a stranger, he should sell himself, to give a monk, who his sons, his daughters, cut off even the flesh of his body, the stranger's and sell that, in order to meet needs."6 is the book the principalinstrument Such which, as of the great Buddhist art of salvation," De Groot describes the most as important of the sacred books of the East." In it, although the ways of meditation and of penitence are recognised,it is the way of compassion that is chiefly hist enjoined, and preached with fanatical rigour. The Buddhave monks long since lost their missionary zeal, and

crime,

"

"

"

Li Ki, X, quoted 10th commandment.

18th

by

De

Groot,

op.

cit., p.
3 *

91.

7th commandment. The 44th commandment.

!
5

commandment. 26th commandment.

The

166

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[iv
Yet
it may

the well
use

actual

has

been Groot

far indeed

from

the ideal.

be,
"

as

in
'?1

suggests, that the book has been and ameliorating the customs mitigating

De

of
the

ethics that China cruelty of China ; but it is not Buddhist in that fight has greatlyprized, but the service of the monks in China are against spectres,in which all aspects of religion utilised. The In monasteries
not

with such the veneration which gains from come chiefly heights are commonly regarded. The monks have from the poorest classes, and often those who are As the Chinese been given to the monastery as children. classics have, until recently,alone been generally prized, well he may his Buddhist know Buddhist a monk, however texts, does not win the prestigeof a scholar.

this way Buddhism

usually situated only is quiet secured

are

on

for

woody heights. the monks, but

be gods of Chinese Buddhism may classes (1) Buddhas. (2) Bodhisattvas. Patriarchs. (4) Tutelary Deities.2

The

divided

into four and

"

(3) Saints

Of

the
as

Buddhas seated
and
on

the
a

historic lotus

Buddha

is

generally represented
half closed
in

flower, with

eyes

images of the standing Buddha, and of also found.3 Buddha The the entering Nirvana, are celestial Buddha, Amitabha,4 is very popular, and members Land of the Pure Sect, especially, hope by the recital of
meditation,
his
name

to

enter

at

death

the

Western

Paradise

over

reigns.5 Images of two other celestial Buddhas, and Vairochana Of the Bodhisattvas, Loshana, are also common.6 Kuan-yin is the most important. She is the Indo-Tibetan Avalokitesvara, and, until the beginning
which he
1

The

Religion of the Chinese, Buddhism Cp. H. Hackmann,

He is

p. 188.
as a

usuallycalled

in China

Shih-chia-mu-ni
s

Religion,pp. 206-17. (i.e. Sakyamuni).

See pp.
138.

*
8

Chinese, 0-mi-to-fo.

Chinese, Pi-lu-fo and

Lo-shih-fo.

iv]
of the
is often

BUDDHISM

167

twelfth

century,
a

was

represented as
arms,

man.1

She

depicted with
Madonna.
most

child in her the Goddess

much

like the she is

Christian
one are

As

of

Mercy,
The
most

of the the
are

popular
the

of Chinese

deities. The

Saints

of disciples

historic Buddha.

ant import-

Ananda
is the

and

as

the

chief of his

Kasyapa 2 who, in China, are regarded disciples. Of the Patriarchs, the most
the The Patriarch who
came

important
China
the in

Bodhidharma,
sixth

to

century.

Tutelary GODS

include

heavenly Kings, the Rulers of the four points of These to heaven. who the compass, guard the entrances of Indian but there are also tutelary deities are origin,3 of Chinese who have been absorbed from the State origin, from Taoism. or religion In some temples, Kuan-yin has the place of honour in the central hall. More usually there stands there either Ananda his two the figure of Sakyamuni and disciples, and Kasyapa, or still more commonly, the so-called the Three Buddhist Trinity,which is often explained as
four
"

Jewels the

"

of

Buddhism

"

the

Buddha,

the

Doctrine,
common

and

Order, but which possibly represents the Another Sakyamuni, Vairochana, and Loshana.4
trio is

Buddhas

Sakyamuni, Amitabha,

and

the Buddha

of

Healing.

that Buddhism has not had a surprising life of China for, in its greater influence on the religious better adapted to meet the religious Mahayana form, it seems needs of a great people than either Confucianism Taoism. But the Celestial People have or always been of foreignteaching. As Mencius said, I contemptuous heard of men have using the doctrines of our great land to change barbarians, but I have never yet heard of any when the Buddhist And being changed by barbarians."5
" 1 * "

It is somewhat

Giles,op. cit., p. 176. See earlier, =Kassapa. p. 132. So Hackmann, cit., op. p. 209.

3 "

They
m.

are

found

also in Lamaism.
p.

1. 4. 12

(C.C., II. II.

129).

168

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[iv

appeared in China they would have been regarded barbarians as by the proud scholars of the Chinese classics. favoured addressed to an Emperor who Thus, in a memorial Buddha wrote Buddhism, a great Confucianist was a : the language of China. barbarian. His language was not
teachers
"

His

clothes of

were our

of

an

alien cut.

He

did

not

teach

the

to the customs rulers,nor conform which down,1 and in a societywhere ancestor they handed the begetting of a son the first of duties, worship makes the monasticism of Buddhism unattractive. was Besides, And be drones in the hive ? why should the monks thus the Emperor, who the extirpation of Buddhism, ordered who does not a man complains in his edict that work suffers bitter consequences and in cold hunger. But these priests food and priestesses of Buddha consume and raiment without contributing to the production of

maxims

ancient

"

"

"

either."2 Yet mind. from

come

Buddhism The the Buddha

attracts

as

well

bade but
in

his

repels the Chinese disciplesavert their gaze

as

appeal. The prevalence of ancestor worship, and the belief in spirits, show how interested in the dead, greatly the Chinese were and its doctrine with of transmigration, its Buddhism, vivid presentationsof heavens and hells, and its abundant legends of the departed, was able to give to this interest in the dead attractive dramatic and a more form, and Buddhist teaching claimed to provide the means by which the livingcould help the dead in their upward path. The images and pictures,and the statelyritual of the temple worship appealed to the imagination in a way the native could not do, and the Buddhist religion gods and goddesses in their power and their compassion, were welcome a addition to the Thus prosaic pantheon of China.
1 ?

life to come, that Buddhism

it is in reference

to

the

life to

China

has

made

its chief

Han

Wen-kung

in 810
A.D.

In the edict of

A.D. (seeGiles,op. cit.t p. 213). 846, quoted in Giles,op. cit., p. 220.

v]

THE

POPULAR

RELIGION

169

Buddhism,

though

weakened

still forms an perished,and complex of Chinese religion.

by persecution, has in important element

not

the

V. The

"

THE

POPULAR

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

popular religionof China derives its gods from the from ancient Chinese religion, Taoism, and from Buddhism, and adds to these many apotheosised heroes and local gods, whilst the number of the gods may at any time be increased. Of the legends are narrated, for, wherever gods many there is assigned to the gods some human possible, origin. In the space at our disposal it is impossible to describe suffice the better known even gods and devils. It must instead to seek some unifying conception. Groot's theory has to De Reference already been made of China was that the primaevalreligion a dualistic animism. this Whether theory correctly interprets the ancient to explain the popular religion religionor not, it seems of to-day, which its to have basis the belief that as appears of two the universe consists souls, or breaths, called Yang and Yin, the Yang representinglight, warmth, production, which from also the heavens all the good things and life, with the Yin emanate darkness, being associated ; and The into Yang is subdivided cold, death, and the earth. called shen : of good souls,or spirits, indefinite number an evil spirits, called kwei, spectres ; the Yin into particles, or it is these shen and^kwei which animate being and every the thing. The gods are the shen which animate every
benevolent of shen
nature

forces of nature.

-.

Man

himself the Thus

is made

up

both of his

and

kwei, his shen

his

being
lower.

higher part
"

and

kwei

the

birth

consists

in

an

infusion

of these
to

souls ; death

is their

departure,
kwei
to

the

shen

returning

the

Yang,

or

heaven, the

170

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[v

the and

Yin,
are

or

earth."1

The

spectres

swarm

everywhere,

greatly feared. They molest the traveller,cause At times whole diseases, and inflict mysterious wounds. populaces are terrified by them, and the magistrates have then to allaythe panic by ordering sacrifices, and arresting
any
or a

who,
new

as

innovators,
certain

or

as

members

of

secret

sect,
their

are religion,

anger.

At

suspected of having are especially, seasons,

New

let loose the

spectres
are are

dreaded. made
to

Thus,
drive

at

the

Year,
and

strenuous

efforts

them

away,
summer

all words

of ill -omen
are

avoided, and
a

in the

months, which
is held to ward
to
come.

unhealthy,

great Midsummer
whom
are

Festival
are

off the spectres

from feared
as

diseases

supposed
of

one-eyed devils, which

also
are

animals and As Heaven

constituted
much

Especially bring drought, and, wolves Yang and Yin, wereits is necessary be secured. Thus the

tiger-demons are

dreaded.

is held to be supreme,

worship

that

so

protectionfrom
is, as
De
to the

the kwei Groot

may
says,

belief in them inducement

not

only

"

the
"

main

a prinworship of Heaven,"2 but also cipal in pillar the building of morality,"3 for the order of is just,and Heaven the universe will not allow the good the kwei to punish the wicked. to be molested, and uses And this belief in spirits has been restraint against so a for,if the victim die, or commit suicide, oppressivecruelty, the oppressor. his kwei might haunt connected j Of great importance is the system of geomancy Wind with the belief in Feng-shui. Feng-shui (or and Water ") denotes the occult influences of the atmosphere
" "

and

the

buried and

It is necessary in placeswhere the Yang earth.

that

the

dead
over

should the

be

predominates
can

Yin,
such

only professionalgeomancers the In consequence, places are.

of the geomancers
1
1

decide
are

where
at

people
the

the

mercy

who

may

prevent

burial of the

dead

The

Religionof the Chinese, pp. 3, 4. 2 Op. cit., Op. cit., p. 19. p.

22.

v]
for many

THE

POPULAR

RELIGION

171

months, for only

if the

dead

are

buried
to

in

an

their descendants auspicious place can hope prosperityby their aid,and yet to delay burial

obtain

is

perilous,
of

for the

unburied

dead

may have

become
used

the

most

ferocious
to

spectres. Reactionaries
such innovations because disaster.
as

this doctrine

railways
may

and

oppose cation, telegraphic communi-

such

disturb

the

Feng-shui

and

cause

fight against the spectres, all possible weapons As are employed. light and fire belong to the Yang, bonfires and lanterns are regarded as useful,and noise,too, be employed off these to scare ghostly enemies. may And the of Chinese help of all the three constituents Thus the religion is utilised. pagodas of Buddhism, cases originallydesigned for meditation, have in most been erected for Feng-shui purposes sites and occupy of geomancers, the where, according to the calculation Yang influences predominate so that they help to secure prosperity for the surrounding neighbourhood. As the Chinese classics enable their students to be demon-proof,
the

In

the
no

faithful
need

and

learned
to

mandarin devils

of the

old times

school of

had

himself could

fear
a

and,

at

public

leading part combating their influences. Even of these ancient works a fragment of one effective prophylactic against spectral disease,1 was an whilst Taoist priests have found in exorcism their most important function. with Connected this belief in spirits, and probably its most ancient Chinese form, is the worship of ancestors. it has Though properly belonging to the State religion, been Chinese and Buddhism, incorporated into Taoism and the death ceremonies include not only the ancient rites enjoined by the Li-Ki, but customs of numerous Buddhist Taoist and origin. Sacrifices are offered to the
dead,
and

excitement,

take

in

paper-money,
1

slaves
Groot,
op.

and

servants, wives

and

See

De

cit., pp. 49-61.

172

THE

RELIGION

OF

CHINA

[v
welfare
have

concubines,

are

burnt
many

to

provide

for

the

of the
own

departed,
ancestral

and

well-to-do

families

their

are temples, where the soul-tablets of ancestors To preserved and worshipped on appropriate days. and of the conservatism stability ancestor-worship much of Chinese It is the religiouscounterpart society is due.

of that the
rest.

filial virtue

which
the

to

Chinese

thinkers

has

seemed

greatest of all
the

virtues, and

the foundation

of all the

religionand of its immediate prospects, it is very difficult to speak. The fear of spectres and the belief in Feng-shui seem likelyto recede before the advance of Western knowledge, but ancestor little sign of losing its ancient influence. worship shows
The abolition
as

Of

present conditions

of Chinese

in
one

1905

of

examinations into

in

the

Chinese the

Classics revolution

the of

entrance

official the

life, and

1911,
the

have

whilst Chinese Government affect

damaged attempt that

introduce veneration In

to

fucianism, prestige of Conis being made by the a phonetic script will which the Classics of
a

apparently
have been renewed

the

with of
some

regarded.

spite

indications

Religions,in China, ascertain far as from we can so observers, competent Western contact with scholarship and Christian thought has not such as noteworthy yet brought about any of a purified religion as have renaissance observed we The old religionsseem for the time in India. incapable of renewal, whilst stitute, Christianity,their only possible subis less attractive it might be if China knew than of it only through the teaching of Christian missionaries, and not and through its experience of the militarism in opposition, not of Christendom, which are arrogance of the divine Master, but to the peaceable only to the spirit of Confucianism, and the ideals doctrine of Buddhist
universal and

interest

in the so-called

Three

unaggressive

love.

B."

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

VI.

THE
"

CONTRIBUTION
/

OF

SHINTO

TO

THE

RELIGION

OF
"

JAPAN

THE

faith

of

Japan
but

is

expressed
a

not

in

one

religion,
elements

nor

in

three

religions,
from

in

composite
and

of

derived

chiefly
Of

Shinto,

Buddhism,

Confucianism. Shinto the alone contribution

to turn

these
to

contributory Japan. Japanese

form To

sources,1
understand

is

digenous init

has
to

made the

to

religion,
of

it is necessary

back for
us

ancient

Shinto,

which

is under

described the of the

or

in

writings

which,

although
the

written and

impulse

of

Chinese
times.

culture,
The
two

reveal oldest

myths
these and

worship
are

prehistoric Kojiki
Chronicles
or

of

writings
the

Records

of

Ancient
A later

Matters, book,
an

Nihongi
or

of Japan.
Period
tenth

the

Yengishiki
of Shinto

Institutes

of
in

the the

Yengi,
century

gives
of
or our

account
era.

ceremonies

The

Kojiki

Records who

of

Ancient
his

Matters work
was

was A.D.

compiled
712.
"

by
tells

Yasumaro,
us

completed
that
to
a

in

He
in

in

his

preface
"

his decree

task

undertaken

reverent

obedience

issued of the

by

the

reigning Emperor
of the

Empress
Temmu,

Gemmiyo
who

in

pursuance
"

plan
the
and

of the

had selected

desired and

to

have

chronicles the old

Emperors
examined

recorded,
falsehoods

words
and

and

ascertained,
"

being
cannot
nor

erased,
speak
"

"

Contributory
for
is not

sources

is

clumsy
is

religions,"
or

Japanese
a

Confucianism

phrase, but we not religion, a

of

"

three

of

three

systems,"

Shinto

system.
173

174

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vi
the
latter
to

the

truth

determined

in

order

to

transmit

after-ages."1 The Nihongi or Chronicles of Japan has no title page that it would nor preface, but from other sources appear it was completed in A.D. 720. 2 In language and in style it is more of their Chinese than the Kojiki,and, in imitation Chinese its authors models give dates which reach back to nate the seventh century B.C.3 and often provide us with alterversions of the same event or myth. mentary The books reveal is rudithese ancient religionwhich Their and incoherent. early chapters are little than the tedious record tff the birth and more copulation in the of deities with of amazing length. Thus names Kojiki we read first of the five separate Heavenly Deities wards who into being without came being procreatedand afterThen follows the account passed out of existence.4 of the even divine generations, beginning with the EarthlyEternally-Standing Deity5 and ending with the Deity the Male-Who-Invites and his younger sister,the Deity the commanded Female -Who -Invites.6 These two were by the Heavenly Deities to make, consolidate,and give birth to this driftingland, and they were given for their use a So the two Deities, standing Heavenly- Jewelled -Spear."7 the the Floating Bridge of Heaven, pushed down upon they jewelled spear and stirred with it, whereupon when
" "

had the

stirred
spear

the

brine

till it went that and

curdle

-cur

die and from the

drew
end

up,

the
was

brine

dripped
became

down
an

of the
1

spear

piled up

island."8

Then

of

translation. Kojiki,p. 9. Quotations are from B. H. Chamberlain's Its authorship is assigned to Prince the compiler Toneri and to Yasumaro, the Kojiki. It has been translated by W. G. Aston.
2 8

Aston Such alone

remarks

that

these

dates

cannot

be

trusted
"

before
Deities

about

A.D.

600

(Nihongi,I.
*

p. xviii.). to be the seems and

meaning
"

born
6 * 7 8

hid their persons Kuni-no-toko-tachi-no-kami.

phrase, These (Kojiki, pp. 16, 16).

of the

were

all deities

Izana-gi-no-kamiand Izana-mi-no-kami. Probably a phallus(see W. G. Aston, Shinto, the Way of the Gods, Kojiki,pp. 18, 19.

p.

87).

vr]
the

SHINTO

175

Male- Who

-Invites with him

was

bade
a

the

Female

-Who

-Invites

cumambula cir-

be

united.

A
an

child

afterwards

island.
'

that they might heavenly pillar born, whom they abandoned, and "Hereupon the two Deities took
to

counsel, saying,

The

children

whom

we

have

now

this good. It will be best to announce in the august place of the Heavenly Deities.' They do tion the Heavenly Deities discover "by grand divinaso, and when that it was because the woman they spoke first, been that their offspringhad the pillar, not were circling the heavenly Deities the two good. Once more go round and they pillar. This time it was the Male who spoke first,

given

birth

are

not

'

"

islands and later to many deities,but gave birth to many birth of their child the Fire-Burning-Swift-Maleat the

Deity,
sickened birth
Deities
to

the

Female died.

-Who
"

-Invites total

was

herself

burnt

and

and

The

number
was

of islands fourteen

given
and of

jointly by the two thirty-five."From

fresh shed
deities
was were

Deities the

body
whilst

of the from

Fernale-Whothe
tears

Invites
husband

born,
the

her

born

In his
and

the grief

Male -Who
more

Crying-Weeping-Female-Deity. -Invites slew his son the Fire -Deity

deities
went
were

from

his blood

created.1
to

The
to
see

Male -Who the

to

-Invites -Who bade

down

the

nether consented

world
to

Female
but

-Invites, and
him
not
to

she
at
saw

return

him,

look
and

her meanwhile, the

but,
him

in his

of the

impatience, he body. In her anger

of hell and

looked
she
sent

corruption

infernal

deities to chase

out

unscathed

On
and

his
from
are

pursued him, but he escaped and she was left to be the Great-Deity-of -Hades. return, the Male -Who -Invites purified himself this purification born,2 of whom gods were many
very

herself

three

famous

the

Sun-Goddess,3

born

as

he

Kojiki,pp.
Thus

19-34.
"

born from his august trousers," and Road-Fork-Deity was from his Deity-Master-of-the-Open-Mouth (Kojiki, august hat p. 40). * Ama-terasu-oho-mi-kami, Heaven-Shining-Great-August-Deity."
2
"

the

the

"

"

176

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vi
as

washed his

his left eye

;

right eye august nose."

dominion.

and

Moon-God,1 Susa-no-wo,2 born

;

the

born "as -Who rule

he

washed
his gave

he

washed

To

these

three

the
was

Male
to

-Invites
the
"

The

Sun-Goddess

Plain-of-

High-Heaven,
and

the Moon-God the the

assume
"

the Dominion The

of the first two

Night,"
deities

Susa-no-wo
at
"

Sea-Plain.

assumed
no-wo

once

spheres assigned to them,

the rule of the dominion

but with

Susawhich

did not been

he had

charged
rivers and

but
seas.

wept

so

copiously that
the he Male
he

he dried -Invites
to go

up all the him asked

to
was.

When

-Who

why

he

thus

behaved

said his

desired

the

Nether-Distant-Land Instead of
to

where
to

deceased

Mother
went

going
take

direct leave

Hades, Susa-no-wo
Sun-Goddess.
"

up

to

Heaven

of the

She,

and herself stood suspecting his intentions, armed and asked him why he came. valiantlylike a mighty man He denied that his designs were evil,and suggested that, both produce children of his honesty, they should as a test by breaking off and crunching fragments of jewels and then thus born, three blowing them away. Eight children were
"

females

to

the
came

Goddess from

and

five males

to

the
These
were

God

from

jewels that
Sun-Goddess

the
as

Goddess's hers in that

hair.

five the born had of

doubtedly un-

claimed

they

things

of

hers, and

Susa-no-wo

declared
"

that

he

gained
of his intentions delicate behaved females."3
so

the
he

victory,for owing to the sincerity had, in begettingchildren, begotten Elated Susa-no-wo by his success,
his sister that and in she retired into
"

badly

to

the

Heavenly-Rock-Dwelling
night prevailed."
1

consequence

eternal

The
"

eight hundred

myriad

deities knew

Tsuki-yomi-no kami,
Chamberlain
as

renders the
name

regards Susa
p. 19.
3

Moon-Night-Possessor." name Impetuous Male (Kojiki,p. 43), but Aston of a place,and interprets it as Male of Susa (Nihongi,I
his

So the
his

Kojiki,p.
on

52.
fact

With
that

more

naturalness children
"

the
to

Nihongi
h'm
were
"

makes

Susa-no-wo I.

base

claim

the

the

born

p. 37). The of the noble

Kojiki traces back houses of Japan.

to these

Princely Children

maleANihonyi, the originof some

vi]
not

SHIXTO

177

length the Deity-Thought-Includer got Her Augustness Heavenly- Alarming-Female to dance, in indecent garb, with resounding noise. The deities at this of the Sun-Goddess moved to laughter. The were curiosity little a was aroused, and she opened the door of the cave to see what was happening. And the Heavenly- AlarmingFemale because there was told her that they were rejoicing
what
to do.

At

Deity still more

astonishment.
her him and
cave.

showed
in

august than she, and two of the Deities she looked the Sun-Goddess mirror, at which a
In The
this way

the

Deities

beguiled
is

her

from
drove

Deities then

punished
land

Susa-no-wo

and
fused cona

forth.

