60 Max. hardness difference 50 Hardness, HRC 22 HRC/5 mm 47 HRCmin at J = 2.

5 mm Gradient of hardness 32 HRC at J = 10 mm 50% Martensite 40

30

25 HRCmin at J = 7.5 mm

20 37 Mn Si 5 10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance from quenched end, J, mm 38 HRCmin at 4 mm 50% martensite at 38 HRCmin) 42 HRCmax at 20 mm

(Cmin = 0.31%;

(Cmax = 0.39%;
50% martensite at 42 HRCmax)

Hardenability: J(50 M) = 420 mm

C 3139; J 420

FIGURE 5.36 Hardenability band of DIN 37MnSi5 steel and the way technologically important c ic , H.M. Tensi, and W. Luty, Theory and Technology of information can be obtained. (From B. Lis Quenching, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1992.)

Effective depth of hardening is not the only information that can be derived from the hardenability band. Characteristic features of every hardenability band provide information on the material-dependent spread of hardenability designated the maximum hardness difference as shown in Figure 5.36. The hardness difference at the same distance from the quenched end, i.e., at the same cooling rate, can be taken as a measure of material-dependent deviations. Another important technological point that can be derived from the hardenability band is the hardness gradient. In Figure 5.36, this is illustrated by the minimum hardenability curve for the steel in question where there is a high gradient of hardness (22 HRC for only 5 mm difference in the Jominy distance). High hardness gradients indicate high sensitivity to cooling rate variation.

5.4

CALCULATION OF JOMINY CURVES FROM CHEMICAL COMPOSITION

The first calculations of Jominy curves based on the chemical composition of steels were performed in the United States in 1943 [21,22]. Later, Just [23], using regression analysis of fictitious Jominy curves from SAE hardenability bands and Jominy curves of actual heats from the USS Atlas (USA) and MPI-Atlas (Germany), derived expressions for calculating the hardness at different distances (E) from the quenched end of the Jominy specimen. It was found that the influence of carbon depends on other alloying elements and also on the cooling rate, i.e., with distance from the quenched end (Jominy distance). Carbon starts at a Jominy distance of 0 with a multiplying factor of 50, while other alloying elements have the factor 0 at this distance. This implies that the hardness at a Jominy distance of 0 is governed solely by the carbon content. The influence of other alloying elements generally increases from 0 to values of their respective factors up to a Jominy distance of about 10 mm. Beyond this distance, their influence is essentially constant. Near the quenched end the

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.

influence of carbon prevails, while the influence of other alloying elements remains essentially constant beyond a Jominy distance of about 10 mm. This led Just to propose a single expression for the whole test specimen, except for distances shorter than 6 mm: p p J680 95 C 0:00276E 2 C 20Cr 38Mo 14Mn 5:5Ni 6:1Si 39V p 96P 0:81K 12:28 E 0:898E 13HRC

(5:7)

where J is the Jominy hardness (HRC), E the Jominy distance (mm), K the ASTM grain size, and the element symbols represent weight percentage of each. In Equation 5.7, all alloying elements are adjusted to weight percent, and it is valid within the following limits of alloying elements: C < 0.6%; Cr < 2%; Mn < 2%; Ni < 4%; Mo < 0.5%; V < 0.2%. Calculation of hardness at the quenched end (Jominy distance 0), using the equation for the maximum attainable hardness with 100% martensite, is p Hmax 60 C 20 HRC, C < 0:6% (5:8)

Although Equation 5.7 was derived for use up to a distance of 80 mm from the quenched end of the Jominy specimen, other authors argue that beyond a Jominy distance of 65 mm the continuous decrease in cooling rate at the Jominy test cannot be ensured even for low-alloy steels because of the cooling effect of surrounding air. Therefore, newer calculation methods rarely go beyond a Jominy distance of 40 mm. Just [23] found that a better fit for existing mutual correlations can be achieved by formulas that are valid for groups of similar steels. He also found that multiplying hardenability factors for Cr, Mn, and Ni have lower values for case-hardening steels than for structural steels for hardening and tempering. Therefore, separate formulas for casehardening steels were derived: p p J640 (case-hardening steels) 74 C 14Cr 5:4Ni 29Mo 16Mn 16:8 E 1:386E 7HRC and for steels for hardening and tempering, p J640 (steels for hardening and tempering) 102 C 22Cr 21Mn 7Ni 33Mo p 15:47 E 1:102E 16HRC (5:10) In Europe, five German steel producers in a VDEh working group jointly developed formulas that adequately define the hardenability from different production heats [24]. The goal was to replace various existing formulas that were used individually. Data for some case-hardening steels and some low-alloy structural steels for hardening and tempering have been compiled, and guidelines for the calculation and evaluation of formulas for additional families of steel have been established. This work accounts for influential factors from the steel melting process and for possible deviations in the Jominy test itself. Multiple linear regression methods using measured hardness values for Jominy tests and actual chemical compositions were also included in the analyses. The number of Jominy curves of a family of steel grades necessary to establish usable formulas should be at least equal to the square of the total number of chemical elements used for the calculation. Approximately 200 curves were suggested. To obtain usable equations, all Jominy curves for steel grades that had similar transformation characteristics (i.e., similar continuous cooling transformation [CCT] diagram)

(5:9)