The

story of his after adventures

In the of Yomi
as

inconsistent. wedded

he

slew

dragon
of whom

and

the maiden

intended he had the

its prey. many

At

last he reached the

the

the nether
most

land where
was

children,
Ohonathe Ise

important
at

Earth-God
who second is

mochi,
God for

Deity worshipped sanctity.

Sun-Goddess

Great-Name-Possessor

Idzurno,
determined

shrine

to-day only to

dispossessOhonamochi of the Land that her grandson Ninigi1 might reign over Reed-Plains. In the end Ohonamochi yielded to her to earth with a great retinue behest, and Ninigi descended God's daughter* of attendants. Here he married a Mountain One of his sons the daughter of a Sea God, Her married
The
to

Augustness
appeared
wedded
as

Luxuriant-Jewel-Princess
a

who,

at

childbirth,
Her
son

crocodile

eight

fathoms

long.

was sister,and their youngest son His Augustness Divme-Yamato-Ihare-Prince, better known as Jimmu, the founder of the Imperial Dynasty. When decided to go East forty-five years old, the Emperor Jimmu fair and a Yamato, the central part of Japan, conquer is which land encircled all sides by fair mountains," on the Nihongi the centre of the world," and this event
" "

his mother's

His full name

was

Earth-Plenty-Heaven's-Sun-Height-Prince Heaven-Plenty-

Rice-Ear-RuddyPlenty.
M

178

THE to

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vi
from the

ascribes

the had

year
a

667

B.C.1

Thus,

first,

patriotismhas
of the

Gods,
of the

and

the

sanction. religious Japan is the home dant descena Emperor is of divine origin,

Sun

Goddess.
way of the has be Kami.2

Shinto
have

is the

In the translations
"

we

Kami utilised, word Kami Thus back

the the the may

been

translated
to

the

applied
deities
scholar is

by Deity," but anything strange and

the Male

awful.
drove

peaches with
infernal

which

-Who

-Invites As

are

called

Kami.

Motoori,
"

great Shinto
term

of the

says, various in the

The

Kami of Heaven

applied in
and
as

eighteenth century the first place to the

who
are

deities ancient

Earth
to their

mentioned

which reside spirits in the shrines where they are worshipped. Moreover, not only human beings but birds,beasts, plants and trees, seas serve deand which mountains, and all other things whatever to be dreaded and revered for the extraordinary and which they possess are called Kami. pre-eminent powers for surpassing nobleness, goodThey need not be eminent ness, serviceableness alone. or Malignant and uncanny beings are also called Kami, if only they are the objects of general dread."3 Greatest are Many of the Kami clearlyNature-Gods. of
"

records, as well

them

all is the in

Sun-Goddess,

the

Ruler

of

Heaven,

dignity." As we have seen, in the earliest is not records, although the chief of the Gods, her power unlimited. Thus, when brother, injured by her younger instead of avenging the insult she retired to a cave, from the Gods which beguiled her and prevented her return by force, and the punishment allotted to her brother was determined not by her alone but by a council of the Gods. In later times she is often called, not by her Japanese title, Ama-terasu-oho-mi-kami, the Heaven-Shming-Great1

unrivalled

Nihongi, I.
Shinto is
a

p. 111. Chinese

term

for which

the Japanese equivalent is Kami

no

Michi,

the
"

Way

of the

Gods. G. Aston, Shinto, the

Quoted by W.

Way of the Gods,

pp.

8, 9.

vi]

SHINTO its Chinese

179

equivalent,Tenshodaijin, tion and as this name is less readilyunderstood, her solar funcIn popular thought she is is,to an extent, obscured. sect of as a regarded more Supreme Being, and a modern Shinto her in the sun sees regards her as the Life-giver, perfectemblem, and gives her exclusive worship.1 Of the Ohonamochi, worshipped great Earth-God, siderable especiallyat Idzumo, we have already spoken. Of conimportance is the Food-Goddess, Ukemochi, who is generally identified with Inari, the Rice-God, and who in popular esteem herself.2 next to the Sun-Goddess comes and The other nature -gods include gods of the mountains the rivers,of the rain, the thunder, the wind and the sea. In the ancient of the greater writings apparently none but and deified men, heroes gods were later, national were especially the Mkados worshipped. The phallic element in early Shinto became later very prominent. it has of 1868 almost Happily, since the Restoration entirelydisappeared. It would that ancestor-worship formed no part appear of ancient Shinto and in Japan through Chinese arose influences. The divine the origin of beings from whom houses is traced the noble deified not nature -deities, are it introduced ancestor- worship was ancestors, and when Mikados. at first the worship of dead Dr. Harada was is claims that much of the modern worship of ancestors than for the memory of the dead reverence nothing more and tendance their spirits."3 upon The ethics of Shinto are as rudimentary as its theology. Its sacred books give no moral teaching, and this,to some their merit and a proof that in the Japanese, has seemed The needed. golden age of old Japan no moral code was argument is a strange one, for the myths do not reflect a August -Deity,but by
" 1 1 "

Cp. T. Harada, The Faith of Japan, p. 36. Cp. W. G. Aston, Shinto, the Way of the Gods, p. Op. cit., p. 37.

162.

180

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vi
are demned con-

beautiful

and it is

unconscious
on

virtue.
on

If offences

ritual,not
may

moral

grounds,

and

the

defilement
are

feared
and

innocent
causes,

spring from certain causes natural. Impurity, whether

sin, contact
could
with

which
due
or

to

natural
or

to sexual

death,

ing receivor

wounds inflicting
in the seventh

be removed

by

lustration

by

ransom.

When,

century of the

era, Buddhism

became

In firmlyestablished in Japan, Shinto inevitablydeclined. the following century, an of the two made amalgam was the Sun-Goddess religions, being identified with Vairochana and others of the Kami being regarded as avatars of other

Buddhist

deities.

The

new

sect

thus

formed Parts.1

was

called Its most of the

Ryobu Shinto, the conspicuous advocate

Shinto
was

of

the

Two

Kobo

Daishi, the founder

Until
the

Shingon
in the

school

of Buddhism.

revival Shinto
a

of Shintd
was

eighteenth century,
influential
or

this "mixed" such how

by
Wa
was

far its most

form, and
shows

book

as

the

Rongo
the
were

ennobled

Japanese Analects2 and by Buddhist

Chinese

greatly Shinto
influences. classes
reaction

also Confucian

In

seventeenth

century the

governing
A

of

Japan

greatlyunder
some

influences. for

followed,

to arouse patrioticreasons in the ancient interest ciples literature of Japan, and their disMotoori and Hirata endeavoured to give the movement character and to bring about the revival a religious of a Pure Shinto freed, as they believed, from alien
" "

and

scholars

sought

influences.3

"

Pure the

Shint5

"

was

one

of the influences
when raised the
to

which

brought
the

about

Restoration

of 1868
was

Mikado,
effective Shint5

descendant For
a

of the few

Sun-Goddess,

power.
1

years
"

after the Restoration, Pure

mystic worlds
it,see
The of Buddhism
"

The

Two

Parts

denote

the two

(Aston, op. cif.,

p.

362).
2
3

Published
the

in 1669.

For
;

quotationsfrom
1776-1843. of the

Motoori, 1730-1801
Buddhist

Hirata,

Aston, op. tit., pp. 367-72. made to claim attempt was

of the

for Shinto

doctrine

immortality

soul and

the

Chinese

of ancestor-worship (Aston, practice

op. cit., pp.

373, 4).

vn]
was

BUDDHISM

181

too artificial was naturallypopular, but the movement to retain its power for long. Shinto to-day exists in two forms. As a popular religion, it is one others, and, like Japanese Buddhism religion among and Christianity, is controlled of Religions. by the Bureau This popular Shinto has many six number sects, of which
more

than have

million

adherents of
it
a

each.1
new

In

recent

there ancient
it does
to

been

indications Barren
vague
as

enthusiasm of

years for the

religion.
stand
to

seems

spiritualpower,
seems

for be

a a

divinisation

of nature, and national

pride and monarchial loyalty.2 In its State form, Shint5 has nearly shrines which controlled fiftythousand are by a special Government Bureau. This State Shinto has been officially declared "to be not a religion, but merely a deep veneration of the Imperial ancestors and festivities and rites in of national heroes," but some observers complain memory
many

fit

expression

of

that

this

Mikadoism

tends

to

become the

modern that
can

Caesar

worship which gives a place to rightlybe given to God.3

Mikado

only

VII.

"

THE

CONTRIBUTION RELIGION
OF

OF

BUDDHISM JAPAN

TO

THE

The

History of Japanese
was

Buddhism. into

Buddhism
one

introduced

Japan

in

A.D.

552
was

from then
to

of the

three Its
"

divided.4

Emperor,

an

Korea kingdoms into which king, desiringthe help of Japan, Butsu,5 several image of Shaka
a

sent

the

umbrellas, and
1 2
1

number

of volumes

of Sutras.

flagsand Separately

T. Harada, See The

op.

cit., p. 7.

See the enthusiastic

article by Dr. T. Baty in the Hibbert Journal, April,1921. " the article, national Emperor Worship in Japan," by A. Pietcrs, in The InterReview of Missions, July, 1920. South- Western

"

Kingdom

of Pekche.

i.e. Sakyamuni Buddha.

182

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vn
merit
'

he of

he lauded the in which presented a memorial diffusing abroad religious worship, saying :
is

This

doctrine it is hard Duke

amongst
and This
without
a man

all doctrines hard

to

the

most

excellent. Even
to
a

But
the

to

explain and
doctrine
measure

comprehend.
not

of Chow of it.

Confucius
can

had

attained

ledge knowand
so

create

merit religious

retribution lead
on

and

without

bounds, and

to
a so

full

Imagine
content,
as

that them.

appreciation of the highest wisdom. to his heart's in possession of treasures he might satisfy all his wishes in proportion
Thus
it is with prayer
"

he used

the treasure

of this wonderful

doctrine.
'

Every
gave

is fulfilled and heard to

nought

is wanting.'

The and

Emperor,
command
till

having
to

the end,
'

leaped

for from of

joy

former

days
so

now

the envoys, have had we

a

saying : Never the opportunity

We
are

to listening

wonderful

doctrine.

unable,

however, to decide for ourselves.' Accordingly he inquired of his ministers, one after another, saying : The tenance coun'

presented to us by Frontier State is of a severe the Western dignity,such as have never before. at all seen we Ought it to be worshipped One of his ministers, a member of the Soga not ? or all the family, urged that it should be worshipped, for Western Frontier Lands without exception do it worship."
' "

of this Buddha

which

has

been

Two

other

ministers, of whom

one

was

the "If

head
we we

of the
were

Mononobe

family,protested against this : it may be feared worship foreign Deities,

incur ordered

to

that The

should

the

wrath

of

our

National

Gods."1

Emperor

image to be given to the minister Soga, that he might make the experiment of worshipping it. He received of his house its temple. Soon the image gladly,and made had broke out and the ministers who a pestilence opposed of Buddhism obtained the introduction permission to have the temple burned into a canal. and the image thrown The and loyal to the new religion, Soga family remained
the
"

Nihongi, H.

66-7.

vn]
in
A.D.

BUDDHISM 589

183

were

able

to

overcome

their

rivals
years

and
later who

thus

Four possible its rapid advance. placed on the throne the Empress Suiko ardent Buddhist. She appointed as an

made

they
was

Tenno,

Regent people
"

Shotoku the

Daishi,
reverence

who

did

all in In
a

his

power

to

make the

Buddhism

of Japan. religion
the Three

decree

he bade

sincerely
Law and

Treasures
"

of the
are

Buddha,
supreme

the

the faith
were

Priesthood," for
in all received
to

these

the

countries."1 from Korea

Buddhist and

monks

objects of and images

sent to

Japanese

students

China

learn

about

Buddhist

doctrines

and

Chinese

Japan was able speedilyto appropriate the more advanced civilisation of China. religion and Yet both Japanese, for religionand civilisation became Chinese subordinated to ideas of justice were Japanese the for the Imperial House, and reverence gods of old into the Buddhist introduced pantheon. Japan were Thus the claims of patriotism were and the culture of met
the

polity. In

this way

great world
progress

assimilated.2 of Buddhism Shomu had reached

its climax

The of the

in the

reign
many

Emperor
which

(A.D.724-48), who
erected
a

established bronze

monasteries

and

colossal

Buddha,
in the
to

is said to

be still the

figure of largestbronze figure

we

world.

Buddhist
of

the

formation
which
a

began to lead, as sects and, as conflicting

these

zeal

shall see,

the

religious
ness bitter-

fervour

occasioned

declined, sectarian

took
many and

form. political
monasteries

By
had

the become

sixteenth armed

century
camps

of
their

the

this time At military commanders. of political and confusion spiritualdecay, Christianity entered Japan and won great influence, but the Jesuit missionaries became entangled in the conflicts of the age. In the interests of national minated, exterwas unity, Christianity and all Japanese wrere required to connect
1 *

abbots

II. p. Op. cit,, Cp. the similar

129.

assimilation

in recent

years

of Western

culture

and

Christian

ideas.

184

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vn
But

themselves
did
not

with

some

Buddhist

temple.

Buddhism

rival. of its hated profitlong by the destruction attracted Increasingly the influential classes were by became for the most Confucian teaching and Buddhism part In 1870, two after the the religion of the humble. years was Restoration, Buddhism separated from Shint5 and Yet, in spite of all difficulties, finally disestablished. lives in a way Buddhism Shinto, except as a ritual of Some of its sects show not. great patriotism, does educated and Japanese there are many vitality, among who, though indifferent to the temple worship, still hope to find in a repristinated and Buddhism Eastern a religion, needs to that extent native, and yet adequate to modern and Western learning.

The

Gods

and of

their

Worship.
Buddhism
are

largelythose of the Buddhism from it was Chinese which ultimately derived.1 the most Of the BUDDHAS important are Shaka, Dainichi and the Amida, Japanese equivalents of Sakyamuni, Vairochana and Amitabha. Shaka, or Sakyamuni, is in rather than popular thought often regarded as a celestial, an Dainichi, or Vairochana, is identified earthly Buddha. with the Sun-Goddess of Shintd sects, is and, in some held to be the supreme Buddha. In the Pure Land Sects, in Japan are which it is Amida, or Amitabha, very influential, is regarded as the supreme Of the who Buddha.2 BODHISATTVAS, in Japan as in China, the most popular is the Goddess of Mercy, here called Kwannon, and to her temples are dedicated. Closely associated with her many is Miroku, or Maitreya, who is expected to be the next Buddha to appear on earth, and there are large statues of him carved in the rocks. The SAINTS include not only
The

gods

Japanese

1 "

See earlier See pp. 138

on

the

Mahayana
166.

in India

(pp. 136-8), and

in China

(pp.166, 7).

and

vn]
the

BUDDHISM

185

and
the the As

of the Buddha, of whom, as in China, Ananda disciples Kasyapa are regarded as the most important, but also of of Japan ; the founders teachers great Buddhist thus honoured sects are by their followers. especially
in

is shown of sixteen to a group reverence Korea, much Binzuru is much saints, of whom worshipped as a healer and there is also a largergroup of diseases,1 of five hundred

saints. Fudo
and

The
and

pantheon

includes

God
and

Shoden, the the Ganesa, and Shinto deities such as Hachiman, of War, and Izanagi and Izanami, the mythic creator
creatress

like origin, gods of Hindu Japanese counterparts of Siva

of

Japan.
resemble
in design, originals and grace typicalof the artistic genius the temples there is often a rotatory the devout, by turning this shrine, are the
were

The

temples

their

Chinese

but of

have

the charm Near

Japan.
to

book-shrine,2 and
able
if the win it scriptures

for themselves contains

merit

that

would

accrue

read.

The

Sects

of Buddhism,
number of the
and has these
are as some

The

correct

sects

in

Japan,
with

as

in

China,
became
modern

is held to be

twelve,
number of
as

of the earlier sects made

have up
more

obsolete
sects.

the

been
sects

Some
numerous

yet

the
:

varieties

subdivisions,3 of Buddhism, many

many

Buddhists
"

would
From

say

varied
and
we

sides the
far

paths ascend,

Many
But, when

abreast,

Single'sthe
1

the calm full-moon gaze on mountain's crest."4

The
own

sufferer
*

rubs hich

the

part

of Binzuru's
or

image

which

corresponds to

the part

of his
2

body v. Japanese, Rinzd

See
A.

is diseased

painful.
for
a

K.

(Hackmann, op. cit., p. 274). Reischauer, Studies in Japanese Buddhism,

list of

sects fifty

and
"

sub-sects.

T. Harada, The Faith ofJapan, p. 80,

186

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vii
:

Of the sects, five Sect Land

are

of great

importance
Meditation
Pure

the

True

Word

(Shingon), the Sect of Sect (Jodo), the True

Land

(Zen), the Pure Sect (Shin),and

the Sect called after Nicheren

its founder.

1
.

The The

Shingon
founder

or

True

Word

Sect.
or

of the
whose

Shingon,
name we

True

Word,

Sect,

was

Kobo

Daishi,1

have

already

mentioned

in connection

with

Ryobu
gone
to

Shinto. China

At the close of the

to

eighth

century, he had
had
return
come

in contact

North and
as a

Japan he Japan, where

to

study Buddhism, and On his with the Shingon sect there. began a series of missionary tours in
Buddhism
was as

yet little known,

had

in Japan, not only He is honoured great success. great missionary preacher and teacher, but as a man

of vast

practicalgiftswho
In
A.D.

did

much
a

for

agricultureand
and
there

education.
wrote

816

he retired to his

monastery
is set forth.

the treatises

in which

system
is
a

development of the pantheisticside of Mahayana thought, and is thus able to combine speculation and superstitionand to include in of contemporary Buddhism of the elements religion many in Japan. The scripturemost prized by this sect is the Saddharma Pundarika, the Lotus of the Good Law.2 Sakyamuni is only one manifestations of the eternal of many
The

system

of Kobd

Daishi

Buddha Goddess world material thus

this

Vairochana3 of Shinto. of ideas, and

who

is

identified
is at
once

with
the

the

Sunof the their

Vairochana
the
source

centre
come

from

which world.
the

counterparts
from

emanations

phenomenal Vairochana and, by

realise thus
be
even

in the

Men

are

illumination
oneness

system gives, may

Vairochana
and

in this

life their and

with

absorbed And

in him
as

so,

in

popular phrase,
1

become
posthumous

Buddha.
title of honour
"

phenomena
Kukai, who
lived

K5bo
A.D.

Daishi

is the

given

to

from
*

774-836.

See

earlier, pp. 134-6.

Japanese, Dainichi.

vn]

BUDDHISM

187

be controlled depend on their correlate ideas, they can by thought. In this way the pantheisticsystem provides the basis for magic powers. Shingon is the True Word, the efficacious formula, and, by knowing the True Word, be achieved. desired results can Shingon priestsare thus held and of occult powers, to be masters are employed of their desires, to secure for the living the attainment and the mitigation of the pains of hell. As for the dead is natural, the ritual of Shingon temples is ornate and the elaborate. The is to-day third in size among sect of Japan sects a proof that it has not quite lost its
"

attractive

power.

2. The

Zen Zen

or

School

of Meditation.

representativein Japan of the Buddhist School of Contemplation (dhyana) which was proclaimed in China in the sixth century by the patriarchBodhidharma. Its teachings seem reach after the to have Japan soon
is the

The

introduction the Zen

his
owes

of Buddhism
its
return

originto
from
on

there, but, as a distinct sect, the sect after Eisai,who founded

China
in
A.D.

second
stress

1191.

Because

of
at

the

it laid
use

first to Rinzai

the

meditation, the of books, but soon,

was

school
in

objected
to

addition

this

Zen,

there
more

founded

another
to

school, the

Soto

scriptures. In its various forms, the Zen sect has to-day a larger number of temples than any Its other Buddhist sect in Japan.1 teaching has as its aim the escape from the phenomenal and distinctions of subject and known, object, knower and the realisation of the real and unchanging self which
lies behind
are

Zen,

in which

place is given

the sacred

the

world

given by
sect

which had
and

and directions elaborate of sense, this enlightenment may be obtained. among

The

has

great influence
army

the This

samurai

of

earlier times
? See

officers of
given in
A. K.

to-day.

popularity,

the statistical table

Reisciiaaer,op. cit., p. 157.

188

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vn

be due partly to sight seems strange, may its readiness have to appropriate Confucian ideals, which been long prized in military circles, and partly to its and self-control. emphasis on self -discipline
at

which

first

3.

The The

Jodo Pure

or

Pure

Land Sect
was

Sect.

1175 in A.D. formally founded it enjoins by Honen Shonin, but the worship of Amida existed long before this in Japan. Thus the Tendai Sect, introduced from China into Japan by Dengyo Daishi early in the ninth century, included in its comprehensive wards afteramalgam of beliefs the Amida doctrine, and this was Genshin and elaborated Tendai monks, by two founded Ryonin, the latter of whom a separate sect for its propagation.1 Tendai at Honen himself studied a to one of Genshin 's writings his first monastery and owed insight into the meaning of salvation by faith in Amida. Amida, the Ruler of the Western Paradise, is a mighty and

Land

merciful he would

God
not merit

who,
become
to

when
a

Bodhisattva,
until he

had had

vowed

that

Buddha all who

accumulated
in

enough Ryonin
made the

save as

put
thus

their

trust

him.2
name

had

spoken
so

if the

recitation
was

of Amida's
a sense

merit, and

salvation Honen

in

earned and

worshipper.
salvation
was

that
and

rejected bestowed by
stress
on

this
the the

idea,
grace

by taught

of

Amida,

yet he, too, laid much

works. sprang

necessity of good it sect The Jodo prospered greatly, and from gether Pure Land the True Sect, which repudiates altoidea of merit and teaches that salvation
is

the

by
1

grace Ryonin a day

On
the

alone.
lived from the prayer
op.
A.D.

1072-1132. Amida

We

are

told
to

that

he would

recite

60,000

times

Namu

Butsu,

Hail

Amitabha

Buddha.

(See A.

K.

Reischauer,
2

cit., p. 104).
this school

originof

of the

Mahayana,

see

earlier, p.

138.

vii]

BUDDHISM

189

4.

The

Shin

or

True

Pure

Land of the

Sect.
True

Shinran,1
at

the

founder

Pure

Land

Sect,2 was

first

Tendai
to

monk, but through hearing Horen

preach

carried Shinran put his sole trust in Amida. of salvation the doctrine out to its logical extreme by faith alone. Of noble birth,he married a princessbelieving that in this he was of obeying the behest of the Goddess Mercy, who had appeared to him in a vision. His marriage
he

learnt

meant

decisive

break

with that

the

Buddhist

doctrine
"

of merit,
out
"

and

with

the tradition

of the the
and and any
"

world

could

live
are

had only those who the religious and life, householders.

and

gone in this

sect

priests marry writingshad

wide
sense

and

Shinran

's sermons from far

in

great influence
from
to

people
forbad their
sins

came

to

learn
to

him.

He
out

his followers
own are

seek
are

work because
as

salvation. blotted We
out

Whether do
not to

we

saved
; it is

our

we

know do

Amida have

has

ordained. believe."3

have in

nothing
the

with

it, we

but

to

Thus,

ordinary tasks, the believer hi Amida of salvation, and men of every class, might have the sense the ignorant as well as the learned, might win by their the glad confidence that faith in Amida at death they the Paradise would of Amida. Unlike other phases enter of Buddhism, this sect lays little stress on the impermanand vanity of life, have contributed and this too may ence its great success. It is to-day the most to important in element has shown Japanese Buddhism, and great modern and in to recent conditions, adaptability years has of the methods of Christian propaganda. adopted many It is obvious that the teaching of these Pure Land Sects affinities with has many Christianity. Professor Lloyd advanced the owes interesting theory that Amidaism much to Christian the and laid great stress on influence,
midst of life's
1 '

A.D.

1173-1262.

The

Jodo

Shin, commonly

called the Shin

sect.

A. K.

Reischaucr,

op. cif., p. 112.

190

THE

RELIGION to

OF

JAPAN seventh that

"

[vn

Nestorian

mission

China

in the

century, and
the

in
,

regard
"

to

Shinran he
"

himself,believed
was

probabilities
doctrines
Land

are

that

acquainted
"

with

Christian Pure

when Such

he framed
a

the system

of the

True

sect.1

The Shin teaching is a theory seems unnecessary. of the school natural Paradise development of the the in India at about Mahayana, which apparently arose Christian end of the first or the beginning of the second century. Nor need we assign the rise of this school in India to Christian influences for it can be sufficiently plained exantecedents.2 and Hindu by its Buddhist
" "

5. The

Nicheren Nicheren of

Sect.
sect
arose as a

The

protest against the

throneme de-

Sakyamuni
was

from
a man

Ms

Its founder
and

Nicheren3

primacy in Buddhism. of vigorous personality

was
a

the but

uncompromising zeal. Shingon sect ; later he

he abandoned
and these

At

first he

follower

of

studied
sects

under

Tendai

monks,

and

strove

fiercelyfor

national

religiousunity. Japan at the time was divided between to the Emperor at Kyoto and allegiance to the sh5gun or regent at Kamakura, whilst the supremacy which of Sakyamuni the was imperilledby the devotion
Pure
sermons

Land

sects

gave

to

Aniida. his
"

In

one

of his
have
one

earliest chief look

two
no

Nicheren
and you.
one

bade

countrymen

Buddha around
mothers. two
suns

Emperor.
No
at
man

Awake,
with above

men, two

awake fathers
:

and
or are

is born

Look
in the

the

heavens

you

there

sky. Look at the earth at your feet : no two kings can rule a country."4 Thus he protestedagainst the usurpation of the shogun in politics in and of Amida religion.
In the formation
1 8

of his system Nicheren

pp. 221-4
"

uses

as

his chief
137,
8.

The
A.D.

Creed

of Half Japan,

and

274.

See earlier, pp.

1222-82.

A. K.

ReiscLauer, op. cit.t p. 123.

vin]

CONFUCIANISM

191

scripturethe Lotus is given supremacy,

Buddha,
claimed foretold confident but
as

of

the Good
is

Law.

Shaka
as

(Sakyamuni)
the historic He

but

proclaimed, not
Buddha
was

the

eternal
that

in the minister

heavens. of

for himself
in the in

he

the

twentieth
his

book

of this Lotus denounced

authority,
"

Sakyamuni, and, Scripture*vigorously the

"

he more Nor was tolerant of other sects. worship of Amida. and The K5bo Shingon was treachery to the country Daishi "the prize liar of Japan." Men had no right to to Dainichi give any allegiance (Vairochana). The Zen he

described
denounced

"

as

doctrine of

of

demons

and
as was

fiends

"

and
to
one

its

method

meditation
his
career

conducive
a

spiritual pride.2 Naturally

and his
sect

stormy

has

retained

something
sects

of

his

fanaticism.

To-day
the

whilst

other
sect

Buddhist
is

live in

amity together,
Thus,

Nicheren

exclusive
sect

and

intolerant.

although the of Sakyamuni

he his would

Nicheren
in

rightlystands for the primacy Buddhism, it not only gives him a place
but, less than
other

have

shunned

sects, reveals

gracious tolerance.

VIII.

"

THE

CONTRIBUTION
RELIGION

OF OF

CONFUCIANISM
JAPAN

TO

THE

As

we

have
to

seen,

the

ancient

unreffective
with

be

ethical,and
At

too religionof Japan was it was only after its contact

to

China

that

Japan began
first the
Buddhism
not

realise the

need

of

scious con-

morality.
were

dominant
was

Chinese of religion

influences
the

Buddhistic.
and had

the

great

but of salvation an only a message attractive pantheon of mighty and compassionate gods. But Buddhist morality was primarily for monks, and failed

world,

Visishta-charita. A.

(See S.B.E.,

XXL

p.

364, and

A.

Lloyd, op. cit., p. 303.)

Lloyd, op. cit., pp. 293-6.

192

THE

RELIGION

OF

JAPAN

[vin
and

to

provide guidance
;
even

for

State

polity
when

ordinary lay
was

conduct

in the centuries ethical

ideals

Buddhism
were

most

influential
on

the

of

Japan

largely based
the

Confucianism.

Thus

Shotoku

Daishi,
Buddhism

seventh
its first

century regent

to whom

Japanese
very

owed
he
"

conspicuous
of Buddhism
"

success,
"

in the

edict in which of the nations

and
"

speaks
makes
"

as
"

the ideal doctrine cardinal

virtue

propriety
Confucian

the

fidelity Japan,

the

foundation

of

justice.1
in
were was

ideals, in being naturalised

To Confucius
the

transformed.

and virtue was reciprocity a obligation. In Japan the law of reciprocity seemed inadequate to the demands of loyalty. The subject must obey his sovereign even though his sovereign failed to do his duty, whilst to because he was speak of deposing an emperor unworthy appeared not only disloyalbut blasphemous. Loyalty to the crown filial took precedence over all virtues ; even piety had to yield to this. When, in the twelfth century, the decay of the imperial power led to a period of feudal the samurai Bushido wars or knights elaborated the famous idea of chivalry,and Bushido, though influenced by the teachings of the Zen sect, has its basis in Confucianism but a Confucianism but military. In no longer pacific China the popular stories speak of studious youths and model who, even sovereigns. In Japan they speak of men when unjustly condemned by their feudal lords, are ready to sacrifice in their masters' service not only their comfort
" "

rule supreme of mutual matter

of life

but
or

even

if need

be their

own

child,and daughters are

virtue, or the virtue of wife praisedwho, in order to maintain

none

their parents, sell even

his
man

that which

have and

rightto buy.2
tablet The
shipped, wor-

Thus, although Confucius

ideals have
is not

is extolled

his

been scholar ideals

transformed. but of
2

perfect

the virtuous the

op.

the devoted

soldier.

Although
1

ethical
cit., p.
62.

Japanese
Knox,

Confucianism
op. 150-4. cit.,

See T. Harada,

See G. W.

vm]
and

CONFUCIANISM

193

until the not antagonistic,it was that their incompatibility was period of the feudal wars The were acutely realised. quietistic ethics of Buddhism felt by many State to be treachery to the of the samurai and histic, Buddremained the family, and, although the masses its services the samurai and more more employed only at time of death, and began to find in Confucianism, not ing only a congenial ethical ideal, but something approachin man not a was religion. The Way1 only inherent its had but in the universe, and of virtue the earthly Way thus of heaven, and good conduct counterpart in the Way Buddhism
are

thus

had In their

its sanction

in
rare

the

unseen.2 abandoned
in

1868, with
about

self-effacement, the samurai

their clan
to

privileges
the

and

organisation
the

order
supreme

to

bring
and

Restoration Confucianism
now

Mikado

of

temporal
the house.
are

power.

still has concentrated

are

great influence,
on

spiritof loyalty is
The who is
at

the

imperial
there

Chinese desire
once

Classics
a

greatly prized,3 and

as
a

many

revival
and

of Confucianism

system
the

which

Oriental which

yet

compatible
that

with

secularist involves
;

outlook whilst
an

it is believed the

Western of

science
some ligion, re-

others, feeling
eclectic derived
as

necessity
will and

desire

religion which
from
one

combine

with

Confucianism,
and

ideas

Buddhism World's Jesus

Christianity
Three

speak
other

of Confucius
two

of The and

Saints,*

the
1

being Sakyamuni
of Too.

Christ.

Michi,
For
ft

the brief

Japanese equivalent
account 9-13.
"

of

some

of

the

sects

of

Japanese
made

Confucianism,

see

T.

Harada,
*

op. cit.,pp.
a

In

symposium
1909,
the the

on

the

hundred

best

books,"
whilst

by
the New first

daily

Tokyo
votes.

in The
on

Analects

of

Confucius
came

received

easily
the in the

largest

paper number
came

in of

Writing*
list.
No

of

Mencim

next,
was

Testament

seventh 02).
4

Buddhist

book

included

forty. (T. Harada,

cit., p. 171).

cit.,p. 13).
The

title of

recent

Japanese

book.

(See

T. Harada,

op.

V ISLAM

I." MUHAMMAD

AND

HIS

MISSION

ISLAM million

is

to-day the religionof people, and, separated

of
race are

more as

than
its

two

hundred
are

adherents

by
God

differences

and
one

culture
in their

and

by

the bitter animosities

"

of sects, they but

confession.
is his

There

is

no

tion Messenger." The revelathat Muhammad brought supersedes, in their judgment, have all other religions.His words behind the them full authority of the Divine. Everything in his life is of and they look forward to the time when all significance, will see the world in him the one perfect prophet of God. In no in Christianity, other religion, has the person save of the founder such importance. It is clear then that our be in the first place a study of the study of Islam must life and teaching of Muhammad.

Allah, and

Muhammad

1. The The

Arabia barren

of Muhammad's
land of Arabia

Time.
has

been

always
time that

land
we

of

mystery, and of the Arabia of Muhammad's only fragmentary knowledge. It is evident

have

the Arabs
we

worshipped very nothing except worship of Venus

1

many the
as

gods, but
Of

of most
some

of them

know

name.1

al-Uzza, the
as see

most

the importance was mighty. Tradition

and
women.

The these 1-10.

names
''

of Gods
"

survive
names,

For
pp.

theophoroits

of men part of the proper names J. Wellhausen, Iteste Arabischen 194

Ueidentums,*

i]
states

MUHAMMAD

196

that
with and

Muhammad Manat and

were

sacrificed to her in his earlier Allat

were

days.

She

the

chief

goddesses of

daughters of Allah. It is which of gods some the crowd interestingto find among the Quran asserts were worshipped in the time of Noah.1 feared the jinns,spirits Of very great importance were more 'in human affairs. than readily honoured, who meddled
Mecca,

they

called the

Mecca, where Muhammad Kabah, a cube-shaped house,

black
stone.

At

was

born, stood the famous

one

at

end

of which

was

importance, whom temple-taxes

the

its wealth Mecca owed its presence for here came pilgrimsin large numbers

To

and from

were

levied.

In

Muhammad's

time,

possession of the temple, and so their supreme in Mecca. It is probable that dominant tribal deity was Allah, the God,2 and it has been suggested that Hubal, whose image stood in the Kabah, was identified with Allah.3 The Quraish claimed to be of the family of thus his people, they did Allah, but, although they were the Kabah not give him an exclusive worship, and near were images. The Quran describes the paganism many We have given the period of ignorance." of the time as
Quraish
tribe
was

in

"

"

them,"

says

Allah

to

Muhammad,
we

"

no

books
to

in which
them

to

warnings."4 Yet to this there seems been to have one exception. The Quran itself refers to the maxims and of Luqman, speaks of him uttering the Join not other gods with God for the joining warning, of gods with God is the great impiety."5 Yet in Arabia there were knowledge peoples who had of a Book." There were tribes wholly, or partly,Christian. It does not appear that their Christianity was conspicuously so noble, and completely did Christianity disappear that before Islam tell if the Scriptures cannot even we
" " 1
2

study deeply, nor thee, charged with

have

sent

anyone

before

S., LXXI.

L'O.

"

Allah, a male Wellhausen, S., XXXIV.

deity,of

whom

Allat

was

the

feminine

counterpart.
12.

op. eit., p. 75. 1 J.

", XXXI.

196

ISLAM
ever

[i
vernacular. have

were

translated
and
nuns

into
there

their
must

Yet
some

among time

the monks and

been

with

abilityfor study,
Christians became
were a

and which

the

earlier part of the

Quran
Arabia

reflects the respect with The

a

such

knowledge
and

was

regarded. persecuted Abyssinia

see

opposed by
Jewish
a

the Jews.

In South

king

convert,
force
to

the Jews Christian

the

Christians
the

until

from
an

brought
much

Jewish

kingdom
of Muhammad

end.

We
to

shall his

how

the

teaching

owed

knowledge,

and Christianity. of Judaism as it was, slight In Mecca in confusion. was itself, Socially, Arabia wealth trades were brought some security, and many divided were practised. But the Arabs up into many central no tribes, and there was authority. Homicide was lightly regarded, and its punishment held to be simply for private vengeance. Some matter a mitigations there
were.

For

four

months life was of

in

the

year

sacred

truce

was

observed, at Mecca,
condemned. tribes claimed

in which
as a

safe, and

it would

appear

that

place
was

pilgrimage, blood-shedding was

work he
was

It
a

Muhammad's This
all that

to
a

weld

the hostile

into
to

nation.

did

by
true

religionwhich
Judaism and Arab

embody and yet Christianity, and Arab pride.

of

did not

conflict with

prejudices

2. The We

Early Life of Muhammad.

have little certain life. the the
year branch

knowledge
It would
A.D.

of the first forty years that he

was

of Muhammad's
in

appear 570.

born father
was nected con-

Mecca

in
to

Muhammad's

belonged
dominant

of the

Quraish tribe, which

mother
was

in Mecca, with
a

whilst

his father's
at

Muhammad when that he he

was

powerful tribe was an orphan.

Yathrib. Some say

It is clear that his father died

six years of age. A commoner died before his child was born.

tradition asserts The

name

given

i]
to

MUHAMMAD

197

the
not
was

child, Muhammad,
unknown. It

was

rare

but

the signifies

among Praised.

the The

Arabs,

orphan

of influence provided for by his grandfather,a man Muhammad and was eight years dignity. He died when mother of age. Muhammad's was already dead, and his his guardian. Abu Talib, became paternal uncle, Abu but he lacked duties the Talib fulfilled the faithfully, wealth and prestigeof his father, and the family fortunes that little attention It would was began to wane. appear education, and that he did not, in paid to Muhammad's learn to read or write. his childhood, even Probably he would have spent his time tending his uncle's sheep and

boy

camels.
to

When

twelve his uncle

years
on saw a

old, Muhammad

was

allowed

accompany

this

impressionableage,
country, and
Tradition
must

journey to Syria, and so, at something of a nominally

heard his
a

Christian doctrines. marked When

have
us

little of Christian
years
were

tells

that

youthful
conduct.
at

by
he

self-restraint and
was

honourable

twenty-five years
was

old,
caravan

the of
a

suggestion
rich

of his uncle

he offered to lead the which

widow,
in

Khadijah,
from the

setting out
Muhammad

for
was

Syria.
very

It is clear

Quran

that

interested

and quotes often Christian phrases, and it Christianity, from has been these visits to Syria suggested that it was of his knowledge was derived. On his return, that much Khadijah fell in love with him, and by a trick secured her to her father's consent She marriage with Muhammad. had already been twice married and, according to tradition, was now a very forty years of age. But the marriage was gained not only wealth and happy one, and Muhammad the position,but a sympathetic companion who became confidant of his hopes and fears. She bore him one two or sons1 and four daughters. Of the first fifteen years of his married appear

life,even
that

the
were
*

traditions
years

say

little.

It

would

they

of

uneventful

prosperity.

It is uncertain

which.

198

ISLAM
he
was

[i

within him new nearly forty,he felt stirring of Allah, impulses to proclaim himself as the messenger to abandon the call his countrymen to and worship him all alone. He of other gods that they might worship When
used
at this time to leave

Mecca

and

go to in

cave

at the

foot

of Mount

Hira,

where

he

spent days

meditation,
with his

times some-

in company alone, sometimes that he seem Khadrjah. It would of his people. How the needs was in their
not

faithful
with

was

burdened
to

it that

the

Arabs,
?

ignorance, no
Jews
had

messenger and the

of God

had

come

Had

the
was

Moses

Christians
?

Jesus

?x What

if he vision

to be God's the

final

prophet

angel Gabriel, and generallyregarded by Muslim

to

length he saw in a uttered the Surah, which is biographers and theologians

At

be the
"

first revealed
Recite Created Recite Who

to him. of

thou, in the
man

name

thy
is the

Lord

who

created

"

from For

clots of blood.

thou. hath

thy
the

Lord

most
"

beneficent,

Hath

use taught pen which that he knoweth not. man taught is most insolent, Nay verily,man himself Because he seeth possessed of riches. is the Lord the of all."2 to return Verily

of the

Henceforth of God and

Muhammad made
utterances

felt himself
in God's

to
name.

be

the

messenger

3. Muhammad

the

Messenger of God.
his
was inspiration

The of

beginning of
appear

followed
are

"intermission."3 that for call.

The
a

traditions Muhammad

would

time
have

by a period obscure, but it lost the certainty

of the divine
the

Some of
an an

hallucination He

inadequate.
' 8

was

supposed that his vision was but the explanation is epileptic, Oriental, and for him the natural
he

Tea. S., XCVL,

form original

in H.

U.

W.

Stanton's

the
"

of this Surah

abbreviated version, which (The Teaching of the Quran, p. 18).

takes

to be

Estimates

of the length of this

periodvary

from

six months

to three years.

ij
and
that

MUHAMMAD

199

the
he

supernatural did
was

not

seem

far apart.
and

liable that his

to

nervous

convulsions,
strained
seem

It appears it was not

unnatural

intense, and

meditation that

should
he feared
:

issue in ecstatic
at

first that

he

experiences. It would was possessed of an

he
come

evil that this

a jinn spirit,

only gradually did

heard
were

to

believe And

the

words

he he

the

words

of

God.

confidence

gained largelythrough
in this connection is the

his wife's trust

in him.

Interesting

story his first biographer tells us. to sit distress, told him Khadijah, seeing Muhammad's

right,and she asked whether he still saw the spirit, each time him he and Then she bade him sit on her lap, and Yes." answered unveiled the spirit. herself, and asked him again if he saw And No." she said, Rejoice, and be he answered And It is an At length of good cheer. angel, and no devil."1 His utterances renewed. the revelations were were given in rhymed prose, and those of the earlier period are concise
first
on

her

left knee

and

then

on

her

"

"

"

and

tense.

public success, and, it may be, was public ministry. His first convert attempted no his wife Khadijah. Of her the Muslim biographer,already and held Khadijah believed in Muhammad, quoted, says, his revelation to be true, and supported him in all his plans.
At first he
met

with

no

"

She and

was

the

first who revelation.

he heard

believed
In

on

God God

and

His

in the

this way

sent

messenger him comfort

was

for whenever
at

anything unpleasant,or
and

grieved
him

being contradicted, through her ; when he returned him, made things easy for him, in him, and represented to him
of
no

belied, God
home
to

comforted

her, she cheered

him of her
men

assured
that

faith
was

the
were

talk of

account."2
the

His

next

converts

All, his cousin,

man,
"

afterward
1

fourth

Khalif,3 and
"

Zaid, a freed
"

whom
116. the

translated by G. Weil, I. 11/5. Ishaq in Ibn Hisham. left behind," and so (Arabic, Khali/ah), one used the viceregent of God it is of II. Adam as 28) Quran (S.,
Ibn
3

I. Op. cit.,
In

Khalif

successor."
on

earth.

It is the

same

word

as

Caliph.

200

ISLAM
had

[i
His held
in
next

Muhammad
was

Abu Mecca.

Bakr,
His

adopted as his son. wealthy merchant,

conversion testified his friend
was

convert
esteem

high

in

of the
to

Muhammad,

who owed

later

greatest help to of the great debt

unfailinghelpfulness Abu at once Bakr began the work of proselytizing, courage. which he with conducted prudence and zeal. He evidently knew how to adapt his message to his men. Where needed, he gave it ; and later, temporal help was slaves where ill-treated through their allegianceto were them he redeemed from Muhammad, slavery. Uthman, afterwards mad's a Khalif was won through his love of Muhamto betrothed She had been daughter, Ruqaiyah. for her another, but Abu Bakr arranged with Muhammad her to become Uthman's wife. Others professed to have had visions which made them ready to receive Muhammad's had dissatisfied with paganism ; ; some grown message influenced vivid revelations others were by Muhammad's of a sensuous heaven, and a fieryhell. It would appear that that the new formed and converts secret a society, first no at made at public propaganda. attempt was Muhammad's teaching at this time is well represented by the Surah, with which tradition he began his work, asserts after the period of hesitating silence.1
and
, "

gratitude he

for his

Thou,
and Lord

enwrapped
warn
"

in

thy

mantle

Arise

! ! !

Thy Thy
The And

raiment

magnify Him purify it

"

abominationbestow increase
not
;

"

flee it ! that thou

favours

mayest

receive

again

with

And For

for
when

thy

Lord

wait shall be

thou
a

patiently.

trump on the trumpet, shall be a distressful That day, devoid the of ease." A day, to Infidels,
1

there

S., LXXIV.

Muir

would in Mecca.

work began his^public

postpone this Surah Quotations from

to the the

time

when
are

Muhammad

Quran

from

RodwelPg

translation.

i]
At

MUHAMMAD
.

201

societybecame known in Mecca. Tradition speaks of Muhammad going to the precinctsof the Kabah, and there summoning the people length the
existence

of the secret

to

join
to

in the

formula,
one

"

There

is

no

God

but

Allah."

tumult

ensued, and
defend
even

of Muhammad's
the

ing stepsons, in rushfirst martyr found of of Islam.

was

him, perished as
any
one

But,

without

such

dramatic
was

incident, it
to

inevitable

that,

as

after another become

have
a

have

changed his the prophet

his

beliefs and himself

follower

Muhammad,

should

been

action.1

Muhammad

himself

challengedto justify safe through the was

of his slave protectionof his uncle, Abu Talib, but some were was disciples cruellypersecuted. Henceforth secrecy became a powerful preacher. A impossibleand Muhammad tradition says, When he talked of the Day of Judgement,
"

his cheeks

blazed, and

his

voice

rose,

and

his

manner

was

fiery." Vehemently
Arabs and
"

he denounced

the

polytheism

of the

their association of sexual

:

ideas with

the Godhead.

Say
God He And

He

is God eternal is

alone
!

the

begetteth not, and

there
none

He

is not him."2 at

begotten

like unto

And

to

an

uncle

who

had

mocked

him

he

threatened

vengeance.
"

Let His

the

hands and

of Abu his be

Lahab

perish,and
him

let himself
not.

perish

wealth

gains
at

shall avail

Burned

shall he

the

fieryflame."3
the unbeliever home of would
"

The would hell.

save
"

day
No

shall I

come were

when

say,

that

dust, for

the

cooling shall they taste and running sores water boiling

therein
; meet

transgressors is nor drink, any

recompense.

But, for the God-fearing is a blissful abode, Enclosed gardens and vineyards :
And And
1

damsels
a

with

swelling breasts,
120.

their

peers

in age

full

cup."*
"

See Mareoliouth, Mohammed, p. * "8,,cxii. sn cxi.

s., Lxxvni.

202

ISLAM

[i

of his length, with Muhammad's approval, some dom persecuted followers fled for safety to the Christian Kingof Abyssinia, but after three months they returned that Mecca the prophet's because of a rumour was now on At side. had It would for appear
a

from
in his

tradition

that

Muhammad

wavered

time

of the three
"

goddesses of
are

the

opposition to the worship Kabah, and had said of them :

These And

the

exalted

females,
may be

truly
of

their

intercession

expected."1

The

leaders and

the

Quraish

joined with
was

Muhammad he believed He

uneasy
a

promise, gladly accepted this comhim in the worship of Allah, but at his concession, and that night

that took
:

fresh back

revelation
his

came

to

him

from
now

Gabriel. reads
"

words, and

the

Surah

instead
?
were are

What This These

shall

ye

have
an names

male unfair
:

progeny and

and

God

female

indeed
mere

partition !a
your fathers named them

ye

thus."

A later Surah
"

refers thus had

to this declension

And

verilythey
to
our name

wellnigh beguiled thee

caused

from
some

what other

we

revealed in

thee, and
; but
as a

thee
case

to

invent

thing
have

in that

they
hadst

would

surely

taken

thee
we

friend.

And, had
to them
a

not

settled

thee, thou

wellnigh leaned
thee
taste

little.
case we

In
woe

that

would
woe

surely have
those who had

made

of

in life and Muhammad

of

in death."3 from had returned there

19

heard the

from

Abyssinia of
1

kindness

they

received
after
v.

and,
of S.,

According Alluding
XVII. -S.,

to

LI. 11 (Muir, The

* s

uttered al-Waqidi, these lines were Life of Mohammad, 80-5). pp. Arab
dislike

and

20

to the

76 ff.

ban

(op.cit., p. 172

Margoliouth puts f.).

of female progeny. this incident

later" at the removal

of the

i]

MUHAMMAD

203

persecution was there for safety.

as

still bitter,others In this time of

A

of his followers

fled

of

and disappointdifficulty ment, bitterest

tradition tells

Umar,
became
a

one

Muhammad's

opponents,
us

convert.

popular
and

he

covered dis-

his
a

sister,Fatimah

reading
sacred and

of the

Quran.

The

to husband, listening scripturereader fled,giving

her

the

roll to Fatimah.
in the

Umar

sought
her
remorse,

to obtain
a

it from The

her,

strugglewounded
filled him with

with

sword.

humbly he asked to read it. His request was granted and, on reading A follower of the Prophet. it, he desired to become a and the cause sturdy soldier,his accession helped much him next in importance to Abu Muhammad ranked Bakr. Muhammad's appeared dangerously strong, party now and as Abu Talib, though an unbeliever, refused to restrain his his nephew, the rest of the Quraish excommunicated Tradition has much clan. to say of the privationswhich Muhammad and his followers suffered, when congregated for safety in a ravine Abu Talib, and speaks belonging to sight of
her blood
as

and

if the

ban

lasted

for two
;

or

three

years.

Muhammad's

wife, Khadijah, died Talib, who, though

and, shortly after, his uncle Abu not a believer, had stood by him
to

loyally.
Muhammad
to

determined
a

leave

Mecca.

He

went

first

days was stoned out of the town. At this time of disappointment, he was cheered by seeing in a trance thousands. of jinns listening to his message. And when they heard it they said : discourse. Verily we have heard a marvellous It guideth to the truth ; wherefore in it ; believed we will not henceforth and we join any being with our Lord. He And be exalted ! the majesty of our Lord may
"
" "

at-Taif,but after

few

hath
"

taken

no

spouse,
servant

neither of God

hath

He
up

any
to

offspring."
Him,

When

the

stood

the

jinnsalmost
"

him jostled
8., LXXIL

by

call upon their crowds."1

8. XLVL
28

1. 2. 19.

Cp.

ff.

204

ISLAM
appear

[I
was

It would
to

that
on

Muhammad
that

permitted
confined
to him

to return

Mecca,
to

but

condition

he
came

his proselytising
an

strangers.1 At
success.

last there

tunity oppor-

men pilgrimage he met some from Yathrib, who were impressed by his teaching. They could not promise Muhammad safety in their city,for it but of civil war, the following year time was a they of the two tribes that were with representatives returned and at strife, they all took an oath to obey Muhammad back with his teaching. Muhammad sent and them a teacher, and awaited with anxiety the result of the mission. seemed The been to have straitened, prophet's means but he proclaimed to his followers God's promise to provide

of

At

the

for them.
"

"

We

ask

not

of thee

to

find thine
a

own

vision pro-

happy issue shall be to piety."2 It was there at this period of depression carried in a vision to the temple of that Muhammad was conducted thence Jerusalem, and by angels, prophets, At length the month and patriarchsto the throne of God.3 learnt of pilgrimage again came round, and Muhammad of his cause at Yathrib. to his joy of the great success of the Jews It is possible that the presence there, and easier the their expectation of a Messiah, made clamation proGod's prophet, and their teachof Muhammad ing as have familiarised the people must of the unity of God
we

will

provide

for thee, and

with

Muhammad's
over

central

message it

whilst
was an

Islam Arab

had

great advantage
an

Judaism, for

and

not

at

Muhammad met religion.About seventy converts Mecca, and these neophytes took the pledge that
alien

had

been

administered

the
now

year

before, but
to
now

with

significant
prophet
to

addition.

They
of A
arms.

promised
Muhammad

defend

their

by
of

force

determined
decision.

go

to

Yathrib. Mecca

long

Surah

his justifies Muhammad

The he

people
worked

had
1

taunted

because

So

182. Margoliouth,op. cit.,

8.t XX.

132,

"

See S., XVII.

1.

i]
no

MUHAMMAD

205

signs,but
He
"

"

God

truly
Himself
on

will him

mislead

whom

He
to

will ; Him."

and

will

giu'deto
not

who

turneth
"

They

believe them

the God

of

Mercy."
life and

Chastisement

awaiteth

in

this

present
after the

more

grievous
Yathrib stole

shall be the chastisement

of the next."1 emissaries from adherents and believers Abu left.

Two had
away with

or

three their

weeks

given
there their

pledge, secretly until

Muhammad's Muhammad the

Bakr,
For
a

families, were

only

while, Muhammad delayed to leave, but at length the Quraish grew suspicious,and he had to flee hurriedly from the city of his birth, where for thirteen years he had
laboured
as a

the
cave

prophet

of Allah.

Abu

Bakr

and

he

sought
era,

safety in
From
and this

and, after three

becomes

days,

fled to date

Yathrib.
their

migration (Hijrah}2 Muslims

now

Yathrib

Medina, al-Madlnah,

the

City,

the

cityof
Muhammad

the

Prophet.2
at

4.

Medina, A.D.
was

622-30, A.H.
no

1-8.

obscure longer an wieldingdespoticpower. prophet, but a powerful chieftain, the as Justly do Muslims regard Medina birthplaceof first took its characteristic their religionfor here Islam form militant as a organisation,relying for its success

At

Medina,

Muhammad

less

on

the word

than

on

the

sword. the events of these

It is
years, raids

impossible to
and
the

deal in detail with

as

unnecessary,

the

story of Muhammad's

and

consolidation
to
a

secular
was

than
erect

of his power religioushistory. One

which may

belong rather
of his be

to

first acts
as

to
1
8

place of worship
era

regarded

8., XIII.
The inaccurate

-21. 29. 34. is

Muhammadan form of

usuallyindicated
It dates
"

as

A.H.

anno

hegirae(hegirabeing

the precise moment of the Prophet's emigration,but from the beginning of the Arabian year in which the Emigration took place,that is to say, from a point about six weeks earlier."
the

hijrah).

not

from

"

According
313).

to

the

ordinary view
the year

the in

Wellhausen
p.

makes

bedn

began on 16 July, A.D. April (The Cambridge Medieval

year

622

"

but

II. History,

206

ISLAM
first

[i
one

the

he had he had

Mosque of Islam. his private quarters.

Saudah
; now to

At

married

Mosque, Soon after Khadijah's death he marries Ayishah, the little

whom he
years

end

of this

daughter
three

of Abu She

Bakr,
was

had

been

affianced
she
soon

years.

only

ten

of age, but had

gained
her

the

first place in Muhammad's

became Muhammad of
many many.

regards, although
as

rivals

Enthusiastic found of himself the

been

his the

welcome,
lukewarmness
"

hampered by people of Medina,

who gave him
to

the

Hypocrites," as the Quran calls them, nominal allegiance. At first Muhammad

to

only
win

hoped
were a

over

his side the Were

Jews

who
not

in

Medina
"

numerous

and

influential.
one

they
to

also

in believing

God, and
claimed
their

with be ?

People of prophets whose

But the Jews
at

Book,"
to

successor

Muhammad

had
him
as

refused

accept
lamented

Messiah, mocked

his

failures,and

his successes,
them

denounced
with

and, as we shall see, Muhammad fiercelyand, in the end, treated them

Mecca

great severity.

in naturally found difficulty in a strange city. Muhammad sought to relieve their needs by institutinga close brotherhood between them and the Helpers," the loyal believers of him it is to their city. But Medina, who had summoned clear that the from Refugees suffered much poverty. The Jews refused to help them, and their positionbecame of livelihood remained desperate. One means robbery Muhammad small expeditions sent out some by violence. to raid caravans, but they failed to bring back any booty. These have shocked not attempts at freebooting would
"
"

refugees from earning a livelihood

The

the

Arabs, for
of truce The

so

far Muhammad when alone

such

had

observed
was

the sacred condemned

to
a

months

violence

in Arabia.

failure of these
and
a a

early expeditions led

of
a

change
Abdallah the raid

of

policy

company

his followers month. of truce

under

attacked
was

caravan

in

sacred

Naturally
no

for in the months successful,

such

i]
attack
would

MUHAMMAD

207

be

expected,

and

this ordered Whether secured. booty was it. outrage is not clear,1 but it is clear that he condoned As usual, a revelation ing came. They will ask thee concernis in the Sacred therein Month. war Say : To war in is worse of God bad, but to turn aside from the cause the sight of God."2 sufficient. The permissiongiven was The booty was ; divided, and the prisonersput to ransom when next a raid was organised,there was no lack of those
"

this way Muhammad

in

considerable

eager to engage in it. Soon after, a richly-ladencaravan

was

returning

from

Syria under was likelyto

unusual
route

Abu
attack

and
sent

The

Meccans that but

Learning that Muhammad in force, Abu Sufyan hurried on by an for help. sent to Mecca a messenger out their army, a thousand strong, but Sufyan.
was was

learnt

the their

caravan

safe.

Some

counselled

ment, retire-

disregarded. The forces met at Badr. Muhammad had far fewer him, troops under but they were well disciplinedand unified by common devotion to their Prophet, and, unlike the Meccans, they had no scruple in killingtheir kinsmen, and at the end of the day the Muslims the victory. The victory won in the historyof Islam, and is recognised a turning-point was such The as by Muslims. Quran speaks of it as the Day of Deliverance, and tells us of the thousand angels whom God sent to help,3 for, as the first Muslim biographer tells us, at other battles angels have strengthened men without themselves but at Badr they themselves fighting,
advice

fought."4
Some who triumph. to satirise him were assassinated, and against such dared none soon protest. But his prosperity was Meccans had imperilled. The sought to avoid returned
1 3
"

Muhammad

in

dared
crimes
to

be

conflict

For
Ibn

the Muslim

tradition

S., II. 214.

that he did, see " S., VIII. 9.

Margoliouth,
G.

op. tit., p. 243.

Ishaq

in Ibn

Ilisham, translated

by

Weil, II.

336.

208

ISLAM

[i

The route. by sending their next caravan by another the caravan, Muslims, hearing of this, attacked captured the goods, and only spared the lives of their two prisoners Meccans condition that they accepted |Islam. The on either fightor starve. that they must saw They chose the

former, and
towards at Uhud.

force
under

of Abu

three

thousand

men

advanced armies
met

Medina The

Muslim

Sufyan. The force was only a

At in which

two

thousand battle
were

strong,
was
a

and

some

of these

retreated.

first the

series of At

singlecombats length,when
army

the Muslims

ious. victor-

several

killed,the Meccan
the camp. pillage and attacked the life who
be
was

This

champions had been fled. The Muslims proceeded to cavalry its chance gave the Meccan
of their from the the of
rear.

Muslims

Muhammad's of martyrs,
he

only preserved through

themselves

devotion
him

threw rescued. had that

in

front
was

until

could

Muhammad
a man

who
out

killed
he to

who

wounded, and a Quraish, cried resembled Muhammad,

The saved
them cry

had

slain Muhammad.

roused

the

Muslims disaster. Medina.

desperate valour and At night time they

Meccans
did
were

from in

succeeded
press

complete escaping to
ally Naturthe away

The

not

their attack.
to

fresh defeat When it

was

revelations re-establish the Meccans

needed

explain
of the

and
next

the

confidence

Muslims.1

appeared
the Jews.

in force

against Medina

in alliance with review

to briefly

Muhammad's

It is necessary therefore in relations with the Jews

this At

period.
Mecca,
he first

Muhammad

referred
as

often

to

the

Jewish

prophets, and spoke

When
came

of himself
to

the last of the succession. the Jews and

Medina

he tolerated
"

Let there be," he said, sought recognitionfrom them. Like the Jews, his followers no compulsion in religion."2
"

turned

to

Jerusalem

keep

the

Day
1

in prayer, of Atonement as

and
a

he

bade of

his followers the

time
2

fasting,but
257.

See 8., III. 195-200.

"", II.

i]
Jews

MUHAMMAD

209

rejected
them.

his

claims, and
The

he

became he

increasingly
founded,
this
was a

which religion, of Abraham of the religion restoration falsified. had They perverted and hostile to

and

the of who At

Jews him had

demanded

miracles,
worked
he ordered

and

he

reminded and

them been

of

prophets
them.1

miracles
that

yet

slain be

by

length
towards

prayer

should

directed, not
for the

Jerusalem, but towards

he Ramadan.

Mecca, and
new

Day

ment of Atonemonth of

substituted
A

fast, the
the

fast of the

month
Badr

victorious
of the
at

from

Jewish

tribes2

Prophet had he quarrelled with the at Medina, besieged them,

after
all their

returned wealthiest
and when

length they surrendered, seized After the repulse at Uhud, Muhammad

another tribe
were

property.
money

demanded Medina.

from

of

Jews

still left in
when

They

refused, and
were

besieged, and

they capitulated

of their property. lives, but robbed to refused Another had Jewish tribe, who help their allied themselves in their time of need, now co-religionist Medina with the on Quraish, and Abu Sufyan marched The with of 10,000 men. Muslims, however, an army remained the defensive,and he had to retire, his army as on

granted

their

was

from suffering rendered Abu

lack

of

forage.
no

The

Jews He

apparently
had

had
their

Sufyan

assistance.

asked

the Sabbath and help, but it was they could not the Quraish departed, the Muslims marched fight. When against the Jews, who asked that they might be allowed to at last, refused, and emigrate, but permission was through starvation, they had to capitulate. They asked tribe with whom protection from a Medinese they had
earlier

been

allied.

All that

Muhammad decide
their

would

grant

was

that

one

of that

tribe should
was

mad fate,and Muhama

chose

Sad, who
The

smarting
he gave
men,
*

under the
or

wound

he had

received. doubtless

judgement expected. The

! ", III. 180.

was seven

one

Muhammad hundred

eight

Tbe

Banu

Kainuka.

210

ISLAM

[i
;

in

number,
into

were

to

be

killed

the

women

and

children

sold

Muhammad's whose Muhammad

as

slavery ; and this butchery was presence.1 One of the women,

and
as
a

executed

in

Raihanah,
been marry

husband took
to

male

relatives He Jewish

had

just
not

killed,

concubine.
her

could faith.

her,

she refused The

Jews

renounce

thus

Muhammad, Khaibar, at a
to

slaughtered,or enslaved, had been false though under great provocation. At

distance
as

considerable who had

not

from

Medina,
not
even

was

colony
Islam.

of Jews Muhammad
an

yet
Jews

come

into contact
with

with the

besieged the
excuse.

town

pretence of

The

defended
a

themselves

.bravely.
became
a

At

length Muhammad precedent. The Jews

pay
as

adopted
were

policy which
in
pation occu-

to

remain

and
terms

tribute

half

their
"

produce.

On

these

of

one

they were promised protection all save the members silver believed to have hidden some family,who were
Muhammad
were

vessels

coveted.

The

male

members
man

of the
whom

family
Muhammad became

of a killed,yet Safiyah, the widow be tortured had to just caused

"

to

his bride

the bride of the murderer

of her

death, husband,
says,

her father, and The

the

her

brothers.2

taking
at

of Khaibar Islam

marks,
became

as
a

Dr.
menace

Margoliouth
to

stage

which

the

whole
lived

world.3
on

For

the last six years

Muhammad the

had

indeed
was

plunder, but
those who

in

attacking
and

Meccans, he
the

ing attack-

were

his enemies, whilst flouted

on

Jews
claims

at Medina ; but

had

opposed his plans were people of Khaibar -Muslims. non they were
now as

his the

the

attacked

sole pretext that

Muhammad
and

evidently
such
message

looked rulers
he

for
he

world-success,

he

summoned

knew

of to accept Islam, for the

which

1 8

The

incident
to remarry

is alluded

to in

Muhammad, Mohammed,

by hastening on
until
some

25. 26. S., XXXIII. the marriage, violated

the

law

which

forbade

widow
3

months

after her

husband's

death.

p. 362.

i]

MUHAMMAD
not

211

proclaimed
race.

was

for Arabs

only,

but

for

men

of every

Before
that
a

Islam

could

Mecca

should

ten

the
two

years' truce lesser pilgrimage

thousand their

triumph in Arabia, it was be won. Already Muhammad when with the Quraish, and
came

necessary had the made

time

of

round,
retired

he

entered

Mecca

with

followers

after had

its inhabitants
to

in accordance

with the

agreement,

the

country.
had
to

On
leave
a

completion of the ceremonies, the Muslims the they left, Muhammad city, but, before a lovely widow, marriage with Maimunah,
ward

arranged
who his
was

the

prestige and he soon felt himself and popularit}', strong enough to He take Mecca. found a pretext for breaking the truce broken out had between in a quarrel which two tribes, allied to him, the other with the Meccans. of which was one
one

of

of his uncles.2

This

visit increased

He
men.

advanced

towards

Mecca

with

an

army

of ten
was

thousand

Abu

himself without The

Sufyan, realisingthat embraced Islam, and the

serious

resistance Muslims

useless,
Mecca

entered

resistance.
near

images sanctity of the

there
came

the
was

Kabah

were

demolished,
from

but

the

Kabah
call

preserved and,
prayer.
were

its summit,

the the

to

generous
to

amnesty

was

destroy all their rewarded idols. His was magnanimity by the devotion had of the Meccans, who so long rejected his warnings and and previously had eight years compelled him flee for safety. Mecca his followers to made the was became its most soon spiritual capital of Islam, and given
to

Meccans,

who

bidden

zealous

adherent.

Some

scholars

hold

that

from

the first Muhammad

p. 29

was

conscious

of

world this

mission
seems
*

(e.g.T.
was

W.

Arnold, Preaching of Islam,

but ff.),

the

proof

for

incomplete.
This

his last

marriage.

His

harim

now

numbered

ten

wives

and

two

concubines.

212

ISLAM
Settlement
success

[i

5. The The

of Arabia,
of

A.D.

630-2, A. H. 8-11.

Muhammad he
had
to

naturally
leave Mecca
were

alarmed
to meet

other their

Arab

tribes, and

onslaught. At first the more numerous they were end they were victorious positionwas now
there missed.
concubine. A
came son

Muslims than
and

defeated, though
enemies, but in the

their

gained
and
man

rich
at

booty.
this time

mad's Muhamof prosperity

secure,

to
was

the

old

the him

born

to

joy he had so long of Mary, his Coptic

Ibrahim,
after the

Muhammad

called

him

he was But patriarchwhose religion claiming to restore. the prophet's domestic been to have soon happiness seems clouded. The unfair favour shown to Mary, a slave,excited the jealousy of his wives, led by the j^oung and imperious to his aid, and Ayishah. Once again a revelation came

he

was

told that
he

he, too,
so,
"

was

free to divorce would

his wives

and

that, if
better observant His
peace
"

did

wives,
of

give him in exchange believers, devout, penitent, obedient,

the known
to
men

Lord

both fasting,

and

virgins."1
domestic

wives
was

repented
thus

of their

complainings, and

sorrow,

Ibrahim

restored, but, to Muhammad's sixteen died, when only about

had
that the and

great
months

old.2

Earlier, Muhammad
but religions, submitting to non-Muslims
now

counselled Arabs
in

toleration

of other
were

his
to

rule

large numbers embracing Islam, he

and authorised

forbad
version con-

visit

the

Kabah,

by
"

the sword.
the with sacred God months wherever and
are

When'

passed,
for them

kill those
;

who and

join
seize

other

gods

them,
and God
* 2

besiege them,
;

lay

ye wait

shall find them with

of ambush pay is the

but

if

they shall convert,

then

and

kind every observe prayer, way, for

obligatory alms,
Merciful."3

let them

go their

Gracious,
5. op.

So

8., LXVI. Muir,

months

eleven

cit., According to p. 429. old (op.cit., p. 449).

Margoliouth, the
"

child

died

when

S., IX.

5.

i]
Jews became
"

MUHAMMAD

213

and

Christians

were

to be

tolerated, but only if they

tributarypeoples.
Make been who
war

upon
as

such believe that

of those
not

to

have and

given
forbid

in God

God,

not

which

forbidden, and who profess not the until they pay tribute out of hand, and
"

Scriptures last day, His and Apostle have profession of the truth,
whom the
or

in the

then and

be

humbled. Christians

The
*

Jews

'

say, their old

!

The mouths God

say, Messiah
!

Ezra is
a

is
son

son

of God,' God.' the

the the

of

Such

sayings
infidels

in

They

resemble with them

!

do

battle

of saying How are they misguided!" *

of the

Hajj of the solemn obligationsof a Medina returned to He Muslim. apparently in good taken ill with fever, later he was health, but two months So died in Ayishah's arms. and after some days of illness, of sixty-three, the great Arab at the age passed away, Muslims the greatest chief whom as everywhere revere of the one and the founder of men perfectreligion. mad's. MuhamNo life has been so variously characterised as for long made Christian of Islam The menace writers ready to believe the worst about him, and to judge who endured him not only harshly but unjustly. This man, of his mission, was of hardship in the interests ten years could not not mere a impostor. An entirely false man of a great religion. Carlyle the have founder become it seems Yet was impossible to reconcile right there. the Muhammad of history the ideal figureof some with of his admirers. Thus, in his brilliant apologiafor the prophet, All speaks of his life as consecrated, first Syed Ameer and last,to the service of God and of humanity. Is there another be compared to to his, with all its trials and temptations ? Is there another which has stood the fire of the ? "2 unscathed But out the come world, and
to
"

following year Greater Pilgrimage, and one (the Pilgrimage) was

In

the

Muhammad
henceforth

himself make

made

the

the

8., IX. 29. 30.

The

Spiritof Islam,

p. 110.

214

ISLAM

[i

character

he

assigns

the

prophet
and is

is

not

that reached
or

given by
in

by

the

early

Muslim
away

biographers,1
whatever,
of the
in

only

ing explainobvious

early
is
a

tradition,

the
a

meaning
modern conventions

Quran,'2'
from

repugnant
few

to

cultivated,
the moral into

man.

Apart
of his

offences
and

against

country,3
the
a

occasional

lapses
was,
man.

savage

vengeance,

Muhammad
humane

of and
his

history

judged By
and his

by

Arab

standards,

kindly

incommunicable cool

genius,
he is made
secure.
a

by

religious
of
ranks
masters

fervour,
tribes. Alexander of
men,

his His
and

wisdom,
in

nation He

severed with

place

history
among is he
one

Napoleon
influence

the
than
an

supreme theirs active

and

his

greater
is

in

that,
in

as

the

founder world

of

religion,
But,
"

still
the

force of
Islamic
a

the

to-day.
has

as

of

greatest
himself
He
to

scholars and did

said,
wish
a

He
be

did

not

feel

be
was

saint

not

to

thus It

regarded."4
is the

prophet
that
man.

who
sees

became
in

prince.
saint, the

piety

of
or

later
the

ages

him

the

thaumaturge,
to

perfect
matter-of-fact
or

It

is

instructive

compare

the married

way

in

which

Ibn

Ishaq
p. 341

mentions with Ameer

the

women

Muhammad

made

concubines
was

(op. cit., II.

All's
and in
"

attempt

to

show
a

that sacrifice
are

Muhammad
of
no

actuated character up to
"

only
four AH

by

altruistic

motives,
2

was

undergoing
3 believers not
a

light
to

(op. cit., p.
wives argues
;

190).

Thus

S., IV.
"

authorised
then
one

marry

if

they
this

fear
command
3

they

will
is

act

equitably,
of the sacred
son
"

only."
of
truce

Ameer

that

really
violation

prohibition
of

polygamy.
months
a

e.g. wife
an

the of

and he

his

marriage
it

with
to

Zainab,

the with
4

Zaid.

his

adopted

marriage 37). Islam,

p.

which

felt

necessary

justify

oracle

(S.,

XXXIII.

1-3 iiber

and den

Goldziher,

Vorlesungen

21.

II."

THE

FOUNDATIONS

OF

ISLAM

WHEN

Muhammad Muslims
were

died
sure

his that

system
in

was

incomplete.
and
to acts

Pious their
even

the

words

of

Prophet
when the

they

had
was

comprehensive compiled,
for the

guide
failed of

life, but,
to

Quran

they
minute

find

in

it
or

unambiguous
for
the
new

directions
and

private

life,

complex
thus
to
as

needs

of

great

military by

state.

The of

Quran
the

had

be these

supplemented
sometimes
was

traditions
or consensus were

Prophet
in

and,

varied,
to

ambiguous
of

meaning,
and these

appeal
three

made

the

Believers,
were

foundations

of from

Islamic

orthodoxy
of

completed

by

the

arguments

analogy

authoritative

theologians.

1.

The The

Quran.
most

familiar
the word which he
"

name

for

the
"

sacred

book

of

Islam

is

the

Quran,
this
the word which
or

Lesson,"
never

or

Recitation,"
to

and

by

Muslims
It is

is

applied

any

other
used

book. for the

Muhammad

himself
to

revelations

professed
How do
not

receive

from
was

the

angel

Gabriel,
in that reciters had been its

from form

Allah.1
we

the know.
at

Quran

compiled
tells of
us

present
the

Tradition

first
who
an

Khalif,
been

alarmed killed of
in the

the

.number
ordered
to
are

Quran
who the he

had

battle,

Zaid,
out

amanuensis

Prophet,
and
we

search told
white

Quran
based

and his and

1

bring

it

all
"

together,
on

that

compilation
the
the

palm
men."
the

branches,
Differences
of Islam,
see

stones,

bones,

memory
of the

of
Quran
in

of
next

reading

For

place

Faith

section.

215

216

ISLAM
the third with

[ii

crept in, and

to revise

Khalif, Uthman,
the

the work
was

help of
the
one

three

appointed Zaid prominent Quraish.

text, and
the be

This

recension

made

authoritative Whatever
that

all other
of the

copies were

destroyed.
it may of the

origin
are

present Quran,
the

be assumed

its words

substantiallythose
know

Prophet.

The

is difficulty
were

to

circumstances
are

in which

his words

uttered.

The compiled into Surahs* compilers the Surahs of seeking to arrange of the Quran, instead them their in accordance with chronologically, arrange of the Surahs are clearlycomposite, it is length. As some than scholars to do more impossible for modern suggest This seems their correct order. to be, roughly, the reverse of the traditional, for the terse, short, chapters belong usually to the early part of his prophetic career, whilst the detailed to more likely* longer and more chapters are of his old age. reflect the legislative utterances All sections of Islam recognise the authority of the His

speeches

Quran
2.

: none

have

found

it in itself sufficient.

The, Traditions. The

Quran does
a

not

provide
which
were

detailed
was

such legislation,

as

was

ruled and

required by -over by men

the secular
to
cover

State
who

the

Church
the

militant,

supreme

in both

spiritual
full

spheres.
all the

Nor

were

its instructions

enough
And
needs

activities of the of the

private believer.
did not
meet

thus

the

compilation
Men

Quran
his

the

of

Islam.

still treasured

traditions

(hadlth)

of

revealed prophet, which (sunnah2), and the pious would

the order
1

in

to

learn
the word

authentic

ordinary conduct undertake long journeys traditions of the Prophet,

In the

The

originof
or
:

is still uncertain. is often

we

Quran
"

it sent

evidently means
down,"
e.g.

homily
1
2

discourse, and
Surah
is often and
"

used
sent

with

the

verb

S.,

XXIV.
"

"A

which taken

have
mean

down sacred

and
custom

sanctioned."
Sunnah
"

Sunnah

to

tradition,but
"

itself is used

to denote it is

custom,"
is

in its technical

sense,

stated

hadlth,

tradition."

(See Goldziher,

; the form Vorlesungenliber den

in which

Islam, p. 41.)

n]
for there
was

FOUNDATIONS

OF

ISLAM
not

217

the

deepening
he did and

belief that said Thus

as was

his

Qurdns
second
the
art

only, but
and

all that

divinelyinspired,
Umar,
the looked toward thou
no

of
,

permanent
is said to
at

validity.
remarked
"

Khalif
black

have

he

stone stone

Mecca,
canst

By
no

God,

I know
; canst

that
do

only a
not

and

grant
the
on

benefit

harm.

If I had
have

not

known

that

Prophet
of the
was

kissed

thee, I would
Next
is the Sunnah
was

done

so, but to

account

of that

I do it."1

in

importance

the

Sunnah
s.

Prophet

of the

first four

Khalif

As

natural, there

much

At length2 six diversityin regard to these traditions. books, compiled by theologians of third century (A.H.), were (Sunriis)as the accepted by the Traditionalists
"

six

correct

books."

3. Consensus The

of Opinion (Ijmd).
much
stress
on

orthodox

tradition shall of
never

lay assigns to

ijmd,
words At

consensus,
"

and

Muhammad

the

My
a

people
of

be unanimous

in error."

first

consensus

opinion was the Prophet,

Muhammad

sought
as

in the

views

of the those

Companions
had the known Later

it

was

felt that all be

who

could

not

mistaken.

word The

ijmd,
and and

consensus,

traditions
were

technical gained a more of the Prophet had become often contradictory,and yet had
to

meaning.
very from the

numerous,

Quran
istration admin-

the

traditions of the

be

derived

laws

for the

of of

Different schools growing Islamic state. jurisprudence arose, which sought to bring order out Their chaos. Only four of these schools survive. date from the second Their
and

founders, who
A.H.,
1

third

centuries

are

called the four Imams.3

systems differ only

E. Sell,The Faith of Islam, p. 20. In the 7th century. (A. H. Goldziher, op. cit., p. 42.) ollowingare the four schools of jurisprudence ( fiqh). sfcTheJf in Turkey, Central (1) The School of Abu Hanifah, which is dominant Asia, Xorth and India. is dominant which in the Straits Settlements, the (2) The School of al-Shafil,
1

the Indian Archipelago,

Malabar

Coast, and

Lower

Egypt.

218

ISLAM

[n

in

detail,

and

are

all

regarded
forms

as

orthodox.
a consensus

Where of for all

they opinion,

agree,

their

agreement
is
an

ijmd,
Muslims.

which

infallible

authority

orthodox

4.

Inference

by Analogy
were

(Qiyds).
of
the

Many
could and
the
as

as

the
cover

traditions every
were

Prophet, private By
was

they

ally natur-

not

detail

of

and
a

public majority

life,
of

expert orthodox,

casuists

early required.
method of
deduce
case,

only
"

one

of argument

recognised By
would in
some

legitimate
learned

the

method

analogy
what

(qiyds).
Muhammad

it

the have

were

able
in
a

to

enjoined
instance. and

particular

by

his

decision

similar

Ijmd
systems

qiyds

were

used and

in

the have

compilation
now

of
used

the in

four their

of

jurisprudence,
As books
the

to

be

interpretation.
consult the

great

majority they

of

Muslims
to

cannot

law

themselves,

have

be

guided
of
the the

by

authoritative

judgements
And of
to

issued

by
are

scholars

various

schools.
"

Muhammad

assigned
the

words,
Israel."1

The

learned

my

people

are

as

prophets

of

(3)
Lower

The

School

of

Malik

ibn

Anas,

which

is dominant

in

Islamic

Africa,

outside

Egypt.
The

(4)
and

School
adherents

of

Ahmad
are

ibn

Hanbal,
in Central
to

which and

is less Eastern
to
one

influential

than

the

others,

whose

found
is

Arabia.
of these

in

Every orthodox general, guided

1

Muslim

expected
The

belong
is

schools

and

to

be,

by

its

enactments.

Goldziher,
In Muslim

op.

cit., p.
lands

70.

scholar
are

called

mufti

and

his

decision

fatwa.

official

muftis

provided

by

the

State.

III."

THE*

FAITH OF

AND ISLAM

PRACTICAL

DUTIES

THE Muhammad around

creed

of is

Islam,
his

"

There

is

no

God short of six

but
and

Allah,

and

messenger,"
a

is

simple,
has

but been

its

explanation
is summed

great
up in

body
the

theology
articles

evolved,
faith
:

which

of

Muslim

God,

Angels,

Scriptures, Prophets,

Judgement,

and

Decrees.

1.

God. We
have
seen

with

what
was a

vividness

Muhammad
men

spoke
no

of

Allah.

Allah
as

alone

God,
consort

and
or

must

longer
word he

speak
used without
power,
as

of him served
a

having
to

progeny.
that

The

well rival.1

emphasise
God
is

God of Surah
the

reigns

alone,

almighty,
and of
every

unconditioned
but
one

and

yet he
"

is the

merciful,
name as

has

its

prefix,

In

Allah,

Compassionate, thought
Old
more

the

Merciful."
we

Exalted
in the

is

Muhammad's
as

of

Allah,
activities

find and

Quran,
ascribed

in

the which
to

Testament,

feelings

to

God

properly
the
to

belong
of These
in
are

to

man.

Muhammad
nature

sought by
later
a

bring
he

out

ness richGod.

the

divine
are

the

names

applies
as

names

given by
less than
in the
or

traditionalists of these The

"

ninety-nine
names"

number,
to

but

third
2

beautiful
were

be

found

Quran.

Muslims

unwilling,
about

at

first, to
1

discuss,
Ildh,
W.
see

codify,
Ilah

Muhammad's
to

teaching
Hebrew

Allah

Al

the

God.

corresponds

the

Eloah,
For

the

Mighty
list

one.
1

See

H.

U.

Stanton,

The

of

these

names,

Hughes,

Teaching of the Quran, p. Dictionary of Islam, pp. 141,

219

33. 2.

complete

220

ISLAM
as

[in
discussion
was

God,
and

they

felt that The

such

unprofitable
heresies
is

irreverent.

early history of

Muslim

obscure, but it would

them, that
reluctance attributes
and

the
to
were

in confutation of that it was appear their orthodox had at length to overcome their

state thus

doctrine

about

God.

Seven

ledge, assigned to God : Life, Power, KnowWill, Hearing, Seeing, and Speech. All were
the existence
as

agreed
there

as

to

of the
to the

first four mode of the

but attributes,

were

different views

of their existence.
essence

Some others whilst

said

that the

they they

are are

eternal, and
eternal but

of
His

God

distinct from

essence,

Free Thinkers,1 denied Mutazilites, who were of that the attributes were eternal,for only to the essence

eternitybe assigned. In regard to the still sharper divisions. attributes, there were that God declared orthodox really speaks and
can

God

last three

Thus
that

the

the this.

Quran
God
and

is His

eternal

word. and
not

The

Mutazilites

denied

words originated

the

Quran
of view

was was

sounds, but did not Himself speak, eternal, but created, and this

difference
and

serious

enough

to

cause

long

strife

bloodshed.

2. The

Angels.
of all the

Greatest
messenger,

angels

is

Gabriel

God's (Jibrdil),
received many of

through
we

whom

Muhammad

his revelations.

In the

Quran he

is called the

holy spirit.

With him strengthened Jesus.2 Muslim thought commonly associates Izrdil,who receives in whose at death, Israfil, the souls of men charge is the Trumpet of Doom, and Michael (Mikdl], whose task it is what In the to provide living things with they need. read that the angels are the messengers of Quran, we He it was,

read, who

Modern
"

Indian who

reformers

of Muslim

faith

and

such practice,

as

Sir

Syed
itself

Ameer
denotes
"

Ali,claim
those

to be

representatives to-day of separatethemselves,"

these Mutazilites.

The word

", II. 81.

in]

ARTICLES

OF

FAITH

221

giftedwith two, three, or four pairsof wings.1 in a day of fifty They are described as ascending to Him thousand help years.2 They fight against devils, and believers to overcome their enemies. They bear up the for throne intercede of God, they chant His praises,and believers, imploring for them forgiveness and that they be kept from the pains of hell.3 may Prominent also are the jinns (genii). These are spirits, Muhammad have some bad, some good. As we seen, of them believed in him.4 Unbelieving taught that some is called in the Satan jinns will be punished in hell. is spoken of he Quran, Shaitan, or Iblis.5 Sometimes a as mand jinn, or as one of the angels,who disobeyed the comof Allah that he should instead and worship Adam and man tempted him, so that God in judgement made
Allah, and
are

the

devil enemies. of evil.

The

devil

has

under

him

devils who

do

his work

3. The In

Scriptures.
the

Scripture is The in distinction the from word, Quran, Writing (al-kitdb) which means a recitation, or reading. The Writing (al-kitdb) most but is also used frequently denotes the Quran itself, in reference to other and especially to the Law scriptures, of Moses, the Psalms the Evangel (Injil) of David, and of Jesus. It is clear that Muhammad was greatly very indebted to the Old Testament, and he is able also to use familiar phrases from the New ledge Testament, but his knowof the Bible was inaccurate, and apparently derived from hearsay. Thus he confuses Mary (Miriam),the sister of Aaron, with Mary, the mother of Jesus,6 and only in one
common

Quran

the

word

for

s., xxxv.

i. 7. is
a

* "

s., LXX.
LXXII. S.-,
Hebrew

3.
14. Iblis
comes

3
3

S., XL.
Shaitan

modification

of the
"

Satan, whilst
29. 30.

from

the

Greek

diabdos.

S., XIX.

222

ISLAM
does he

[in

place
When

make of
a

verbal

quotation
to
see

from

the

Bible.1

the

People

Book

refused

in their
them

Scriptures
because
"

in Scriptures with their tongues in order that the people might believe that things were their Scriptureswhich The not.2 were early commentators preted take this in its natural meaning, that the Jews misintertheir scriptures, to find things or falselyclaimed in them view of later which were missing. The common orthodoxy is that the written text of the Bible has been wilfullycorrupted, and in this way its discrepancieswith the Quran can be explained. All previous Scriptures3 are abrogated by the Quran. This is a revelation given in Arabic and imparted by Allah

proof they

of Muhammad's
"

claims, he denounced
the

tortured

to

Muhammad. that
were

As

we

have

seen,

orthodox uncreated.
to

Muslims Portions

hold of it

the
sent

Quran
down the

is eternal, and

by
Book
and

Allah
as

in Arabic

Muhammad.
It

Muslims
is the

regard
the

of miraculous

perfection.
are

final revelation

Muslims

of all sects

prepared

to defend

of its teaching. infallibility

4.

The

Prophets.
believe
two
to

Muslims
some are

that

there
thousand.

have

been In the

many

prophets
two

say

hundred
denote

Quran

words

recipients of God's revelation. Rasul, Apostle or Messenger, and Nabi (^Hebrew Nabi], mad It is by the first of these that MuhamProphet, or Utterer.
used
the is called in the

creed

of Islam,
is his

"

There

is

no

God

but

Messenger, or Quran mentions Apostle." The twenty-eight prophets be of whom several, possibly twenty-five,may by name,
1
3

Allah,

and

Muhammad

Rasul, His

Psalm
In

37. 29
to

in

S., XXI.
Law

addition

the

of

Muhammad

given
sent

speaks of words and also to Abraham Aaron. down from heaven 104. as

z 105. S., III. 72. Moses, the Psalms of David, and the Injllof Jesus, taught by Allah to Adam, S., II. 35, and of scriptures

Later

tradition

gives the

number

of books

in]
identified
with

ARTICLES

OF characters.

FAITH

223

Bible

To

six
the the

of
most

them

the

assigns specialtitles. These are of the prophets,and Muslims in them see respective dispensations who, at the
will be allowed
:

Quran

exalted of their

heads

last

to intercede

for their followers.

judgement, They are

the

these

Adam,

the

chosen

of

God

Noah,

prophet

(nabi)of God ; Abraham, the friend of God ; Moses, the one who spoke with God of God ; Muhammad, ; Jesus, the spirit the messenger (Rasul)of God. Of Jesus, Muhammad speaks in high praise.1 He is
called
sometimes

by

by Ms title Masih Messenger (Rasul}of God,

of
in and

personal name (Messiah). He

the

his

Isa is

sometimes
as

described

the

Servant

God,
this

the Word

of

God,
the
He

the Word

God, the Prophet of Truth, the Illustrious

of birth
was

world the did

and

next.

His
to

miraculous,
His

from

cradle He

spoke
blind

vindicate

Mother.

Not

only
as

heal the
are

and

dead, but there

such

Him

to

assigned to Him making birds from clay. It was be crucified. only His
God
what
not

leprous,and raise the apocryphal miracles,

Allah
likeness

did

not

suffer

that the Jews

crucified. hints Jesus before

on

took has

Him
a

up

to

at

become

common

Himself, and a Surah Muslim belief,that

did

die, but
all the

will

return

again

on

earth, and,
shall believe

His

death,
in the

people

of the

Book

He will be a witness Day of Resurrection the against them.3 Although Jesus is to Muhammad greatest of the prophets who preceded him, He is the servant of God, and His Son. Not not unnaturally, Muhammad thought that the Trinity the Christians worshipped was of God the Father, God the ,Son, and the Virgin Mary,
and
men
1 1

Him, and

he

makes Him

Jesus
and His
HI.

protest
mother
IV. and

to
as

God
two

that

He

never

bade

take
See

Gods

beside

God.4

Surahs especially

XIX. "Yeshu"
desire to into

It is not
It

"Isa."

rhyme
"

with

S., IV.

why Muhammad changed the originalname is possiblethat the change was merely due to his Musa (Moses). (Stanton,op. cit., p. 47.) " AS. V. 156, 157, butcp. S., III. 48.

clear

make

it

116.

224

ISLAM
is Muhammad

[in
to

It in the
"

who, according
final
"

his
"

own

teaching
"

Quran,

is the

prophet.
first of

He

is

warner

and

herald."

He

is

the

Muslims."1

is to incur the fires of hell. His his message into the world foretold by Jesus, who had come
"

disobey coming was

to
announce name

To

an

apostle that
Ahmad."2 He
and

shall has

come

be
to

been

after me, "to sent

whose mankind

shall
at

large
one

announce

threaten."3
notice
no

It is

the

interestingto Prophets of whom

is bidden
to

that sin

Jesus

is the

only

of

is recorded.

Muhammad

forgiveness of his sins. In of the early Surahs he is reproved for slighting one a blind and man courting the wealthy.4 At one time, as we have is thus he nearly lapsed into idolatry. Muhammad seen, depicted in the Quran as a powerful, but faulty,prophet. in Later tradition speaks of him a as saint, and, whereas
himself
pray

for

the

Quran
"

Muhammad

words

no

miracles, he

becomes
"

the

greatest thaumaturge
names

of all the
him

prophets, and
him
in
a

the

lordly
if

assigned to
more

place
than

category which,

not

divine,is yet

humanj

5.

Judgement.
We
have

already
and

seen

that

it

was

with
a

the

promise
that

of

sensuous

heaven

the

threat At

of

hell fiery
Allah

mad Muhamsouls
to

began
Himself.

his mission.

death

takes

be Only for the believing dead may prayer uttered. the Day of Judgement, Unexpectedly shall come the graves when shall be opened and all will be summoned frheir deeds before the Judgement of Allah, when Throne shall be manifest. Those balances whose are heavy shall to those whose balances are rejoice, light shall go down the pit.5
' 2

s., xxxix.
5., LXI.
"

14.
"

Muhammad with
8

6. Ahmad, a bye-form of Muhammad, means had heard of Christ's promise of the Paraclete
"

praised." Probably
confused
5. the word

and

periclytos," praised."
27.
"

S., XXXIV.

S., LXXX.

S., CI.

in]
Each hold
man

ARTICLES

OF

FAITH

225 ; the

will have

his book

of deeds

blessed

shall

in the left.1 right hand, and the damned In the Quran Muhammad at). Along speaks of a path (Sir and the gods whom this path to hell go sinners and demons Tradition this Sir at the name makes they have adored.2 of the Bridge, sharper than the edge of a sword, finer will than Muslims Some hell."3 a hair, suspended over will all unbelievers. be saved, others will fall into hell, as The orthodox believe that only unbelievers will remain in hell for ever. ing to which, accordThe gloriousstation shall be exalted, is taken to the Quran, Muhammad his work of intercession. to mean Already he intercedes for all who for men, and at the Last Day he will intercede believe in him. Tradition teaching amplifiesMuhammad's the bliss of the blessed and the torture of the damned, on and told that, whereas hell has seven divisions, we are it in

the

"

"

"

heaven than

has His

one

division

more,

for God's

mercy

is

greater

justice.

6. The

Decrees. doctrine of Islam

this
to

No

has of

been

by
men

Muslims
are

than
summoned

God's

believe
events

freely discussed decrees. In the Quran if they were free to as

more are

choose, and
decree
decree."5
"

yet all the

"

of life
were

referred after
a

to

the

of Allah.4 God

All

things
mislead

created He

fixed

pleaseth, and whom He pleaseth He will place upon the straightpath."6 The Free-thinking Mutazilites asserted, in spite of this, man's freedom. The orthodox hold in theory a mediating view which will some small scope, but in gives to human Islam has so emphasised God's absolute practiceorthodox
1
3

will

whom

S., LXIX.

19. 25.

Cp.
The its

the

teachingof
is the

later Zoroastrianisin
Kismet viz.
"

XXXVII. --S., (see p. 81).

not

23.

well-known

word
same,

(qismat)is

used

in this

sense

in the

but

meaning
49.

apportionment." (See H.
"

V. W.

Quran Stanton, op.

cit., p. 54.) 5 S., LIV.,

S., VL

39.

226

ISLAM

[in
left for human
note

sovereignty
and

that

no

room

is the

freedom,
of Muslim

fatalism

has

become

characteristic

piety.

The

Practical

Duties

of Islam.

Corresponding to the faith (imdn) of Islam is its practical mands religion(din). Its five principalacts, being based on comof the Quran, are obligatory on all. They are as
follows
:
"

1. The

Recital

of
is

the

Confessionof
reads,
"

Faith
is
no

(theKalimah),
God
but

which and

in its shorter form Muhammad

is not
was

There

Allah,

duty

(or apostle)." This mad explicitly enjoined in the Quran, but, as Muhamof Allah, to commanded magnify the name
His
messenger

believers
so

are

bound of the of the

likewise

to

confess which

their is
a

faith, and

do

by

means

Kalimah,

combination

of

Quran. at five stated periods. 2. The Recital of set Prayers (Salat), Prayers are to be preceded by ablutions or, if water cannot be obtained, by scouring with sand. They may be uttered if uttered in a mosque, in private,but are more meritorious
two

clauses

and

when

praying

the

Muslim

should

turn

toward

the

Kabah. fast which a Thirty Days' Fast at Ramadan, involves complete abstinence from sunrise to sunset.1 used for almsgiving. 4. Almsgiving. Two words are alms which One denotes (Zakdt) (literally "purification"), Such are obligatory for all but the poorest Muslims. almsgiving is an integralpart of religionand, as its name (sadaqah, denotes, is of purifying effect. The other word free-will offerings, literally "righteousness") denotes 3. The such
5.
as

those

made

at the end

of the feast of Ramadan.

The

Pilgrimage (Hajj) to
able-bodied
1

Mecca.
at least
becomes

This
once.

should

be made

by

every

Muslim
Ramadan

In India

Ramazan.

in]

PRACTICAL

DUTIES

227

In

addition,
but
to to

there

are

seven

duties, Quran
to
:

not

obviously
the lesser

enjoined, pilgrimage
of after
extra
a

implied
Mecca
her
;

in

the

making
parents
of alms
the
;

obedience the of

obedience
the

wife

husband the
and

giving
sacrifices of

by

rich of

feast

offering
the

saying

prayers,

support

relatives.

The he chose

religion
to

of describe

Muhammad
it
"

is

summed

up

in

the

word
who
"

Islam,
for
his

submission.

Those
"

believe
themselves

on

him
to

are

Muslims,
and
to

they

have As

submitted
have

Allah

prophet. paganism,
but
two

we

seen,

Islam
to

owes

something
and the

Arab

and elements

very

much it of

Judaism

Christianity,
in

in

are

original
and The the

belief of of

Muhammad

"

as

the

prophet

God,

duty

jihad,1
the

religious
has
now

war,

against
way

unbelievers.
for the
most

method
to

jihad

given
but all

part

peaceful
to

propaganda,
the faith he
in

devout God's
will the

Muslims

cling
and all
are

firmly

Muhammad
that his

as

prophet, supersede
tion. revela-

confident, for,

as

was,

religion given

others

through

him,

God

has

final

See

S.,

IX.

IV." The To
to

THE

SECTS

OF

ISLAM

Shiahs. understand
a

the

look
no

little at

the

origin of this early history of

no

sect

it is necessary Islam. Muhammad

and up there into Bakr
was

left
a

son,

and
at

had

nominated of

successor,

danger

his

death

Islam

breaking
of
the
was

party
was

factions.
made

At

length, at
He
and

Umar's been

Abu initiative,
one

Khalif.

had

early
the

converts

of

Muhammad,
and

his closest wife.

friend, and
Two years
as

father

of

Ayishah,
died,
directed.
were

his favourite
was

later, Abu
Abu
Bakr

Bakr had salem Jeru-

succeeded

by

Umar

Through Umar's captured, Persia

and
power
no successor.

energy, and

Damascus

and

the Umar

wealth

of Islam

nominated of

Egypt conquered, and thus immensely increased. When he died, some urged

the husband and All,a cousin of Muhammad, of Fatimah, his daughter. made Instead, Uthman was Khalif.1 Although one of the Companions of Muhammad, and a to Medina at the time of the Migration, Refugee he belonged to the Umayyad family, and his election represented the triumph of the old aristocracy of Mecca, which had for long opposed Muhammad, Muslims and become with the devout only under saw compulsion ; and soon who had shared Muhammad's indignation men sufferings dismissed from office to make to for Umayyads, room whom Islam owed broke out, and nothing. Insurrections at length in A.H. assassinated at Medina. was 35, Uthman
" "

the claims

In the confusion his

which his

ensued, the followers

was

of AH

secured
a

election,but

reign
1

troubled.
23.

The

killingof

In

A.H.

iv]

THE

SECTS

229

to many scandalous, Prophet seemed All was and by suspected of complicity in the murder ensued. At first All he had which profited. Civil war of Syria, Muawiya,1 victorious, but the Governor was an Umayyad, took the field against him with a strong For long All resisted, but at length foolishly army. his claims to the announced that he was ready to submit This action Khalif ate to arbitration. estranged against him the fanatics of Islam, who were supporting him, not on personal grounds, but in protest against the degeneracy of Islam for which they had held Uthman responsible. All should seek to establish In their indignation that his claims by argument, instead of by the test of battle, the Judgement of God, they deserted seemed which to them to them his army, and, as all Islam seemed corrupt, they called Kharijites, the first sect and are Goersbecame or in a bloody battle,but in A.H. All defeated them out." 40 Thus of this sect. died the fourth of the killed by one was the whom Khalifs the orthodox, glossing over story of four rightly strife and bloodshed, call the guided Khalifs."

Companion

of the

"

"

All's

son,

Hasan,

succeeded
to

him, but
who
as

in

the

next

year

resigned his claims

of the
was

Umayyad poisoned in
to

Muawiya, dynasty, a king

49.

became
as

the
.

founder Hasan
a

well

Khalif

A.H.

Twelve
was

years

later,at
the
a

time

of of

misrule, his brother, Husain,

Kufa of
one a

urged by
out

people
at Karbala

become

Khalif.
and

He

set

with
was

little company
met

hundred force

and fortyfollowers, thousand One

son men. one

by
to

of three him.

His
were

followers

refused

abandon
and

by

they
and

slain,till only
cared to

Husain
the

his infant

were

but left,
it

none was

slay
his

descendants
son

of the he

Prophet,
were

long before
and

little
made

and

himself

killed. between

Their

tragic death
his

permanent

the breach

the orthodox

followers.

Thus, within
1

fiftyyears
of Abu

of the

Prophet's death, Islam

inveterate enemy.

He

was

son

Sufyan, Muhammad's

230

ISLAM
divided into

[iv

parties: the Traditionalists (the and the Followers Sunnis), the Separators (Kharijites), Of the Kharijites, it is not to (Shiahs) of AH. necessary cratic, demoThey represent the simpler, and more say much. of early Islam which held that any man, even spirit an Ethiopian slave," had the right to be elected Khalif. They are the Puritans of Islam, and were bitterly opposed the old to and relaxation of the sternness. simplicity Repressed, time after time, by force,they have risen again in rebellion. To them, Jews and Christians, as "Peoples
was

three

"

of As

is

Book," may natural, they

the and in

be have

tolerated,
divided
up still survive

but

not

false

Muslims.

again into
Africa.1

many

sects,

of whom
in

Ibadites

in East

Africa, especially
Of far greater

Zanzibar,
After
the

parts of North
death Shiahs
win the

importance
peace

are

the Shiahs.

tragic
the
to

of
and

Muhammad's
the

descendants,
became
united

between Unable

Sunnis of
a

possible. im-

Khalifate

Islam

selves Prophet, the Shiahs busied themwith the religious implicatesof their loyalty to All. Orthodox Islam in him a sees rightly guided Khalif, but the Shiahs ascribe him far higher honour, and many of them and claim regard the first three Khalifs as usurpers
a

for

descendant

of the

that

Muhammad

had

intended
and

Ali to succeed
in every age

him

from

the
is

first. All is the

an

first Imam,
is the

since there

head of Islam.2 spiritual Naturally this religious belief was utilised by revolutionaries and the the historyof unsuccessful earlyhistoryof the Shiahs is largely revolts. The Khalif of the orthodox his might owe of the Shiahs had an position to election,but the Imam inherent for his office. In him dwelt that qualification

Imam

who

In

North
op.
means

Africa
"

they

are

more

often called the Abadites.

the of

On have

this sect,
seen,

see

Goldziher,
*

207. cit., of the

one

208.

Imam

leader."
four

the founders
used to denote

It is used by accepted schools

once

Sunnis,

as

we

to denote

who

is at

Pope

and

jurisprudence. By the Shiahs it is of the Shiahs Emperor, and thus Imam

to corresponds

the Khalif

of the Sunnis.

iv]

THE

SECTS

231

light of
He is

God

which

had

been
err,

united

with
the

Muhammad of God often

and
on

and sinless, earth, can demand said that the chief

:

cannot

and,

as

vicar

absolute difference
the

obedience.
between

It has
the

been

Sunnis

the
on

Shiahs
the

is this

that

Sunnis

base

their

life religious

Prophet as well as on the Quran, whilst the Shiahs This, as recognise the Quran alone. Goldziher Shiahs shows, is a misunderstanding. The also recognise tradition, though not the tradition of the
Traditions

of the

Sunnis.
base their

The

real difference

lies in

this

that

the

Shiahs

his descendants, devotion to All and on religion and traditions of the justifytheir loyalty by their own The sufferings of All and Husain teaching of Muhammad.1 the commemorated festival of at are by the Shiahs and Muharram2 when for ten days sermons symbols recall the tragedy of Karbala, which is to them to the devout the supreme martyrdom of history. Confidentlythey look for the the appearance

of

the who

Madhi,
will win
there

the
the has

"

Guided

One,"
the

last of the lacked.

the

Imams,

public success
been caused

others about

Naturally
of this

controversy
much

nature

Imam,

and

this has

division.

The

most
or,

important
as

sect

of the Shiahs

is that

of the twelve

Imams,
who
are

it is often in AH

called,the
This
to

sect sect

of the
traces

Imamites,
the direct His

dominant of

Persia.

descendants

down
was

the

eleventh
up

Imam.
earth
return

son,3 the twelfth

then has
as

Imam,
hidden

taken
men,

from
will

and
at

since
the

been

from

but

end

the Madhi.

So the

Shah

of Persia
is

is

mere

locum

pleased to restore the true Imam4 and, until the constitution was given to Persia, the Shah was guided in his rule by the doctors of religion.5 Next in importance is the sect of the Ismdllians. Its reigns only
1 *

tenens, and

till God

Op. cit., pp.

So year.

240

and

241.

called because

it takes
3

madan

Born

placein Muharram, in Baghdad in

the
A.D.

first month 872.

6

of the Muham

P. B, Macdonald,

op,

cit., p. 38,

Mujtahids

232

ISLAM

[iv
been

founder1 of which himself Imam.

to

taught
as

that

there the of

had hidden

only

seven

Imams, hidden,
all

the last became the

sent

helper
out

this, the
win

Imam, and seventh,

became
to

represented
and

He
men

missionaries,who
converts

things
He

all

that
to

they might
flee,and

his views.
the movement
a as

had he

himself

died

in

exile,but
be the and later

began
of his

had

great influence
himself and of All

in Muslim
to

historyfor
Madhi

son grandsuch,
North

proclaimed
Fatimid there

and,

descendant the

Fatimah,
centuries.3 which

founded

in

Africa

dynasty,2 which
for two Assassins4

and
is the

ruled

Of
arose

conquered Egypt importance also

in the eleventh of
arms.

Order

of the

century, and
Ismailians
at
are

furthered

Ismailian in

views

by

force

still found

India, and, till recent

times their

any

rate, in Syria and

the

Persia.

They recognise as
from leaders

head the

Agha Khan, who claims descent Prophet's daughter, through the

Fatimah,
of
the

Assassins.

The

Wahhabls. Wahhabi
in
sect

The

is of interest

as

sincere
stern

attempt
ibn

to

reproduce primitive
Wahhab of
his

the

modern The

world

the

simplicity of
Abd
al

Islam.

founder, Muhammad
was

(A.D. 1691-1787)

shocked

by
to

the

degeneracy
their

contemporaries.
alike seemed
to

Their him

luxury

and
the

contrary

superstitions of message

the

to return to the Quran and the Prophet. They needed of the Companions of the Prophet and to ignore Traditions that of the four founders of the all later teaching, even Eager systems of jurisprudence,recognised as orthodox. the worship to emphasise the unity of God, he attacked

of the tombs
1

of Muhammad
(died A.D.
A.D.

and

of AH

or

of Muslim

saints.

Abdullah Assassin
with

ibn Maimun
2

874), a Persian
"

occultist who 969-1171.

salem. lived in Jeru-

909. of

A.D.

is the which

English form
it is believed

Hasshdshm,

drinkers
sect

hemp,

the members

of the

of Hashish, an extract of at times drugged. were

(See E.B.E., II. 138-141.)

iv]
God alone
must

THE

SECTS

233

opposition, but
Muhammad in the
cause

ibn of

worshipped.1 Naturally he met with the he obtained protection of a Chief, Saud, a stern man, ready to use the sword
be

truth, and

confident

that

those

who

died

in battle would
a

ated, worship of saints or relics is tolerand rosaries and luxury are prohibited. As every tobacco and coffee were used not by the Prophet and his The forbidden. jihad, or Companions, these, too, are believers on religiouswar, they held to be incumbent everywhere. These fierce fanatics met with great success, and in A.D. 1803 and Medina, they captured both Mecca and removed their worship all that they held to be from the accretions of later superstition. After nine years they armies, were expelled from the sacred cities by Turkish and the fourth WahhabI ruler was captured and afterwards has executed at Constantinople. Their politicalpower

daughter WahhabI dynasty.

to heaven. go straight and became of the reformer

This the

Chief founder

married of the

No

since

been

restricted

to certain

parts of Arabia.
was

The

WahhabI Ahmad2

movement

introduced

into
on

India

by Sayyed
at

of
a

Oudh,
in

who,

when On

pilgrimage
his return he

Mecca, became
a

follower

of this sect.

made
a

number
war

of converts

India, and in
He ambush
progress
won an

1826

proclaimed
success

sacred
war,

against the
was

Sikhs.
in

little in

in
the
are

the

and

killed
to

1831, but
Wahhabls

movement

continued

make

and

found
in

in many

itself appears Arabia in and

The WahhabI movement parts of India. at present to be uninfluential,both in of the India, but its repristination spirit
its effect
on

days has had and rigorous brotherhood inspiration.

1 8

of sterner

Islam, and
owes

the

great
to

of as-Sanusi

much

its

Hence
A.D.

the

members

of his sect call themselves There

in his is
a

1786-1831.

in India, especially to

in Our

very Indian

Muwahhids, Unitarians. of the WahhabI ment, moveinterestingaccount Musulmdns, by W. W. Hunter, first published?^
the movement in India
was

menace

1871, British'rule,

when

judgement

stilla serious

234

ISLAM

[iv

Some
The times much and

Modern Shiah
to

Developments.
belief in rise of two
in
a

hidden
movements
:

Imam

has
which

led have

in recent
aroused

the

interest the

Europe

the

Baha

Movement

of

Persia,

Ahmadrya

Movement

of India.

The In

Bab

and

Baha Mirza

Movements.
AH

Persian, announced himself as the intermediary of the hidden twelfth Imam,1 and called himself the Bab, or Gate, as through him it was
1844
a

Muhammad,

for possible
Imam
.

men

to receive

communications

from
not

the hidden
more

Six years later he was thirty years of age. Before

successor
a

executed, when
his death

than
as

he nominated
the

his

lad

whom

he

called

Subh-i-Azel,

Dawn

of their halfAn the

recognised by the Babis as Eternity. The lad was spiritualhead, but, owing to his youth, his elder of affairs. the conduct brother, Baha-ullah, had
attempt of
execution cruelties
to
some

Babis
many

on

the

life of the

Shah endured

led to

of with

of

the

sect, who
Baha banished

terrible

great fortitude.
but
were

and

Azel
to

escaped
.

Baghdad,
1866 Baha

eventually
that claimed
he

Adrianople.
whom God

In

announced and

he

"

was

He

shall
mere

manifest,"
succession
had
come

the

Bab

the not as allegiance, of the Bab, but as the greater One whom to foretell. Many of the Babis accepted the

his of

and position, Azel

was

strife between murderous.

these

and

the followers
was

fierce and

Azel

exiled
was

to

Baha Cyprus, where he has only a few followers. became the head of his movement. to Acre, which teaching is universalistic in type. It is not a mere of Islam, but a new and he sent world-religion, exile in Acre
1

sent

His reform from his

letters to
in A.H.

the

nations

and

rulers
from

of

Europe
of

As

this

was

1260, it
was

the twelfth Imam,

who

was exactly a expected to show

millennium himself
as

the appearance

the Madhi,

iv]
and

SOME

MODERN

DEVELOPMENTS

235

Asia, in

which

he extols

universal

convert

settled
thousand death Mirza

in America persons
there Muhammad in Baha.
was

and there.
a

charity. A Syrian gathered a community of

Baha

several

died about
that
son,

in his

A.D.

1892.

At One
had

his
son,

dispute All,claimed
Another
was as

successor.

the Revelation Abbas

been

completed
that the he

Efendi,

claimed that
more

Revelation
was

henceforth ambitious

to

yet incomplete, and be its channel, and again the

achieved
a

claimant

has

greater success.

The

Ahmadlya

Movement.
movement
owes

The
its of end

Admadiya

its

originto
once

the claim
the towards

of

founder, Mirza Islam, the

of his life he
that
a

Ghulam of

Ahmad1

to be at

Mahdi
the

Messiah

and, Christianity,
the final avatar
ideas
are

also added

of Hinduism. here combined.

with the

It is obvious Islam

incompatible
who

looks for
whilst

Mahdi

shall

slay unbelievers

sword,

Christianityspeaks of the Prince of Peace. this difficulty Ahmad solved by declaring that the prophecies Mahdi which the as a warrior are speak of forged. He belief that Jesus did not really accepted the Muslim
on

die

the
was

cross,

but
up

whereas into

Muslim

tradition

asserts

that

Jesus
three of the

taken Jesus

Heaven, Ahmad
from
his
swoon,
"

days
to

revived
"

taught that after and by the aid

recovered

marvellous

Ointment

of Jesus

ently suffici-

preach in Afghanistan and Kashmir, and was in Srinagar, in Kashmir.2 buried Having thus disposed for himself that he was of Jesus the Christ, he claimed Messiah and towards the end of his life, claimed superiority the Messiah for himself in that he was of Muhammad, as
Jesus
was

the

Messiah

of Moses.
prove

Until
his

the

Government the

interfered, he
miracle of

sought to predictingthe
died

Messiahship by
To

death

of his enemies.

prove

1 s

Born

in

Punjab, 1838,

1908.

He

identifies his tomb

with

the tomb

of Yus

Asaf,

an

obscure

Muslim

saint.

236

ISLAM

[iv

himself
he

the
the
to

MadhI,
Ahmad send.1

he

quoted

Surah

LXI
to

and

claimed

that Christ

was

who,
An

according
eager

Muhammad,
and who
a

promised
writer,
he

controversialist,
of the followers of
to

fluent

gathered

number
in

formed

society,
his his

organised
in 1908

much

manner

Samaj.
under there

At

death

the
since

society
his

continued successor's In

prosper

successor,

but division of
is

death 1917

has

been

much member

and
this

bitterness.

Kamal-udmission Muhammadan

Din,

sect,
associated

began
with

Muslim
the

in

England, Mosque by
and
means

which
at

now

Woking,
of
a

and

carries

on

skilful The Islamic

propaganda
Review,
is Muslim

monthly irony by
India
a

magazine,
of
follower

so,

by
in

curious

circumstance,
of
a

Islam
whom

claimed pro-

England
in

man

associations

have

denounced

as

an

unbeliever

and

an

apostate.

His

name,

however,
For

was

not

Ahmad,
own

but

Ghulain

Ahmad,
of

the

servant

Ahmad
see

(Muhammad).
p. 224.

Muhammad's

misunderstanding

Christ's

word

V."

THE

ASCETIC

ELEMENT

IN

ISLAM

ASCETICISM

in of

any

extreme

form

was

alien
us

from
he

mad's Muham-

type

piety,
asserted

and

tradition
that in
not
"

tells

that

denounced life." sacred

"The dearer
to

celibacy,
"

and
no

our

Sunnah Our

is married is the

There

is

monkery
were

Islam.
to

monkery
their of

war." Muslim

Muslims who than looks is the

mortify strength
Yet,
in

bodies.
is

after

his

body

God

weakling."1
was

Muhammad's
The
men

earlier world
from
war,

teaching,
was

there
to to

an

element

of world-denial.
and the the he bade

doomed wrath

judgement,
It
was

flee sacred of

the that

come.

jihad, earthly

the

brought
of

to

the

forefront of of
the

rewards

piety.
its

Instead

the The
with

denial

world,
first

Muslims
two

sought
enriched
and

plunder.
the and

victories the
had

the

Khalifs

Muslims
men,

treasures

of

Syria, Persia, simplicity

The and
earnest

Egypt, poverty,

who

lived

with

the

of

became lament such vivid of

the

wealthy
the there

and

luxurious. of Islam, first

terror

began
that among
era,
sense

to

degeneracy
was,

it is clear

in

the the

century
of
hell

of

the
a

Muslim

realisation seriousness

of of

and

painful early
monks of
their

sin.

The

stories
to

of

the

ascetics how

show
much

by

their
were

frequent

reference

Christian

they
the prayers

attracted

by
of

the

rigour they
found

lives.

In
in and

practical
extra

duties
to

Islam,

satisfaction
set seasons,

the

prayers

prescribed
the
them

for

in

their
trust

faith
in

they
God,
So

emphasised
enabled

blessedness
to

of

complete passive
1

which

be

entirely

in

His

hand.

asceticism
for the

passed
whole

into

mysticism,
and

Goldziher,
pp.

op.

cit.,pp.

145, 146, and 237

subject

of Asceticism

Sufiism,

139-200.

238

ISLAM
scholars
hold
not

[v
owed much in its

and

that

the

movement

development,

Neoto only to Christianity,but As ascetics Platonism, and possibly also to Buddhism. the Muslims wool (suf), wore copied the garments of coarse Christian hermits in this, and by the end of the second Sufis. as century A.H. began to be known Some of the early ascetics were of stern and clearlymen that so uncompromising nature, who sought no joy in life,
it
was

said of the

one

when

he

died,
the
men

"

that

sadness

was

removed
to

from
more

world."1

But

movement

began
to

take

emotional

form, and

sought

rid which and

themselves find their

wine.

of their natural
many
"

separationfrom God by ecstasies expression in the figuresof love

"

For

largelygone. 0 God," says Rabia, a woman -saint, if I worship Thee in hope in fear of hell,burn me in hell ; if I worship Thee of Paradise, exclude from Paradise me ; but if I worship Thee Thine for Thine not own sake, withhold everlasting of self beauty."2 The desire to reach the annihilation led the mystics to expressions which seemed to the orthodox blasphemous. Thus one of the first Sufi martyrs declared,
"

it is clear that

the old fear of hell had

am

the Truth. is I ;
seest seest
we me are

I
two

am

He souls

whom

love, and
one

He

whom When
Him
to
"

love thou thou

dwellingin
when Browne

body.
thou
seest

thou

seest

Him, and
Divine

me."3 Doctrine
'

As

Professor

points out,
means

the
not

Sufis the

of the

Unity
is

that Muhammadan but

God but God,' as no merely is there professionof Faith declares,but there Between
the

the

nothing
Thou
'

God.

soul

and

God,

as
" '

Jami
I
are
'

says,
'

and but

Have Vain

here and

no

place, and

phantasies

unreal."4
some

And
1

thus
al
R. al E.

Sufi

mystics, like

of the
Theology, p.

mystics
176.
to death

of the

Fudayl, see

D. B. Macdonald,

Muslim

2
3

A. Nicholson, The

Mystics of Islam,

p. 115. in A.H.

"

Hallaj, who taught in Baghdad and was cruelly put G. Browne, The Literary Historyof Persia, I. 439.

309.

v]
Christian

THE

ASCETIC

ELEMENT

239

Church,
As

became

indifferent
famous

to

the

doctrines
says
:

of

their faith.
"
'

another

Persian

poet

What
am am

is to be done, O Moslems, neither

not

for I do not

recognise myself.
nor

I I

Christian,
East
nor

nor

of the
sea

Moslem. Gabr, nor Jew, nor of the land, of the West, nor of the

of

the I
'

am

not

of nature's is in the

mint,

nor

circlingheavens.'

My

place
neither

'Tis

body
"l

is in the Traceless, trace Placeless, my soul, for I belong to the soul of my nor

Beloved.'

It
the

was

not

by

emotion of self.

only
Some
were

that

Sufis

sought
also the and

to

reach of

abandonment and

pursued

way

thought,
into

Sufi doctrines
with

formulated

brought

orthodoxy by al-Ghazali,2 the greatest of Islamic theologians. But it is a Suflism with a difference, for al-Ghazali guards himself against Pantheism, and, in seeking the spirit does not despise ualisation of religion, lover of God be its legalobligations. The must not true will be diligentin disobedient commands. He to God's the Quran and the worship and good works, will honour with Prophet, yet his real joy is found in his communion
the

alliance

Beloved,

for it is God
an

he

seeks of
as

and

not

even

heaven.

Such
in his have

love has in it

element
to

rapture speak
a

God

fear,and yet the lover may intimate to an friend, and

that all perfect peace of heart because he knows things are ordained by God. The Prophet's saying, There is no monkery in Islam,"
"

seems

to

have

remained

true

for the

first centuries of

of his
asteries,3 mon-

religion,for
there the

although
is
no

tradition

speaks
their

early
appear

certain
our

proof of
era,
or

existence

before
that and

eleventh

century of
lived retained

and

it would
a

the
many
1

early ascetics
of them

alone,
their

with

few

friends,
In the

married
the

state.
Shamsi

next
125-

R. A. Nicholson, Selected Poems Jalaluddln, its author, was a Sunni.

" 3

from

Divdni

Tabriz,

p.

Died
For

A.D.

1111.

the traditions, see

E.R.E., IL

p. 103.

240

ISLAM

[v

century
various
and

the

system

was

extended which

by
became

the

formation

of

Dervish1
wield members
an

orders immense
not

very in the

influential
world. do

power

to-day

Islamic

Their

are

necessarily ordinary
revivalist the order
in

celibates,
means

nor

they

always
These
owe

abandon
movements to

their

of and their obedience.

livelihood. members The

and the

are

aim,

the

leader2 of of

of
initiation

military
a

ceremonies enthusiasm of the saints

most

are,

as

rule, by

severe,

initiates
of

is

sustained and
who

legendary
prayers.

stories The

the

past,
are

by
can

ecstatic

saints austerities
success

praised
and

those

perform
powers.
to

spectacular
The

exhibit
orders

supernatural
is
a

great
of
and

of

these
its

witness and
to

the

living
devotion
is

power

Islam

over

adherents which the

the

eager message

tenacity
to

of

faith

Prophet's

still

able

inspire.

Darwlsh, man,"
The
or'

Persian

word

for

"

mendicant

"

in

India

the

Arabic

word

fwfir

"

poor
2

is

used.
of the modest

founder the
more

order title

is

called
of
successor

shaikh.

Its

present

head

may

bear

that

name,

(Khalif).

BIBLIOGRAPHY

SUGGESTIONS

FOR

FURTHER

READING1

GENERAL THE best East for

sources

our

study
there

in

English
be

are

the

Sacred and

Books Ethics. Studies

of the
Of in the

and

Hasting's of
the 1913 of

Encyclopaedia
may

of Religion
Moore,
The

general Religions
2

handbooks

mentioned and

Geden,

East,
and

1913,
1920

History

of

Religions,

vols.,

(with
is

good

bibliography).
in the

A^useful
The

selection

illustrative edited East valuable in

texts

given

Religions1908. attractive

geschichtliches
Wisdom

Lesebuch,

by

Bertholet,
includes is
to

Tubingen,
many

of
Much

the

series

anthologies.
Missionary
1910.

material
to

be

found

in

The

Message

Relation

Non-Christian

Religions,

HINDUISM A

Farquhar,
Movements and Heart

Primer in 1919.

of

Hinduism2,
1915. Brahma translation

1912,

and

Modern

ligious ReHindu

India,

Cave,

Redemption,
of the

Christian,

Barnett,
and his 1905. the

Knowledge,
Psalms
to

1907,

and

of India,
1919. The

1908,

Bhagavadgltd
the Marathd

(Temple
Saints,

Classics),
For Crown

Macnicol,
of Hindu

of Hogg,

relation

Christian

thought,
Karma and

Farquhar,
Redemption,

of Hinduism,
1909.

1913.

Madras,

Hopkins,
donell's

The

Religions
Literature2,

of

India,

Boston,

1895. An Outline

Mac-

Sanskrit

1905.

Farquhar.

of

The

literature
Books in

is

so

vast

divisions
The is

A of
as

are

detailed The

study.

place
as

Bibliography
Q

far

short selection trary. arbimust inevitably appear B for more preliminary reading ; in divisions publication is only given for books published abroad. to possible restricted English books. that
a

for

241

242

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Religious Literature serious study).

the

of India,
of Indian

1920

(indispensable

for

?:%For a general
and

sketch

Philosophy, Urquhart,
Die Indische The

theism Pan-

the Value 1914. For New

Leipzig, of the Veda,

Medieval CHAPTER

of Life,or Speyer, chapters I" III, Bloomfield,

York,
1908. For the

Theosophie,
Religion
element,
Theism in

Theistic

Macnicol, Indian
India,
I.
"

Theism,
1921. The

1915, J. Estlin

Carpenter,

Hymns
1897. 1886.

of
1896

the and

Griffiths,2 vols., Benares,

Rigveda, translated by 1897. Macdonell, Vedic

The

Mythology, Strassburg, Boston, by Arrowsmith,

CHAPTER II.
"

Kaegi,

Rigveda,
Veda

translated

Deussen,

Philosophic
Bloomfield

des

bis

auf

die

burg, Atharvaveda, Strass1899. The Atharvaveda, translated Benares, by Griffiths, Oriental 2 vols,. 1897, or Series, 2 vols., by Whitney, Harvard For the Brahmanas, 1905. Satapatha Brdhmana, S.B.E., XII., XLIV. XXVI., XLIIL, XLL, CHAPTER III.
"

Upanishad's*, Leipzig,1906.

The

Upanishads,

translated

S.B.E., I. and XV. Deussen, The Eng. trans., by Geden, 1906. und des die Anfdnge Upanishaden
1915. CHAPTER 1901. The IV.
"

by Max Miiller, Philosophy of the Upanishads, Die Lehre der Oldenberg, Buddhismus. Gottingen,
Epic of India, New York,

Hopkins,

The and

Great the

into condensed Ramayana English verse, by Dutt, Everyman's Library. Garbe, Die Keith, The Bhagavadglta, Leipzig, 1905. Sdmkhya System,

Mahabharata

Calcutta,
CHAPTER

1918. V.
"

Carpenter, Theism
Das

in Medieval

India, 1921.

Vedanta*, Leipzig,1906 (Eng. the mentary ComVeddntasutras, with trans., Chicago, 1912). XXXVIII of Sankaracharya, and S.B.E., XXXIV ; of Bamanuja, the Commentary with S.B.E., XL VIII. Bhandarkar, Vaishnavism, Saivism, and Minor Religious Systems, Nallasvami Studies in 1913. Saiva Siddhdnta, Pillai, Strassburg, Der Saiva 1911. Madras, Schomerus, Siddhdnta, Leipzig, 1900. 1912. The of Tulsi Pope, Tiruvdsagam, Ramayana Allahabad. Martin, The Gods of Das, translated by Growse, Krishna H. South Indian 1911. India, Sastri, Images, Madras, ceremonial side The 1916 of Hinduism is illustrated). (fully
The described in Mrs.

System

des

Sinclair

Stevenson's

The

Rites

of

the Twice

Born, 1920.
CHAPTER VI.
"

full

bibliography

is

given

in

Farquhar's

BIBLIOGRAPHY Modern

243

Religious Movements
For the Brahma be if and For

in India,

the

indispensable
Rai's Chandra
are

book. text-

Samaj,
consulted. The

Rammohan Keshab Christ

books Sen's worth

should,
Lectures

possible,
the

Mozoomdar's

Oriental

well

study.
Prakdsh

Arya Samaj, Dayananda

by Durga
1915. useful

Sarasvati's

Eng. trans.,
The

Prasad,
Max
on

Lahore,
Miiller's the

1908

Rai,
Brahma
are

Arya-Samaj,
1884,
and contain

Satydrtha ; Lajpat Biographical

of the

Essays,

chapters
Svami

founders

Arya Samajes.
the

Vivekananda's Messrs.

Speeches
Natesan

published by
books

Minerva have modern

Press, Madras.

and

Co., of Madras,

published
Hindus,

by

expensiv interesting and inmany and their catalogue should

be

consulted.

ZOROASTRIANISM
A

Moulton, The Treasure of the Magi, 1917, and The Teaching Gathds be studied 1916. The should of Zarathushtra, Bombay, in Moulton's translation, Early Zoroastrianism, pp. 344-90.

Dhalla,
textual

Zoroastrian

Theology,
a

New

York,

1914,
Pars!

full and

exposition by
and

Western-educated der iranischen

High-priest.

Philologie, StrassVol. Awestaliteratur, Geldner, burg, 1896-1904, II., contains West, Pahlavi Literature, and Jackson, Die iranische Religion. For eschatology, Soderblom, La Vie Future d'apres de Mazde1901. Paris, isme, Kuhn,
CHAPTER, I.
"

Geiger

Grundriss

Jackson,
1899. The

Zoroaster,

The

Prophet

of

Ancient 1913.

Iran, New
CHAPTER

York,
II."

Moulton, Vendiddd,

Early Zoroastrianism,

S.B.E., XL XXXVII., "), Eng. trans., by Haug

CHAPTER III.
"

XXIII.

Yashts, S.B.E., IV. ; the XXIV., texts, S.B.E., V.,XVHL, ; the Pahlavi VII. Ardd The Viraf (an interesting apocalypse
"

and

West,
The from

Bombay,

1872.

A.

S.

N.

Wadia,

1912,

statement

of Zoroastrianism

Message of Zoroaster, point. standa Theosophic

244

BIBLIOGRAPHY

III."

BUDDHISM

its History and Davids, Buddhism, Literature, New York, 1896. Poussin, The Way to Nirvana, 1917, a luminous Bouddhisme doctrine, and exposition of early Buddhist HackOpinions sur I'Histoire de la Dogmatique, Paris, 1909. Buddhism a as Religion, its Historical Development and mann, its Present in Translations*, Conditions, 1910. Warren, Buddhism

Rhys

1906,

an

invaluable

volume

of

translations.

The

of the East S.B.E., X., or, in the "Wisdom Dhammapada, Series," The Buddha's Way of Virtue,Eng. trans., by Wagiswara and Saunders.

CHAPTERS

I.-IV.

"

Oldenberg,

Buddha

Sein

Leben,

Sein

Gemeinde6, Stuttgart, 1914 (Eng. trans, by Hoey, Die Lehre der Upanishaden und first edition), and 1882, from des 1915. die Anfdnge Buddhismus, Kern, Manual Gottingen, Rhys Davids, Buddhist of Indian Buddhism, Strassburg, 1896. Some Points in the History of Lectures on India, 1903, and Indian Lectures, 1881, ; Buddhist Buddhism, Hibbert Suttas, the trans, Buddha, Eng. S.B.E., XL, Dialogues of by Rhys Davids, 3 vols., 1899-1921. Vinaya Texts, S.B.E., XIIL, XX. XVII. The Psalms lated and of the Early Buddhists, transviz. The Psalms by Mrs. Rhys Davids, of the Sisters, Lehre, Sein
,

of the Brethren, 1913. Sayings (from the Samyutta Nikdya),

1 909, The

Psalms

The Part

Book

of the

Kindred
trans

I., Eng.

by

Mrs.

Rhys

Davids,
V.
"

1917. A.

CHAPTER

V.

Smith,
and the

The

Early

1908, Asokas, 1920.

a

Francis For

Thomas,

Jataka

History of India2, Tales, 1916,

Barnett's The Path Mahayana, of The Lotus Light (i.e.Santideva's Bodhicharydvatdra), 1909. Law S.B.E., XXI. Pundarlka), (Saddharma of the True Chinese XLIX. See later Buddhist on Mahayana Texts, S.B.E., useful and

selection.

Japanese
VI.
trans,

Buddhism.
"

CHAPTER

The

Mahdvamsa

or

Great

Chronicle

of Ceylon.

Eng.

Primitive by Geiger, 1912. Copleston, Buddhism, in Magadha and in Ceylon2, 1908. and Present Bigandet, The the Buddha the Burmese*, 2 vols., of Life or Legend of Gaudama, Buddhism 1895. 1911. WaddeU, of Tibet or Ldmaism,

BIBLIOGRAPHY

245

IV."

THE

RELIGIONS

OF

CHINA

AND

JAPAN

A De

Groot,

The

Religion of the Chinese,

and
1913.

Giles, Confucianism Religions of China,

The

its Rivals, 1915.

York, Soothill, The

New

1910. Three and

Giles, The
"

Sayings of Confucius

Series." Wisdom of the East Sayings of Lao-Tze, in the The York, Knox, Development of Religion in Japan, New
1907.

Harada,

The

Shinto,

the Ancient

York, of Japan, New 1910. Religion of Japan,

Faith

1914.

Aston,

Grube,

Religion
I. and II.

und The

Kultus S.B.E.

der

Chinesen,

Chapters
of the

contains

Leipzig, 1910, Legge's translation

Documents, Parts of the Book of Odes, and the Classic of Filial Piety (Vol. III.),the Book of Changes, Vol. XVI., and XXVIII. the Book and of Rites, Vols. XXVII. is his great edition of the Chinese Still more valuable Classics, with The and Analects notes. Soothill, copious prolegomena translation. Ross, The of Confucius, is also a fully annotated Original Religion of the Chinese, 1909, is a useful introduction.
CHAPTER III.
"

Book

of Historical

Legge,
De

The

Texts

of Taoism, S.B.E., XXXIX.

du

and

XL.

Giles, Chuang
IV.
"

Tze, 1889.
Cods

CHAPTER

Amsterdam,
translation of The

1893.

Richard, versions of The translation, with introduction, of the Chinese Awakening of Faith and The Essence of the Lotus Law. Beal, A Catena The of Buddhist Scripturesfrom the Chinese, 1871.
extent

en Mahdydna Chine, Chinese Fo-sho-hing-tsan-king (a XIX. Asvaghosha's Life of Buddha), S.B.E. New Testament of Higher Buddhism, 1910, a

Groot, Le
The

of the

Buddhist

Canon

in China

is indicated

in

Bunyiu

Nanjio's Catalogue of the Chinese

For pictures Tripitaka, 1883. Northern TJie Gods Buddhism, of CHAPTER Vols. V.
"

Translation of the Buddhist

of

the Buddhist

gods, Getty,

1914.

De

Groot,
of

The

I.-VI., Leyden,
for its account VI.
"

1892-1910,

Religious System of China, finely illustrated,especially

valuable CHAPTER
trans,

popular practices and

superstitions.

Kojiki or Records Transactions by Chamberlain,

of Ancient Matters, Eng. of the Asiatic Society of

246

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Japan, supplement to Vol. X., 1883. Nihongi Chronicles of the Earliest Times A.D. to 697, Eng: trans, from Japan by and Aston, I., Transactions Supplement Proceedings of the Aston, Shinto, the Way Japan Society,London, 2 vols., 1896. the 1905. Gods, of
CHAPTEB New VTI.
"

Reischauer,

Studies
Creed

in

York,
Amida

1917. Buddha

Lloyd,
unsere

The

Japanese Buddhism, of Half Japan, 1911.

Urkunden VerZuftucht. zum stdndnis des japanischen SukJidvati 1910. Buddhismus, Leipzig, Abbot, Eng. trans., by Soyen Shaku, Sermons of a Buddhist For the Suzuki, Chicago, 1906. Mahay an a Scriptures, see XXI. XLIX. and again, S.B,E.,

Haas,

V."

ISLAM A

Margoliouth, (Home University Library, N.D.). 1913, or Margoliouth, Mohammed Sell, Life of Muhammad, the Rise and Stanton, The of Islam3, N.D. Teaching of the
or

Hurgronje, Mohammedanism,
Mohammedanism

New

York,

1916,

Quran,
Vital but 1908.

1919. Forces

On

relation

of

Muslim

to

Christian

ideas, The

of Christianity and

suggestive treatment

the short Islam, 1915, and in Gwatkin, The Knowledge of God2,

Goldziher,

Vorlesungen
seen,

uber Mohammed

den

Islam,
and

Heidelberg,
Yale

1910

(Eng. trans., not Press). Hughes, A

CHAPTER I.

Dictionary of Islam, 1885. Encyclopaedia of Islam, Vol. I., A-D, 1913.

"

Univ. Islam, The Houtsma,

Wellhausen, Muir,

Reste

Arabischen

Heidentums,

Berlin, 1882, an abridged revised Life of Mohammed*, Mahomet and Bevan, Islam, in the edit., by Weir, 1912. Medieval Vol. II., 1913. History, All, Cambridge Syed Ameer should be with the first The Islam, 1902, compared Spirit of
The

Berlin, 1897 ; Muhammed translation of Waqidi.

in Medina,

Muslim
Mohammed

biography
Ibn

as

given
2

in

Das
von

Leben

Molwmmeds Ibn W.

nach Hisham

Ishdk

bearbeitet

Abd-el-Mdlik

translated
The

by

Weil,

Spread Muslim missionary

of Islam-,

T. vols., Stuttgart, 1864. attactive 1913, gives an

Arnold,
of

picture

zeal.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

247

For

the

later

chapters,

Macdonald,
and and

Development Theory,

of

Muslim 1903
;

Theology,
The The

Jurisprudence,
Attitude

Constitutional in

Religious
Faith

Life

Islam,

Chicago,
The

1909.

Sell,

of

Islam3,

1907.
1914.

Margoliouth,
Goldziher,
the

Early

ment Develop-

of Mohammedanism,
Studien,
Veneration New Testament II. of

Muhammedanische of
on

Halle,
the has

1890 Saints been

(for
;
an

growth

the The

Hadith Hadith

and and

the the

excursus

translated

by
Indian

Lady Musulmdns, Browne,

Young,

1902).
1871,
portant im-

CHAPTER for the

IV.
"

Hunter,
Wahhabi Bdbl

Our
movement.

the

Materials The

for

Study

of

the 1918.

Religion,

1918.

Walter,

Ahmadlya

Movement,
CHAPTER concise Divdni and Shamsi

V.
"

Nicholson,

The sketch
;

Mystics
Selected

of

Islam,
Poems

1914,

fascinating
Tabriz

from
Browne,
and Mirza

the A

(for
Vol.

Jalaluddln),
I.,
A of
1902.

1898. Whinfield
on

Literary
Muhammad
1914.

History

of

Persia,

Kazvini,
Field

Lawdih,
"

Treatise the East

Sufism "),
The

by

Jdml,

(in

the

Wisdom

Series

sions Confes1910.

of al-Ghazzdll,

1909,

and

The

Alchemy

of Happiness,

INDEX
78

Abbas Abhidhamma

Efendi,
209,
200,
201

235

Angra
91 223

Mainyu,

71,

ff.

Pitaka, 212,
205

Anguttara
Arabia, Arahat,
194

Nikdya,
140

91

Abraham,
Abu Abu Abu Abu

Anuradhapura,
228

Bakr, Lahab,

f.,

ff., 212
126
14 83

f.

105,

Sufyan,
Talib,
Brahma

207

ff., 229
201 59

Aranyakas,
Ardashir,

197,
19

Adi

Samaj,
19 ff. 232

57,

Arjuna,
Arnold,

43
211

ff.

Aditi,

16,

Adityas,
Agha Agni,
Ahmad,
Ahmad
16

Khan,

Artabhaga, Arya-Samaj,
25,
27

31

15, 60 27,
71 77

f.

f., 23,
224,
ibn

Asceticism,
237 218 235
70

80,

99,

127,

236

ff.

Hanbal, Movement, Ahriman,

Asha,
f.

67,

69, 72,

Ahmadiya
Ahraman,
Ahuna Ahura

Ashi, Asoka, Aston, Asura, Atar, Atesh Atesh

70,

95,

133,
232 178

140

Vairya,
Mazdah,
68 ff.
79

80

Assassins,
87

67-82,

174,
21 77

ff.

Ahuras,
Aka Alara Man

ah,

Kalama,
199,
228-32

98,
219f.

104

Adardn,
Behrdm,

86 86 86

All,
Allah,

195"E.,
195

Atesh

Dddgdh,
145

Allat,

Atharvaveda,
174. See Sun

14, 25

f., 28

Ama-terasu,
Goddess.
Ameer

Atisa,

Atman,
213 69

27-37

All,

f., 220

Avalokita(Avalokitesvara),
144

136,

Ameretat,

ff., 166
137 212

Amesha-Spenta
68

(Ameshaspaiid)
See Amitabha

Aviclii

f.,

76 184.

Ayiahafa. 206,
138,
138.

f., 228

Amida, Amitabha,

166,
See 193 109

184,

188

ff.

Bab, Babis,

234 234
f
.

Amitayus,
Analects,

Amitabha

154-7, 102,

Badarayana,
167,
180

47

Ananda,
185 Ancestor Ancestral

ff., 134,

Badr,

207,

209 234

Baha-ullah,

Worship,
Tablets,
76

152,
153 f.

171,

Barnett,

43,
181

137

Baty,
Beal,
249

Angels,

ff., 220

162

250

INDEX

Benares, 56, 95, 105 f. 96 Bhaddakachcha, Bhagavadglta, 14, 41-6, Bhakti, 44 f., 63, 138 60 Bhandarkar, 39 f. Bharata, 107 Bimbisara, 97, Bo-tree, 99, 140

Dagaba,
135 Dalai

140,

142

Dainichi, 184. See Vairochana. 145 f. Lama,

See Towers
77

Dakhma.

of Silence.

Bodhicharydvatara,
Bodhidharma,

137 ff.

162, 167, 187 Bodhisattva, 133-7, 146, 165 59, 83, 86 Bombay, Brahma, 37, 40 f., 50 Brahman, 27-38, 93

Darmesteter, 65, 39 Dasaratha, Dastur, 86 Davids, Mrs. Rhys, 117, 125 Davids, Prof. Rhys, 93 ff. Sarasvati, 60 ff. Dayananda of 209 Atonement, Day Decrees, 225

Dependant
118 f.

Origination,

99,

Brahmanaspati. pati.

See

Brihas-

Depressed
Deussen,

25 f.,28, 31 f.,34, 60, Brahman, 99 933., f., 107, 109, 111 f. Brdhmanas, 13, 25-9, 30 f., 93 Brahma

Bridge
225

of

Samaj, 55-9 Separation,

24
;

Classes' Mission, 60 23, 28 Deva, 2, 67, 71, 83 112 Devadatta, Dhalla, 66, 76, 86, 88 89, 91, 124 f. Dhammapada,

72,

81,

Digha

Nikaya,

91

Brihaspati, 16,
Buddha, 113; 30,
59

Din, 22 6 Dlnkart, 70
Life Docetic Doctrine

of, 95Teaching of, 114-28; of, 134 f. Mahay an a, Doctrine 166 f., 186, 190 Buddhas, 138, 146, 166, 184 120, 128, 141, Buddhaghosa,
143

heresy, 134 of the Mean,

53

1 54

Druj, 67, 71, 75, 79

Durga,

Eight Genii,
Eisai,
Ervad,
187 86

161.

See

Pah-sien.

Bundahishn, 65, 82 142 f. Burma, 192 Bushido,

.

Cambodia,
Caste,
25

144

Hsien, 162 Farquhar, 21, 40, 46, 59,

Fa

63 203

Fatimah,
140 ff.

sister

of Umar, of

Ceylon, 40, 90,

Fatimah,

daughter
228, 232

mad, Muham-

101 Channa, Christ, 58 f., 62, 99, 193, 213, 220, 223-6 Christianity, 55, 61, 172, 183, 189 f., 195 f.,237 113 Chunda, 147 Confucius, ff.,154-8, 193 Confucianism, 147, 154-8, 191-3 132 f. Councils, Buddhist, Cow, 27, 61

Fatimids, 232 Feng-shui, 170 Fire Temples,

Five Five

ff.
86

Fires, 32

King, 148 95 Ford-makers, Frashaoshtra, 68

Fravashi,
78

al-Fudayl,
185 Fudo, Fuhrer, 95

238

Daeva,

21, 67, 71, 75, 80

INDEX

251

Gabriel, 198 f.,215, 220 Garbe, 42 23 Garutman, Qathas, 65-74, 84 f. 96. See Buddha. Gautama,

Indra,
Ise, 177

Isa, 223.

16 f., 20 f.,23, 25 See Christ.

Gelugpa,
Gemmiyo,

145 173

Islam, 61, 83, 139, 195-240 Ismailians, 231 Israfil, 220 Izana-gi, 174-6, 185
Izana-mi.

al-Ghazali, 239 Giles, 149 f., 158 f., 163, Golden 24 Germ, 216 ff. Goldziher, See Buddha. 96. Gotama,
Great

174-6,

185

167

f.

Izrail, 220
Jackson, 66, 75
239
68

Jalaluddln,

Learning,
De,
148

154 162

Jamaspa,
f., 169
ff.

Groot, Grube,

149,
ff.

Janaka, Jataka,
Jesus.

32, 34

91, 94, 97, 102

See Christ.

f., 121

166 Hackmann, Hadlth, 216 Ha//, 213, 226

f., 185

Jews, 196, 204, 208 ff. Jihad, 212, 227, 233

Jimmu, Jinns,
177

al

Hallaj,

238
40

195, 203,
188. See

221

Hanuman, Haoma,

Jodo, Kabah,

Pure

Land

Sect.

67, 76

179, 185, 193 Harada, 229 Hasan, 69 Haurvatat, Heaven, 73, 97, 201,
also Tien.

195,201,211
39

Kaikeyi,
225.

See f.

Kali, 53, 61 226 Kalimah, Kama,

23 178 Kami, See Karma. 90. Kamma, 236 Kamal-ud-Dln, 101 97, Kanthaka,

Hell, 72, 137, 201, 225, 237

Hegira. See Hijrah. Hijrah, 205 141-4. 133, Hinayana,

Buddha, Teaching Hirata, 180 Honen Shonin, 188 151 Hou-chi, 151 Hou-tu, Ibadites, 230 Iblis, 221 Ibn 199, 207 Hisham, 199,207,214 Ibnlshaq,
Ibrahim,
212.

See

of.

Kapilavatthu,
Karbala,
Karma, 90, 122

95

229, 231

13, 31-4, 45, 50, 58, 60,

ff., 127

Kassapa
185

(Kasyapa),
39

132,

167,

Kausalya,
Keshab

Chandra 197-203

Sen, 57-9, 61

Khadljah,

See
179

Abraham.

18 Khaibar, I Khallf, 199, 228

ff., 240
f.

Idzumo,

177,
f.
217

Kharijites,
Khshathra,
ff., 234 Kismet,
225

229

Ijmd,
Imam, Iman,

217

69, 72

f., 230
231

Imamites,
226
179

KoboDaishi.

180, 186, 191

Inari,
Indian

Social

Reformer,

60

Koiiki, 173ff. 97 Kondanna, Krishna, 41-6,

51, 54,

62
.

262

INDEX
93
f.

Kshatriya, 25, 32,

Kuan-yin,
kita. 166 162 f.

Matarisvan,
Avalo-

23

See

Maya,
Mazdah

36, 46
Ahura. See Ahura

Kumarajiva,

Mazdah.

41 Kurukshetra, See 184. Kwannon, Kwei, 169 f.

Kuan-yin.

Lakshmana,

39

40 Lakshmi, Lama, Lamaism, Lao-tze, 157, 159,

Mecca, 195 ff. 205 ff Medina, 154, 158, 167, 193 Mencius, Metta, 125 Michael, 220 Mihintale, 140
.

145 161

ff.

Ming-ti,
Miroku,
Mirza Mirza

161

184. Ghulam
76

See

Maitreya
234

Legge, 148, 157 Light of Asia, 89

LiKi, 148, 152f.,
189ff. 166 the Good 171

All Muhammad,

Ahmad,
f.

235

f.

Mithra, Mobed,

Lloyd,
Loshana,
Lotus

Mitra, 16,
86

19-23

of
154-6

Law,

134

ff.,

186,

191

Moggallana, 107, Mongolia, 145

Moses, 223 Motoori, 178,
Moulton,
65 180

109

Lu,

Luqman,

195

ff.,74, 95
59

Macnicol, 51 Madhi, 231 f., 235

Mozoomdar,

Muawiya,
Muhammad,
Place in

229 Life

Madhyamaka,
Madonna,
167
74

135 f.

of, 196-213
224

Islam,
231 ff
.

Magians,
Maha

Mahdbharata,

39, 41

Muharram, Muir, 200

Mula

Maya, 97 Mahapajapati, 1J.1

Mahayana,
162-9,

Sankara,
15

60

Miiller, Max, 142,

144.

133-8,
181-91 140
211

Mutazilites, 220,

225

Mahinda, Maimunah,

Nagarjuna,
Nagasena,
184 91 Nallasvami

135

Maitreya, 146,
Maitreyi, Majjhima
Malabar!
,

91, 121 Pillai, 53

60

36

Natarajan,
Nats,
New
143

Nikdya,
88 128

Malik-ibn-Anas,
Manat,
195
145

Nepal, 95, 144 f. Dispensation,

59 Nirvana,

Manchuria, Mani, 83
Manikka

See 90. Nibbdna, 190 f. Nicheren, Nicholson, 238 f. 53

Vasagar,
101 f. 201

Mara, Maruts,

Nihongi, 173 Ninigi, 177

ff.

Margoliouth, Mary,
the

ff.,210
of Jesus,

16, 18
Mother

221,
221
;

223 ; the Muhammad's

sister of Moses,

concubine,

212

115 94, 98, 90, Nirvana, 123-8, 133, 137 Nivedita, Sister, 62 Noah, 195, 223 Noble Eightfold Path, 104

f.,

INDEX
Noble Northern

263

Truths,

104

ff., 1 1 7-28
See

Buddhism.

Ramadan, 209, 226 Ramakrishna, 55, 59, 61

f.

Mahayana.
Ohonamochi,
"

Ramanuja,
Rdmdyana,
177

49

f. 52 Ramadan f
.

39-41,
226.

Ramazan,
235 Rammohan

See
55

Ointment

of Jesus,"

Rai,
60 40

Oldenberg,
53 Oman, 70 Ormazd,

37,

90,

106,

109,

Ranade,
Ravana,
47

112, 117, 119,

126, 128

Redemption,

30,

34-8,

44

ff.,
88,

"E.,106, 115 f., 124-7 Reform 55-61, Movements,

f.

145 Padma-Sambhava, See Dagaba. Pagoda.

141, 143

Pah-sien, Pali, 89 f. Paraclete,

Paradise

161

Reischauer, Renovation,

185, 187,
81 f. 14-25

189

f.

Rigveda, 13,
224

Scriptures, 137
132

f.

19 Rudra, Rukmini,

51

Parsis, 83-8

Pataliputra,

200 Ruqaiyah, Ryobu-Shinto, Sadharan Brahma 210

180, 186

Pdtimokkha, 130 Pavarana, Pieters, 181

90, 130, 164

Samaj,
53

59

Safiyah,
Saiva

Pongyi, Pope, 53
Poussin,
136

143
121

94,

fi, 127,

134,

Siddhanta, Saivism, 52 f. Sakti, 53

Sakyamuni,
27 59

96.

See

Buddha.

Prajapati, 24,
Prarthana

Samaj,
164.

f. See mokkha. Pdti-

Prdtimoksha, Prithivi, 18

125 Sama, Samaveda, 14, 25 192 f. Samurai,

Samyutta Nikdya, Sandilya, 29

222-4

91

Prophets (in Quran),

Psalms 126

Sanghamitta,
Sankara,
47

140 ff.

of

the

Sisters, 91, 111,

Sankhya,
46, 50, 54 Land

43-6, 53, 94
137 233 72

Purdnas,
Pure

Purusha, Pushan,

Sect, 166, 184, 188 24, 28 f.

16

Santideva, as-Sanusi,

Saoshyants,

Sariputta,
Satan,
221

107,

109 60 228-36

Qiyds, Quran,

218 195 195 f.

Satydrth Prakdsh,
f., 215 f., 221
f.

Quarish,

Rabia, 238 51, 62 Radha, Rahula, 96, 109 210 Raihanah,

Savitar, 15 f., 18 Sects, 50-3, 163, 185-91, 233 Sayyed Ahmad, Sell, 217

Shahpuhr,
Shaka,
96.

83 See 150 Buddha.

Shang-ti,

ff.

Rajanya,
Rama,

25 52

39-41,

Shen, 169 Shiahs, 228-32

254
Shi

INDEX

King,

148-153 See
186 f.

Tagore,
Pure Land. Tantric

Shin, 189.

True

Shingon,

Shinran, 189 Shinto, 173-80 185 Shoden, 173 Shomu,

Shotoku Shu

63 Rabindranath, 138 f., 145 Buddhism, Tao, 159, 161, 193 159 ff. Taoism, Tara, 136, 144, 146

f
.

Tathagata,
192

96.

See

Buddha.

Daishi, 183,
148-52 140

Temmu, Tendai,

173 188

King, Shwedagon,
Siddhattha
See

Theosophy,
Therd-therl 96.

55, 61

ff. 91

gdthd,

(Siddhartha),

Buddha.

Tibet, 144 ff. Tien, 150 f.

Sirat, 225 Sita, 39 f., 52 Siva, 18f., 40,

Tipitaka,
Tissa, 140
52

90-2

f.,60, 185

Towers

of Silence, 81, 86 216 See Karma. See

Skambha,

29 f.

Traditions,

Soga,
Soma,

182

Transmigration.
Tripitaka.
See Lord. Buddhism.

16f., 67

Tipitaka.
Sect, 186, 189 f.

Song of the vadgitd.

Southern

BhagaSee

True

Pure

Land
145

Tsong

Kapa,

Hmayana Spooner, 95
Spring
Sraosha,
Srinivasa and

Autumn, 72, 77
13

148

lyengar, Srirangam, 49 Srong Tsan Gampo,

Stanton, 223,
225

144

Subh-i-Azel, Suddhodana,
Sudra, 25 Sufis, 238
Sukhavati. Sun f.

234 97

Uddaka, 98, 104 208 f. Uhud, 179 Ukemochi, 40 Uma, 203, 217, 228 Umar, 13 f., 30-8, Upanishads, 47 ff.,56 f., 94 Ushas, 16, 27 Uthman, 200, 228 194 al-Uzza,

43,

SuikoTenno,

183 See

Western
184

dise. Para-

Vairochana, Vaishnavism,

166, 184, 186, 191 43, 51 f., 58

Vaisya,
Goddess,
216 217 18 176 ff.

25

175-8,

Sunnah, Sunnis,

Surya, 16,
Susa-no-wo,
SQtra Sutra
161

of of
f.

Brahma's

Net, 164 ff. Sections, Forty -Two

91 90

Sutta

Pitaka,

Suttavibhanga,

Valmiki, 39 16 f., 19 ff.,22 f. Varuna, Vata, 18 Vayu, 16, 18, 25 Veda, 14 46, 48 f. Vedanta, Veddntasutras, 47, 56 Vendlddd, 65, 75-81, 85 Vesali, 90, 132 Vinaya Pitaka, 90 f., 129 f. Vishnu, 16, 19, 40 f.

Tagore, Dvarkanath, Tagore, Debendranath,

56 67 f.

Vishtaspa,
Vivekananda,

58 62

INDEX

255

Vohu

Manah,
17

69

Yasa, Yashts, Yaska, Yasnaa,

106

Vritra,

65,
16

72-82

65,

73 96

Wad

dell,

145

f.

Yasodhara, Wahhabis, Warren, Wellhausen,

West,
Western
188 ff.
74 121

232 f.

f.

Yathrib, Yazatas,
194

196.

See
76 173

Medina.

65,

ft.

f.,

205

Yengishiki,
Yi

King,
71

148

Paradise,

138,

166.

Yima, Yin,

169f.

Wilson,

85

Yoga,

38,

44

f.

Woking,
Women,

236

50,

110

f.,

214

Zaid, Zainab,

199,
214

215

f.

Yadavas,

41

Zarathushtra

(Zaratust).

See

Yajnavalkhya, Yajurveda,
Yama, Yamato,
16, 14,

31,
25

34

ff.

Zoroaster.

Zen,
71

186f. Life

23,
177

33,

Zoroaster, of, hero,

75

of,

65-8
;

ing Teach-

68-73

Legendary

Yang,

169

ff.

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