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TABLE 5.2 Regression Coefficients for the Calculation of Jominy Hardness Values for Structural Steels for Hardening and Tempering Alloyed with about 1% Cr
Jominy Distance (mm) 1.5 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 20 25 30 Regression Coefficients Constant 29.96 26.75 15.24 7.82 27.29 39.34 42.61 42.49 41.72 41.94 44.63 C 57.91 58.66 64.04 81.10 94.70 100.78 95.85 88.69 78.34 72.29 72.74 Si 2.29 3.76 10.86 19.27 22.01 21.25 20.54 20.82 17.57 18.62 19.12 Mn 3.77 2.16 4.87 10.24 14.70 16.06 17.75 20.18 20.73 21.42 41.85 73.79 37.76 S Cr Mo Ni Al Cu 2.65 2.59 38.31 52.63 54.91 47.16 4.56 8.58 7.97 9.0 8.89 9.96 9.64 9.71 N 83.33 59.87 115.50 176.82 144.07

65.81 81.41

2.86 12.29 21.02 24.82 25.39 26.46 25.33 23.85 24.08 24.39

6.66 30.41 38.97 26.95 35.99 27.57

7.51 7.69 10.75

bben, H. Rohloff, P. Schu ler, V. Schu ler, and H.J. Wieland, Source: R. Caspari, H. Gulden, K. Krieger, D. Lepper, A. Lu rterei Tech. Mitt. 47(3):183188, 1992. Ha

when hardened were used. Therefore, precise equations for the calculation of Jominy hardness values were derived only for steel grades of similar composition [24]. The regression coefficients for a set of equations to calculate the hardness values at different Jominy distances from 1.5 to 30 mm from the quenched end are provided in Table 5.2. The chemistry of the steels used for this study is summarized in Table 5.3. The regression coefficients in Table 5.2 do not have the same meaning as the hardenability factors in Equation 5.7, Equation 5.9, and Equation 5.10; therefore, there is no restriction on the calculation of Jominy hardness values at less than 6 mm from the quenched end. Because the regression coefficients used in this method of calculation are not hardenability factors, care should be taken when deriving structural properties from them. The precision of the calculation was determined by comparing the measured and calculated hardness values and establishing the residual scatter, which is shown in Figure 5.37. The TABLE 5.3 Limiting Values of Chemical Composition of Structural Steels for Hardening and Tempering Alloyed with about 1% Cra
Content (%) C Min. Max. Mean s
a

Si 0.02 0.36 0.22 0.07

Mn 0.59 0.97 0.76 0.07

P 0.005 0.037 0.013 0.005

S 0.003 0.038 0.023 0.008

Cr 0.80 1.24 1.04 0.10

Mo 0.01 0.09 0.04 0.02

Ni 0.01 0.28 0.13 0.05

Al 0.012 0.062 0.031 0.007

Cu 0.02 0.32 0.16 0.05

N 0.006 0.015 0.009 0.002

0.22 0.47 0.35 0.06

Used in calculations with regression coefficients of Table 5.2. bben, H. Rohloff, P. Schu ler, V. Schu ler, and H.J. Wieland, Source: R. Caspari, H. Gulden, K. Krieger, D. Lepper, A. Lu rterei Tech. Mitt. 47(3):183188, 1992. Ha

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60

Steel 41Cr4 (DIN)

0.9

2.1

s=

2
n2

50
2.5 s = 2.94 HRC

40 Hardness, HRC

1.1

= calculated hardness measured hardness 3.6

30 60
0.7 0.1 s = 7.45 HRC

50
7.4

40

10.5 = calculated hardness measured hardness 1.4

30

10 20 Distance from the quenched end, mm

30

FIGURE 5.37 Comparison between measured (O) and calculated (.) hardness values for a melt with adequate consistency (top) and with inadequate consistency (bottom). (From R. Caspari, H. Gulden, bben, H. Rohloff, P. Schu ler, V. Schu ler, and H.J. Wieland, Ha rterei Tech. K. Krieger, D. Lepper, A. Lu Mitt. 47(3):183188, 1992.)

upper curve for a heat of DIN 41Cr4 steel, having a residual scatter of s 2.94 HRC, shows an adequate consistency, while the lower curve for another heat of the same steel, with a residual scatter of s 7.45 HRC, shows inadequate consistency. Such checks were repeated for every Jominy distance and for every heat of the respective steel family. During this process it was found that the residual scatter depends on the distance from the quenched end and that calculated Jominy curves do not show the same precision (compared to measured curves) at all Jominy distances. For different steel grades with different transformation characteristics, the residual scatter varies with Jominy distance, as shown in Figure 5.38. In spite of the residual scatter of the calculated results, it was concluded that properly calibrated predictors offer a strong advantage over testing in routine applications [25]. When judging the precision of a calculation of Jominy hardness values, hardenability predictors are expected to accurately predict (+1 HRC) the observed hardness values from the chemical composition. However, experimental reproducibility of a hardness value at a fixed Jominy distance near the inflection point of the curve can be 812 HRC (see Figure 5.23 for J10mm). Therefore it was concluded that a properly calibrated hardenability formula will always anticipate the results of a purchasers check test at every hardness point better than an actual Jominy test [25].

5.4.1 HYPERBOLIC SECANT METHOD FOR PREDICTING JOMINY HARDENABILITY

Another method for predicting Jominy end-quench hardenability from composition is based on the four-parameter hyperbolic secant curve-fitting technique [26]. In this method, it is

2006 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC.