1

"#$ %&'$ () *+$,&-./ 0$,(/1(-,.-2 ./3 1#$ 4.55 () 67, 8$+(-,.-2

8y nlck 1rolano
!une 30, 2013

rofessor !effry 8urnam | CeorgeLown unlverslLy
CapsLone for MA rogram ln Amerlcan CovernmenL

2









lC8 uCuC 8AlLL? (1933-2013)
A l8lLnu, MLn1C8 Anu lnSl8A1lCn

"#$%&'() *$+,- ./ 0$1/ 21$0'3'() 4$1 50/1'*6 %&6(
%$ &67/ %&/ 8$+() ./*$0/ %&/ (/9 2$,'%'*6, .$33/3:;
3





*9'1,.-1

1he underrepresenLaLlon of young Amerlcans ln Lhe aglng unlLed SLaLes Congress
undermlnes raLes of youLh clvlc parLlclpaLlon, marglnallzes Lhe vlews and values of an
enLlre generaLlon and exacerbaLes unsusLalnable publlc pollcy, from Lhe growlng u.S.
debL Lo our warmlng planeL. 8ased on exlsLlng academlc sLudles, publlc oplnlon polllng
and orlglnal lnLervlews, Lhls research examlnes Lhe lnsLlLuLlonal, lmpllclL and lnherenL
barrlers Lo young people seeklng and wlnnlng elecLlon Lo publlc offlce, lncludlng
lncumbency advanLage, Lhe role of money ln campalgns, young people's percepLlon of
pollLlcs, Lhe naLure of pollLlcal parLles, and agelsm wlLhln a dlsproporLlonally elderly and
graylng elecLoraLe. 1o lower Lhese barrlers, several recommendaLlons are made, such as
a consLlLuLlonal amendmenL Lo lower Lhe age of ellglblllLy for federal offlce, LargeLed
campalgn flnance reforms, a revamplng of clvlc educaLlon and Lhe esLabllshmenL of a
pollLlcal organlzaLlon Lo moblllze and supporL young candldaLes.


4




".95$ () :(/1$/1'

!"#$%&'(#!%" *
+,(#!%" !- ./0 0%'#/ $,1$,+,"#2#!%" 32##,$+ 4
565 &,+($!1#!7, $,1$,+,"#2#!%"- ,"828,3,"#9 ,::!(2(0 ; ,72<'2#!%" =
56> +'?+#2"#!7, $,1$,+,"#2#!%"- 1%<!(0 %'#(%3,+ 2"& +2#!+:2(#!%" 5>
56@ 8,$%"#%($2(0 ; !"#,$8,",$2#!%"2< A'+#!(, 5B
+,(#!%" !!- 0%'"8 ,<,(#,& %::!(!2<+ ; #/, 3!<<,""!2< 8,",$2#!%" >>
>65 !" #/, '"!#,& +#2#,+ >>
>6> (%312$2#!7, $,+,2$(/ >C
>6@ 3%#!72#!%"+ ; (/2$2(#,$!+#!(+ >*
>6C #/, 0%'"8 D 3!<<,""!2< 211$%2(/ >*
+,(#!%" !!!- ?2$$!,$+ #% %::!(, >4
@65 28, ,<!8!?!<!#0 $,E'!$,3,"#+ F2 /!+#%$0G >4
@6> 1,$(,1#!%"+ %: 1%<!#!(+ 2"& 1%<!#!(2< ,::!(2(0 @H
@6@ 1%<!#!(2< 12$#0 3%?!<!I2#!%" @5
@6C !"('3?,"(0 @@
@6* ",# .%$#/ ; (2312!8" :!"2"(, @J
@6J 28,!+3 @B
+,(#!%" !7- $,(%33,"&2#!%"+ C5
C65 (%"+#!#'#!%"2< K28, 23,"&3,"#L C5
C6> (2312!8" :!"2"(, $,:%$3 C*
C6@ (!7!( ,&'(2#!%" CJ
C6C 1%<!#!(2< %$82"!I2#!%" F#,2(/ :%$ 23,$!(2 M ,3!<0N+ <!+#G C4
(%"(<'+!%" *H
.%$O+ (!#,& *5





3
;/1,(37-1&(/

Many observers saw Lhe 2008 elecLlon as a good slgn for Lhe growlng pollLlcal
lnfluence of Lhe rlslng mlllennlal generaLlon. More Lhan 22 mllllon young people (18-29),
31 percenL of all ellglble young voLers, casL a balloL -- Lhe hlghesL LurnouL slnce 1972,
when Lhe voLlng age was lowered Lo 18 (klrby). 1he face of our democracy ls forever
changed and young people have shown Lhe world we are Laklng our counLry lnLo our
own hands," proclalmed PeaLher SmlLh, presldenL of 8ock Lhe voLe (8ock). 1o Lhe
conLrary, young people ceded greaLer lnfluence Lo older generaLlons, as voLers acLually
elecLed Lhe oldesL Congress on record, Lhe average age of a member of Lhe Pouse of
8epresenLaLlves rose Lo 37. 1he 2008 elecLlon was noL an aberraLlon. Congress has been
sLeadlly aglng for Lhe pasL 30 years. 1oday, [usL 6 percenL of all represenLaLlves and
senaLors are under 40. ln facL, Congress ls composed of fewer young people Lhan Lhe
vasL ma[orlLy of oLher counLrles' leglslaLures. 1he underrepresenLaLlon of young people
ls noL slmply a cosmeLlc problem, buL a deeply subsLanLlve one wlLh serlous
consequences for democracy.
6
WlLh few young elecLed offlclals, Lhe unlque values and vlews of young people
are marglnallzed, especlally on pollLlcal lssues LhaL exhlblL deep generaLlonal dlvldes,
such as marl[uana legallzaLlon, gay marrlage and Lhe general dlsLrlbuLlon of federal
resources. lurLher, Lhe skewlng of pollLlcal power Lo Lhe elderly reduces lncenLlves for
governmenL Lo Lake acLlon on long-Lerm susLalnablllLy challenges, such as Lhe growlng
u.S. naLlonal debL and our warmlng planeL. 8eyond pollcy, a lack of young elecLed
offlclals slgnals Lo young people LhaL self-governmenL ls an acLlvlLy reserved for older
people. LxlsLlng research lndlcaLes LhaL Lhls dlsconnecL erodes noL only lnLeresL and
lnvolvemenL ln pollLlcs, buL also confldence and LrusL ln governlng lnsLlLuLlons. ln sum, a
lack of descrlpLlve and subsLanLlve represenLaLlon of young people ls corroslve Lo Lhe
democraLlc process 6(- Lo publlc pollcy generally.
1he dearLh of young people holdlng elecLed offlce ls a resulL of Lhe varlous
lnsLlLuLlonal, lnherenL and lmpllclL barrlers faclng poLenLlal young candldaLes, especlally
aL Lhe federal level. llrsL, Lhe unlLed SLaLes ConsLlLuLlon prohlblLs anyone under 23 from
servlng ln Lhe Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves and anyone under 30 from servlng ln Lhe SenaLe.
Second, congresslonal lncumbenLs exerclse many bullL-ln advanLages over Lhelr
opponenLs, such as hlgher name ldenLlflcaLlon. 1hlrd, young people are leasL able Lo
meeL Lhe fundralslng demands necessary Lo wln lncreaslngly expenslve elecLlons. lourLh,
young people looklng Lo make a dlfference are Lurned off by an lncreaslngly polarlzed
and paralyzed pollLlcal sysLem. llfLh, pollLlcal parLles Lend Lo supporL older candldaLes
for hlgher offlces. LasLly, Lhe dlsproporLlonaLely old and aglng elecLoraLe may exerclse
age blas agalnsL young candldaLes.
7
Achlevlng greaLer youLh represenLaLlon ln Congress requlres a sLark deparLure
from Lhe sLaLus quo on Lhe parL of boLh governmenL and clvll socleLy. AL Lhe federal
level, Congress should send a consLlLuLlonal amendmenL Lo Lhe sLaLes Lo synchronlze
Lhe age of ellglblllLy Lo hold offlce wlLh Lhe age Lo voLe and should pass LargeLed
campalgn flnance reforms Lo level Lhe playlng fleld beLween lncumbenLs and Lhelr
challengers. AL local level, school boards should revamp clvlc educaLlon currlcula and
acLlvlLles Lo fosLer a greaLer sense of pollLlcal efflcacy and empowermenL among young
people. llnally, wlLhln clvll socleLy, concerned clLlzens should band LogeLher Lo esLabllsh
an organlzaLlon Lo recrulL, Lraln and supporL a new generaLlon of young candldaLes.
Cf all Lhe pollLlcal lnequallLles LhaL exlsL ln Amerlca, underrepresenLaLlon of Lhe
young ls Lhe leasL dlscussed buL among Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL and Lhe mosL lnsldlous. Cn
one hand, young people wlll be affecLed Lo Lhe greaLesL exLenL by Lhe pollLlcal declslons
LhaL are made (or are noL made) Loday, especlally wlLh respecL Lo susLalnablllLy
challenges LhaL are only compoundlng wlLh Llme. Cn Lhe oLher hand, alLhough Lhe
problem of youLh underrepresenLaLlon ls experlenced unlversally, lL ls also, from an
lndlvldual's raLlonal perspecLlve, fleeLlng -- meanlng by Lhe Llme young people reallze
Lhls lnLergeneraLlonal ln[usLlce and can begln Lo change lL, Lhey wlll soon age ouL and no
longer be affecLed. neverLheless, our democraLlc values and moral obllgaLlon Lo Lhe
nexL generaLlon demand a soluLlon. 8rldglng Lhe generaLlonal gap ln governmenL and
prevenLlng Lhe rlse of Amerlcan geronLocracy (rule by elders") from becomlng Lhe fall
of our democracy ls Lhe preemlnenL pollLlcal challenge of our Llme.
8
<$-1&(/ ;= >#2 ?(71# %$@,$'$/1.1&(/ A.11$,'

Cur governlng lnsLlLuLlons are graylng. 1he average age of a member of Congress
has, wlLh few excepLlons, been sLeadlly lncreaslng over Lhe pasL Lhree decades. 1he
average represenLaLlve ln Lhe 113
Lh
Congress ls 37, whlle Lhe average senaLor ls 62. 1he
oldesL member of Lhe SenaLe, ulanne lelnsLeln, ls 80. 1he oldesL member of Lhe Pouse
of 8epresenLaLlves, 8alph Pall, ls 90 years old, neverLheless, he recenLly announced he
plans Lo seek reelecLlon ln 2014. AlLhough 23- Lo 33-year-olds comprlse 14 percenL of
Lhe u.S. populaLlon, Lhey make up [usL 2 percenL of Lhe u.S. Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves
wlLh only 10 members under Lhe age of 33 ln Lhe 113
Lh
Congress. Cnly one member of
Lhe unlLed SLaLe SenaLe ls under Lhe age of 40 (LlsL). Cur governmenL ls looklng less
and less llke a Lruly represenLaLlve democracy and more and more llke a pluLocraLlc
geronLocracy," wrlLes !ohn Seery, a professor of pollLlcs aL omona College (Seery, 3).
1he poLenLlal causes of Lhls Lrend wlll be dlscussed ln a laLer secLlon, for now, Lhe
lmporLanL polnL ls LhaL Lhe Lrend exlsLs.
1he aglng of pollLlcal leadershlp ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes LhreaLens Lo undermlne Lhe
represenLaLlon of young people and Lhe beneflLs LhaL such represenLaLlon can provlde.
ollLlcal represenLaLlon ls mosL commonly descrlbed as elLher descrlpLlve" or
subsLanLlve." uescrlpLlve represenLaLlon descrlbes a represenLaLlve who reflecLs Lhe
characLerlsLlcs of Lhe group of people who elecLed hlm or her, such as race, sex and age.
SubsLanLlve represenLaLlon descrlbes a represenLaLlve who seeks Lo represenL Lhe
parLlcular lnLeresLs of Lhe group of people who elecLed hlm or her, regardless of
wheLher Lhey share physlcal characLerlsLlcs. AdequaLely achlevlng boLh descrlpLlve and
9
subsLanLlve represenLaLlon of young people ls crlLlcally lmporLanL ln our democracy ln
order Lo (l) fosLer an empowered and parLlclpaLory socleLy, (ll) achleve pollcy ouLcomes
LhaL reflecL Lhe vlews of young people and (lll) promoLe lnLergeneraLlonal [usLlce by
Laklng a longer-Lerm vlew of publlc pollcy.
BCB 8$'-,&@1&D$ %$@,$'$/1.1&(/= E/F.F$+$/1G E))&-.-2 H ED.57.1&(/

uescrlpLlve represenLaLlon has lnherenL value ln our democracy because a
leglslaLure LhaL reflecLs Lhe dlverslLy of Lhe people LhaL lL ls supposed Lo serve confers a
unlque sense of leglLlmacy as Lo lLs form and funcLlon. An all-whlLe and all-male
leglslaLure would on lLs face, for example, casL doubL on lLs democraLlc leglLlmacy --
how could such a body be Lruly represenLaLlve of all Lhe people, lf lLs leaders all look Lhe
same and llkely share a slmllar llfe experlence? varlous sLudles have shown LhaL
descrlpLlve represenLaLlon ls assoclaLed wlLh hlgher levels of engagemenL and efflcacy
and beLLer evaluaLlon of governmenL. 1hese are key lngredlenLs Lo any healLhy
democracy, lndeed, Lhelr absence could [usL as well lead Lo pollLlcal apaLhy as lL could Lo
dangerous pollLlcal lnsLablllLy among Lhose who percelve Lhemselves as excluded or
unrepresenLed (lowler).
LxlsLlng research shows an lmporLanL llnk beLween descrlpLlve represenLaLlon
and clvlc parLlclpaLlon. A 2007 sLudy by ChrlsLlna WolbrechL and uavld L. Campbell, for
example, demonsLraLed LhaL Lhe presence of female pollLlclans ln a glven socleLy
poslLlvely correlaLes wlLh women dlscusslng pollLlcs and becomlng pollLlcally acLlve. 1he
sLudy used Lhree daLa seLs encompasslng 28 counLrles, lncludlng Lhe unlLed SLaLes. A
key lnslghL from Lhls research ls LhaL younger women were dlsproporLlonaLely affecLed
10
by Lhe presence of female pollLlclans, suggesLlng LhaL young people are more
suscepLlble Lo exLernal cues (WolbrechL). 1hls ls lmporLanL because varlous sLudles have
shown LhaL pollLlcal soclallzaLlon lmpllcaLes llfelong Lrends, meanlng LhaL Lhe aLLlLudes
and behavlors adopLed aL a young age wlll conLlnue over Lhe course of a llfeLlme. Cur
clvlc ldenLlLy, once formed ln adolescence, ls hard Lo shake," noLes eLer Levlne,
dlrecLor of Lhe CenLer for lnformaLlon and 8esearch on Clvlc Learnlng and LngagemenL
and a professor aL 1ufLs unlverslLy (Levlne).
lurLher, ln 2009, lppa norrls and Mona Lena krook soughL Lo expand Lhe body
of research by examlnlng Lhe role of boLh gender 6(- age ln descrlpLlve represenLaLlon,
across a wlder seL of counLrles and over a longer perlod of Llme. 1hey asked, uoes
descrlpLlve represenLaLlon moblllze clvlc engagemenL?" 1helr sLudy concluded LhaL ln
counLrles where Lhe parllamenL ls composed of younger offlclals, young people have
more poslLlve pollLlcal aLLlLudes and behavlor. 1he observed age gaps ln pollLlcal
lnLeresL and assoclaLlonal membershlps dlsappear ln counLrles where Lhere ls greaLer
youLh represenLaLlon, however, an lmporLanL age-dlsparlLy ln voLlng LurnouL remalns
evldenL." 1he researchers cauLlon LhaL Lhey do noL know for cerLaln whlch way Lhe
causallLy flows, as lL ls posslble LhaL lncreased engagemenL among young people ls Lhe
reason for greaLer youLh represenLaLlon (norrls).
1hrough Lhls lens, Lhe relaLlve shorLage of young elecLed offlclals ln Lhe unlLed
SLaLes, especlally aL Lhe federal level, may help explaln why young Amerlcans are wldely
dlsconnecLed from Lhe pollLlcal sysLem. Accordlng Lo a 2013 survey by Parvard's
lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs, only 26 percenL of young people (ages 18-29) consldered
11
Lhemselves Lo be pollLlcally acLlve. Asked lf Lhey have engaged ln speclflc pollLlcal
acLlvlLles, small numbers of young people say Lhey have wrlLLen a leLLer or emall
advocaLlng a pollLlcal poslLlon (14), aLLended a rally/demonsLraLlon (13), donaLed
money Lo a pollLlcal campalgn (11) or volunLeered for a pollLlcal candldaLe/lssue (7).
ln Lhe run-up Lo Lhe 2012 elecLlon, 39 percenL of young people (18-29) lndlcaLed LhaL
Lhey were unllkely Lo voLe. 1he explanaLlons of non-voLers lncluded LhaL lL dld noL
maLLer who was elecLed because WashlngLon ls broken (43), LhaL none of Lhe
candldaLes represenL my vlews" (31), and LhaL Lhe pollLlcal parLles are more or less
Lhe same (23) (Parvard). ulLlmaLely, only abouL half of all young people voLed ln Lhe
lasL presldenLlal elecLlon.
A lack of parLlclpaLlon ls accompanled by a low and slnklng amounL of LrusL ln
governmenL. !usL 18 percenL of young Amerlcans LrusL Congress, down from 23 percenL
ln 2010, and 39 percenL of young people LrusL Lhe presldenL, down from 44 percenL ln
2010. A ma[orlLy of young people belleve elecLed offlclals seem Lo be moLlvaLed by
selflsh reasons" and elecLed offlclals don'L seem Lo have Lhe same prlorlLles l have."
lewer Lhan one ln flve young Amerlcans chooses pollLlcal engagemenL over
volunLeerlng ln Lhe communlLy, bellevlng lL ls a beLLer way Lo solve lmporLanL lssues
faclng Lhe naLlon. ?oung people also dlsapprove of boLh 8epubllcans (71) and
uemocraLs (38) ln Congress (Parvard). 1he sLory of young people and pollLlcs Loday ls
everyLhlng one would expecL from a lack of descrlpLlve represenLaLlon: low engagemenL,
low efflcacy and low approval. Cf course, many oLher facLors conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe clvlc
12
healLh of young people, some are unlque Lo Lhe mlllennlal generaLlon and oLhers are
consLanL for all young people over Llme.
BCI <79'1./1&D$ %$@,$'$/1.1&(/= J(5&-2 671-(+$' ./3 <.1&').-1&(/

1haL facL LhaL few young people hold elecLed offlce also has lmporLanL
lmpllcaLlons for Lhe subsLanLlve represenLaLlon of young people ln Lerms of pollcy
ouLcomes. 1hls llnk beLween descrlpLlve and subsLanLlve represenLaLlon has been Lhe
focus of lnLense academlc research. A 2008 sLudy, for example, found LhaL a surge of
Afrlcan Amerlcan represenLaLlon ln sLaLe leglslaLures durlng Lhe 1970s and early 1990s
correlaLed wlLh an lncrease ln sLaLe funds Lo dlsadvanLaged school dlsLrlcLs wlLh hlgh
mlnorlLy populaLlons. 1hese dlsLrlcLs even lncluded Lhose noL dlrecLly represenLed by an
Afrlcan Amerlcan leglslaLor, lmplylng LhaL Lhe subsLanLlve represenLaLlon afforded Lo Lhe
mlnorlLy populaLlons exLended beyond parochlal lnLeresLs. 1he auLhor concludes,
leglslaLures LhaL lncorporaLe mlnorlLy members of Lhe socleLy are more llkely Lo adopL
pollcles LhaL reflecL Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhe LradlLlonally underrepresenLed groups" (ueda).
Slmllarly, a 2002 sLudy found LhaL an lncrease ln female represenLaLlon ln 400
norweglan munlclpal governmenLs correlaLed wlLh a greaLer percenLage of chlldren
covered by chlld care. 1he researchers observed LhaL [L]he women elecLed Lo local
counclls broughL a new seL of concerns Lo Lhe pollLlcal agenda, and Lhelr dlrecL
responslblllLy for pollcles of lnLeresL Lo women, ln Lhls case, chlld care, resulLed ln
lmproved pollcy ouLcomes ln Lhose counclls wlLh larger percenLages of female
members." 1he sLudy lndlcaLed LhaL Lhese resulLs (descrlpLlve represenLaLlon leadlng Lo
lmproved pollcy ouLcomes) can be generallzed when Lhree condlLlons are meL: Lhere are
13
general dlfferences ln Lhe mass publlc, Lhe group has represenLaLlon ln governmenL and
Lhe governlng lnsLlLuLlon has conLrol over Lhe pollcy ouLcome (8raLLon).
8ased on Lhls evldence, one would also expecL lmproved pollcy ouLcomes for
young people lf Lhere were more young people ln elecLed offlce. 1hls ralses Lhe
quesLlon: are Lhere general dlfferences ln Lhe mass publlc oplnlon beLween young and
old? ubllc oplnlon surveys lndlcaLe Lhe answer ls resoundlngly yes. Cne's poslLlon ln
Lhe llfe cycle (speclflcally, reLlred vs. non-reLlred), noL [usL one's socloeconomlc poslLlon,
has been found Lo lnfluence pollcy preferences. [?]oung people 63 6 *6%/)$18 have
lnLeresLs LhaL confllcL wlLh Lhose of older generaLlons" (Levlne, 60). 1haL ls parLlally
because redlsLrlbuLlve pollcles, such as educaLlon and penslon programs, affecL
members of socleLy much more based on Lhelr age Lhan on Lhelr economlc poslLlon.
8ased on a raLlonal cholce model, Lhe young wlll care more abouL educaLlon spendlng,
whlle Lhe old wlll care more abouL publlc penslon spendlng. A comparaLlve pollLlcal
economy sLudy of 13 CrganlsaLlon for Lconomlc Co-operaLlon and uevelopmenL (CLCu)
counLrles lndlcaLed LhaL Lhe unlLed SLaLes ranks second ln overall magnlLude of age
sLraLlflcaLlon ln soclal pollcy preferences." lor example, Lhere was a 17 percenL
dlfference ln Lhe probablllLy of supporLlng more spendlng for educaLlon beLween non-
reLlred and reLlred Amerlcans -- Lhe largesL gap on any lssue, ln any counLry (see flgure
on Lhe nexL page). 1hese dlfferences also exlsLed for healLh care, unemploymenL and
penslon spendlng (8usemeyer).
Some observers say Lhese dlfferences ln oplnlon do noL acLually LranslaLe lnLo
publlc pollcy LhaL ls advanLageous Lo Lhe more powerful elderly populaLlon. A 2009
14
analysls of Lhe slze and generoslLy of publlc penslons ln 18 CLCu counLrles from 1980 Lo
2002, for example, lndlcaLes LhaL whlle aglng socleLles are spendlng more ln aggregaLe
on publlc penslons, lndlvldual beneflLs are elLher sLaylng consLanL or shrlnklng.
[C]onLrary Lo alarmlsL pollLlcal economy predlcLlons, Lhese democracles are noL yeL
domlnaLed by a new dlsLrlbuLlve pollLlcs of elderly power" (1epe).
Powever, Lhese concluslons are ($% conslsLenL ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes. ln 1972, Lhe
LoLal annual Soclal SecurlLy, Medlcare and Medlcald beneflLs pald per reLlree was
$11,000, or 41 percenL of Cu per caplLa. 8y 2010, LhaL flgure lncreased Lo $47,000 (ln
consLanL dollars), or 72 percenL of Cu per caplLa. 1here ls no doubL LhaL Lransfers Lo
Lhe elderly, ln aggregaLe 6(- lndlvldually, have slgnlflcanLly lncreased ln Lhe unlLed
13
SLaLes (koLllkoff). lurLher, lncreaslng spendlng on consumpLlon by Lhe elderly ln Lhe
presenL has crowded ouL lnvesLmenL ln Lhe fuLure of Lhe young. ln 1970, accordlng Lo
Lhe Cfflce of ManagemenL and 8udgeL, Lransfers and lnvesLmenLs each made up abouL
30 percenL of Lhe budgeL, Loday, Lransfers have rlsen Lo 63 percenL and lnvesLmenLs
have sunk Lo 14 percenL.








olllng by Lhe ew 8esearch CenLer demonsLraLes Lhere ls sLrong dlsagreemenL
beLween generaLlons abouL Lhese klnds of spendlng. When lL comes Lo Lhe federal
budgeL, 30 percenL of young Amerlcans (18-29) say governmenL should focus lLs
resources on programs LhaL beneflL younger adulLs, 13 percenL of Amerlcans older Lhan
33 agree. A ma[orlLy of young people (32) belleve keeplng Soclal SecurlLy and
Medlcare exacLly Lhe way Lhey are would puL Loo much of a flnanclal burden on younger
generaLlons, an oplnlon shared by 33 percenL of senlors (ew, 2012). Accordlngly, young
people go much furLher ln Lhelr supporL of poLenLlal reforms Lhan do senlors, such as
leLLlng workers puL Soclal SecurlLy Laxes ln prlvaLe accounLs (86 Lo 32) and uslng
16
Medlcare beneflLs Loward purchaslng prlvaLe lnsurance (74 Lo 48) (ew, 2011).
CeneraLlonal dlvldes on publlc pollcy exLend beyond redlsLrlbuLlve pollcles Lo soclal
lssues. Cn Lhe lssue of marl[uana, 63 percenL of mlllennlals supporL legallzaLlon,
compared wlLh [usL 34 percenL of Lhe baby boomers and 32 percenL of Lhe sllenL
generaLlon (ew, Aprll 2013). Cn Lhe lssue of same-sex marrlage, 70 percenL of
mlllennlals supporL Lhe rlghL of gay couples Lo marry, compared wlLh 38 percenL of Lhe
baby boomers and 31 percenL of Lhe sllenL generaLlon (ew, !une 2013).










In hei 1996 book, !"#$% '( )*+, 0niveisity of South Floiiua piofessoi Susan
NacNanus concluueu:
|Tjheie is gieatei consensus among Ameiicans of all ages about the
impoitance of a pioblem than theie is about ,"- to auuiess it oi -,.$ it
shoulu be auuiesseu ielative to othei pioblems. Nostly, the geneiations
uiffei in intensity, iathei then the uiiection, of theii opinions. I pioject that
will change, howevei, when zeio-sum economic baseu issues move to the
foiefiont as the nation's age piofile gets giayei (NacNanus, 247).
17
BCK 0$,(/1(-,.-2 H ;/1$,F$/$,.1&(/.5 L7'1&-$

uemographlc Lrends ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes and elsewhere, whlch forecasL a
sLeadlly aglng populaLlon, have led some Lo sound Lhe alarm of geronLocracy" - or
rule by Lhe elderly. [1]he elderly are growlng boLh rlcher and more numerous, and
unless someLhlng ls done Lo curb Lhelr expandlng pollLlcal power, programs Lo beneflL
Lhem may yeL become unLouchable," Alexel 8ayer wroLe ln a 1997 #/9 <$1= >'0/3
column LhaL called for an exLra voLe for parenLs of young chlldren. ln an aglng
populaLlon, Lhe greaL danger ls LhaL Lhe elecLoraLe wlll become more and more focused
on Lhe shorL Lerm," hllllp Longman wroLe ln a 1987 book, ?$1( %$ @68A >&/ #/9 @$,'%'*3
$4 5)'() '( 50/1'*6. 1he negaLlve lmpllcaLlons of an aglng populace are predlcLed by
raLlonal cholce Lheory: Lhose who are near Lhe end of Lhelr llfe wlll supporL pollcles and
pollLlclans who wlll maxlmlze lndlvldual beneflLs ln Lhe near Lerm, even lf LhaL means
lncurrlng cosLs LhaL wlll be reallzed by fuLure generaLlons ln Lhe long Lerm. 1hls does noL
mean LhaL older clLlzens necessarlly acL wlLh mallce Loward Lhe young, lnsLead, many
can slmply be lgnoranL of Lhe lnLergeneraLlonal lmpllcaLlons of Lhelr declslons or can be
led Lo belleve by pollLlclans deslrlng Lhelr supporL LhaL Lhere are none.
Accordlng Lo a recenL Callup poll, Amerlcans are evenly dlvlded abouL wheLher
Lhe nexL generaLlon wlll have a beLLer llfe Lhan Lhelr parenLs (Callup). lf Lhe skepLlcs
prove Lo be correcL, Lhls clrcumsLance would vlolaLe Lhe moral concepL of
lnLergeneraLlonal [usLlce" LhaL, as 8elglan economlsL and phllosopher hlllppe van
arl[s descrlbes, requlres each generaLlon, each blrLh cohorL, Lo make sure Lhe
slLuaLlon of Lhe nexL generaLlon - somehow measured, on a per caplLa basls - ls no
18
worse Lhan lLs own" (van arl[s). 1hls ldea has dlsLlncLly Amerlcan rooLs, Loo. 1homas
!efferson famously wroLe: 1he earLh belongs Lo each generaLlon durlng lLs course, fully,
and ln lLs own rlghL." Pe opposed Lhe noLlon LhaL one generaLlon could blnd anoLher
wlLh declslons lL has made or even laws lL passed. lor Lhls reason, he asserLed LhaL one
generaLlon should noL lncur more debL Lhan lL could pay off ln lLs llfeLlme. unforLunaLely,
by varlous lndlcaLors, Loday's young people and fuLure generaLlons acLually sLand Lo
lnherlL a counLry worse off Lhan prlor generaLlons. Conslder [usL Lwo lssues.
llrsL, our counLry's debL ls growlng. 1he long-Lerm flscal gap of Lhe unlLed SLaLes
ls $222 Lrllllon, whlch represenLs Lhe presenL value of currenL publlc debL plus Lhe
dlfference ln fuLure planned spendlng and revenue. Whlle adulL generaLlons allve Loday
wlll recelve more resources back from Lhe governmenL ln Lhe form of Lransfers, such as
Soclal SecurlLy and Medlcare, Lhan Lhey have pald Lo Lhe governmenL ln Lhe form of all
Laxes over Lhe course of Lhelr llfeLlme, fuLure generaLlons wlll face neL Laxes 21.3
percenLage polnLs hlgher lf Lhey are lefL wlLh Lhe blll for closlng Lhe flscal gap, accordlng
Lo Lhe lnLernaLlonal MoneLary lund (8aLlnl). Closlng Lhe flscal gap would requlre an
lmmedlaLe and permanenL revenue hlke of 64 percenL or a spendlng cuL of 40 percenL
or a mlxLure of Lhe Lwo. 1he cosL of delay dramaLlcally grows wlLh Llme as, among oLher
reasons, lnLeresL paymenLs compound. Some pro[ecLlons show lnLeresL paymenLs alone
wlll consume every dollar ln federal revenue by 2060. Lxplalns economlsL Laurence
koLllkoff: [l]f we walL 40 years, unLll all Lhe baby boomers have safely Laken Lhelr leave,
Lhe requlslLe permanenL Lax hlkes and spendlng cuLs are 93 percenL and 33 percenL"
19
(koLllkoff). Cn our currenL flscal course, Lhe young and unborn lnevlLably face a fuLure of
more debL, fewer beneflLs, hlgher Laxes and a lower sLandard of llvlng.
Second, our planeL's LemperaLure ls lncreaslng. !usL as Lhe human body has a
maxlmum LemperaLure before lL becomes llfe LhreaLenlng, so does LarLh: 3.6 degrees l
above average LemperaLures a cenLury ago, accordlng Lo sclenLlsLs. 1hls LranslaLes lnLo a
concenLraLlon of carbon dloxlde ln Lhe aLmosphere of 400 parLs per mllllon (ppm). 1he
currenL average global concenLraLlon of carbon dloxlde ls 391 ppm and ls growlng more
Lhan 2 ppm each year, mosLly as a resulL of human acLlvlLy. Conslder some of Lhe effecLs
we are already seelng: rlslng LemperaLures, melLlng lce caps, swelllng sea levels and
lncreaslng exLreme weaLher. 1hen lmaglne whaL ls ln sLore when Lhese dlsrupLlve
effecLs grow ln frequency, mulLlpllclLy, severlLy and unpredlcLablllLy" (AnLholls, 3). 1he
longer we walL Lo address Lhls problem, sclenLlsLs warn, Lhe Lougher lL wlll be Lo solve.
lor example, bllllons of Lons of meLhane slL below Lhe ArcLlc permafrosL. lf released, Lhe
meLhane wlll conLrlbuLe Lo Lhe heaL-Lrapplng layer of greenhouses gases ln Lhe
aLmosphere, meLhane ls 20 Llmes as powerful as carbon dloxlde. As 8rooklngs
lnsLlLuLlon scholars Wllllam AnLholls and SLrobe 1alboLL wrlLe: [1]hose of us allve Loday
are Lhe flrsL generaLlon Lo know LhaL we llve ln an Age of Clobal Warmlng. We may also
be Lhe lasL generaLlon Lo have any chance of dolng someLhlng abouL lL" (AnLholls, 1).
1he lssues of our growlng debL and our warmlng planeL share Lhree key
characLerlsLlcs: Lhey are large problems LhaL are compoundlng wlLh Llme, mosL of Lhelr
consequences wlll be shouldered by Lhe young and fuLure generaLlons, and acLlon ls
lncenLlvlzed only lf one Lakes a long vlew of Lhe problem, as Lhe cosLs of acLlng would
20
ouLwelgh shorL-Lerm beneflLs. 1haL we see such llLLle progress ln addresslng elLher of
Lhese lssues may noL slmply reflecL Lhe grldlock beLween uemocraLs and 8epubllcans,
buL Lhe Lrlumph of Lhe presenL over Lhe fuLure, or whaL some call Lhe dlcLaLorshlp of
Lhe presenL." 1hls explanaLlon resLs on Lwo assumpLlons: (l) older voLers and
offlceholders raLlonally pursue shorLer-Lerm pollcles Lhan Lhelr younger counLerparLs
and (ll) older people exerclse greaLer pollLlcal lnfluence Lhan Lhelr younger counLerparLs.
Whlle Lhe flrsL assumpLlon ls debaLable [young people . Lend Lo dlscounL Lhe value of
delayed rewards more sLeeply Lhan older people do" (Levlne, 61)] and worLhy of furLher
research, Lhere ls no doubL LhaL Lhe laLLer holds Lrue.









Lven Lhough Lhere are roughly Lhe same number of Amerlcans ages 23-34 (33.3
mllllon) as Lhere over 63 (37.7 mllllon), Lhe laLLer group ls overrepresenLed boLh ln Lhe
elecLoraLe and ln Congress. ln Lhe 2010 elecLlon, voLers ages 23-34 comprlsed only 12
percenL of Lhe elecLoraLe whlle voLers over 63 comprlsed 24 percenL. 1he dlsparlLy
21
reflecLs LhaL LurnouL among voLlng ellglble young people (31) was roughly half of LhaL
of older people (61). lurLher, whlle Lhose under 33 make up only 2 percenL of Lhose ln
Lhe Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves, Lhose over 63 comprlse 24 percenL of Lhe body (LlsL). ln
Lhe fuLure, we can expecL older Amerlcans Lo exerclse even greaLer pollLlcal lnfluence
due Lo boLh Lhe aglng and lncreased longevlLy of Lhe u.S. populaLlon. 1he number of
senlor clLlzens ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes wlll grow Lo 19.3 percenL of Lhe populaLlon by 2030
and 20.2 percenL by 2030 (u.S. Census 8ureau, 2012). Llfe expecLancy for females aL
blrLh wlll grow from 81 years Loday Lo 83 years by 2030 (ShresLha).








22
<$-1&(/ ;;= ?(7/F E5$-1$3 6))&-&.5' H 1#$ A&55$//&.5 0$/$,.1&(/
ICB ;/ 1#$ M/&1$3 <1.1$'

Amerlca has a rlch hlsLory of young people playlng a promlnenL role ln our
governlng lnsLlLuLlons and even ln Lhelr creaLlon. Cf Lhe 36 people who slgned Lhe
ueclaraLlon of lndependence, 12 were under age 33 -- lncludlng Llbrldge Cerry and
!ames Wllson. 1homas !efferson was 33 years old aL Lhe Llme when he auLhored Lhe
documenL. Cf Lhe 33 delegaLes Lo Lhe ConsLlLuLlonal ConvenLlon of 1787, 14 were under
age 33 -- lncludlng Alexander PamllLon, Couverneur Morrls and Charles lnckney.
lurLhermore, ln Lhe 20
Lh
cenLury, 12 of Lhe 19 u.S. presldenLs were under age 33 when
Lhey flrsL held pollLlcal offlce. 1hls lncludes 1heodore 8oosevelL, member of Lhe new
?ork SLaLe Assembly aL age 24, Lyndon 8. !ohnson, member of Lhe u.S. Pouse of
8epresenLaLlves aL age 29, and Wllllam !. CllnLon, aLLorney general of Arkansas aL age 30
(LagleLon, 2002c). ln 2003, 37 percenL of u.S. senaLors, 49 percenL of u.S.
represenLaLlves and 30 percenL of u.S. governors flrsL held elecLed offlce before age 33
(LagleLon, 2002a). ln Lhe 2008 elecLlon, Lhree of Lhe four candldaLes aL Lhe Lop of Lhe
LlckeLs (8arack Cbama, !oe 8lden and Sarah alln) were all once young elecLed offlclals.
Whlle young people have demonsLraLed a capaclLy Lo be meanlngfully lnvolved
ln pollLlcs and even go on Lo lead Lhe counLry, relaLlvely few young people hold pollLlcal
offlce aL Lhe federal level. As prevlously sLaLed, 23- Lo 33-year-olds make up [usL 2
percenL of Lhe u.S. Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves, wlLh nlne members ln Lhe 113
Lh
Congress
(LlsL). 1he youngesL member of Lhe unlLed SLaLes SenaLe ls 39 years old. 1he frequency
of young elecLed offlclals lmproves sllghLly when lncludlng Lhe sLaLe and local levels,
23
accordlng Lo Lhe mosL recenL comprehenslve sLudy of young elecLed offlclals ln Lhe
unlLed SLaLes ln 2002 by Lhe LagleLon lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs aL 8uLgers unlverslLy. ln LhaL
sLudy, researchers ldenLlfled a LoLal of 814 elecLed offlclals under 33 on Lhe local, sLaLe
and federal levels. CuL of a LoLal populaLlon of 17,023 elecLed offlclals, Lhose under 33
accounLed for [usL 4.8 percenL. 1he vasL ma[orlLy of Lhese younger offlceholders were
elLher munlclpal offlcers (483) or sLaLe leglslaLors (321), only Lwo were sLaLewlde
elecLed offlclals, and slx were members of Congress (LagleLon, 2002b).
A plurallLy of Lhe young elecLed offlclals ln Lhe 8uLgers sLudy (43) ldenLlfled as
uemocraLs, whlle 33 percenL ldenLlfled as 8epubllcans and 23 percenL were elLher Lhlrd-
parLy, nonparLlsan, lndependenL or unknown. Cf Lhe sllghLly less Lhan half who
responded Lo a personal survey, 72 percenL were ages 30-33 and 28 percenL were ages
20-30. A vasL ma[orlLy (86) were male. lemale represenLaLlon among young elecLed
offlclals lagged behlnd represenLaLlon of females generally. lor example, on Lhe sLaLe
leglslaLlve level, women made up 12 percenL of young elecLed offlclals buL 23 percenL of
all elecLed offlclals. CLher survey resulLs of young elecLed offlclals were compared Lo
young people generally, as reporLed by Lhe CenLer for lnformaLlon and 8esearch on Clvlc
Learnlng and LngagemenL. 8esearchers found some sLark buL noL LoLally surprlslng
dlfferences: young elecLed offlclals and Lhelr famllles are beLLer educaLed, wlLh 22
percenL of young elecLed offlclals' moLhers havlng aLLended graduaLe school compared
wlLh 8 percenL for young people generally. lurLher, 31 percenL of young elecLed offlclals
have famlly lncomes beLween $30,000 and $100,000, compared wlLh 31 percenL for
young people generally (LagleLon, 2002b).
24
ICI :(+@.,.1&D$ %$'$.,-#

Accordlng Lo daLa from Lhe Chronlcle of arllamenLary LlecLlons, Lhe unlLed
SLaLes ls among counLrles wlLh Lhe lowesL proporLlon of young people under 40 servlng
ln Lhe lower house of lLs leglslaLure-- [usL 6 percenL as of 2007 (and unchanged Lhrough
Lhe presenL). Many oLher counLrles have a greaLer proporLlon of young elecLed offlclals,
lncludlng lsrael (37), llnland (29), Spaln (17), Canada (14), unlLed klngdom (13)
and Lhe 8epubllc of korea (7) (norrls). As dlscussed laLer, Lhls can be aLLrlbuLed Lo,
among oLher Lhlngs, a lower age of ellglblllLy ln oLher counLrles (norrls).
23
ICK A(1&D.1&(/' H :#.,.-1$,&'1&-'

Why do young people seek elecLed offlce? ln parL Lo answer LhaL quesLlon, !ohn
Celock, an alumnus of Columbla unlverslLy and young [ournallsL, lnLervlewed more Lhan
90 young elecLed offlclals for hls 2010 book, >&/ #/B% C/(/16%'$(A <$+() D,/*%/-
E44'*'6,3 6(- %&/'1 F026*% $( 50/1'*6( @$,'%'*3:
Celock places young elecLed offlclals lnLo Lhree maln caLegorles. llrsL, Lhere are
Lhose who are heavlly lnfluenced by Lhelr famlly's lnvolvemenL ln pollLlcs and deslre Lo
carry on Lhe LradlLlon. AL Lhe age of 23, 8osallnd !ones, for example, announced her
candldacy ln 2003 for Lhe sLaLe house ln Loulslana -- a seaL ln Monroe LhaL used Lo be
held by her faLher. l would noL have been elecLed wlLhouL hlm" (Celock, 7). Second,
Lhere are Lhose who are pollLlcal sLaffers who vlew runnlng for offlce as Lhelr promoLlon.
!esslca Lapln worked for new ?ork ClLy Councll member Clfford Mlller before runnlng
for Lhe same offlce ln 2003 aL age 30. l loved my [ob and l wanLed Lo conLlnue Lo work
ln publlc servlce. l LhoughL: why don'L l run?" (Celock, 10). 1hlrd, Lhere are pollLlcal
ldeallsLs and pollLlcal acLlvlsLs who see Lhelr besL chance of maklng an lmpacL as belng aL
Lhe declslon-maklng Lable. !efferson SmlLh, Lhe founder of Cregon 8us ro[ecL, a young
professlonal clvlc engagemenL organlzaLlon, declded Lo Loss hls haL ln Lhe rlng for Lhe
Cregon Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves aL 33 ln 2008. Pe belleved he could have a blgger
lmpacL from Lhe lnslde" (Celock, 20).
ICN "#$ ?(7/F O A&55$//&.5 *@@,(.-#

1he approach of young elecLed offlclals ls unlque ln a varleLy of ways. lor one,
Celock descrlbes a greaLer capaclLy for Lhem Lo Lhlnk ouLslde of Lhe box. 1hose Lled Lo
26
exlsLlng power sLrucLures when Lhey geL lnLo offlce, afLer havlng successful careers ln
law or buslness or anoLher professlon, wlll be Lled Lo Lhe old way of dolng Lhlngs"
(Celock, 30). AnLhony SyLko, a 23-year-old ClLy Councll member ln Carwood, new !ersey,
saw an opporLunlLy Lo use hls chalrmanshlp of Lhe bulldlng and grounds commlLLee Lo
lay Lhe groundwork for solar panel lnsLallaLlon and enroll hls Lown ln Lhe SusLalnable
!ersey program Lo quallfy for envlronmenLal granLs. ln addlLlon, young elecLed offlclals
are generally wllllng Lo Lake more rlsks Lhan Lhelr older counLerparLs. [1]he rlsks whlle
ln offlce wlll be Lackllng lssues LhaL are noL normally Lackled or maklng a proposal LhaL ls
dlfferenL" ( Celock, 196). LxcepL for Lhose who are Lrylng Lo bulld a long-Lerm career ln
pollLlcs, young offlceholders may be more wllllng Lo Lake rlsks because Lhey are aL a
polnL ln Lhelr llfe where Lhey can beLLer adapL Lo swlLchlng [obs, lf Lhey lose reelecLlon.
1here are also quallLles of young elecLed offlclals and poLenLlal young elecLed
offlclals LhaL are unlque Lo Lhe mlllennlal generaLlon. Morley Wlnograd, auLhor of
G',,/(('6, G$0/(%+0A H$9 6 #/9 C/(/16%'$( F3 I/06='() 50/1'*6, asserLs LhaL young
elecLed offlclals of Lhe rlslng generaLlon have an approach Lo pollLlcs LhaL ls dlsLlncL from
LhaL of Lhelr baby boomer predecessors. 1helr generaLlon's ldeallsm -- ln sharp
conLrasL Lo Lhe more ldeologlcal approach adopLed by 8oomers -- ls characLerlzed by a
pragmaLlc lmpulse focused on flndlng pracLlcal soluLlons Lo problems" (Wlnograd). 1o
Lhe exLenL Loday's young people have a sLrong ldeology, lL largely does noL fall wlLhln
Lhe LradlLlonal small versus blg governmenL specLrum. Lrlc Llu, co-auLhor of >&/ C61-/(3
$4 J/0$*16*8, observes: ln shorL, Mlllennlals bypass. 1hey operaLe sldeways and
orLhogonally raLher Lhan obey all Lhe hlerarchles and dlchoLomles of Lhelr elders. .
27
Mlllennlals are comforLable wlLh blg goals and even blg spendlng. 8uL Lhey're also happy
Lo clrcumvenL Lhe sLaLe alLogeLher and enllsL anyone who can help achleve Lhose goals"
(Llu). As dlscussed earller, Lhls leads Lo unlque vlews on conLemporary pollLlcal lssues. ln
a blog posL from a norLh Carollna pollLlcal acLlon commlLLee abouL why we supporL
young candldaLes," grassrooLs dlrecLor Lvan uegnan wrlLes:
?oung elecLed offlclals are able Lo brlng new ldeas and Lechnology Lo
governmenL, maklng lL more LransparenL, efflclenL and recepLlve. When crlLlcs
bemoan our lack of llfe experlences remlnd Lhem LhaL we also don'L carry Lhe
baggage of a llfeLlme of pollLlcal baLLles. . We aren'L shackled by anLlquaLed
soclal bellefs nor do we hold Lhe same pre[udlces LhaL have polsoned our naLlon
before. . We see Lhe long game because we have Lo. lf we don'L lnvesL now ln
educaLlon, ln healLhcare, ln lnfrasLrucLure and ln proLecLlng Lhe envlronmenL
Lhen we are Lhe ones who suffer Lhe consequences. 1haL's why we're demandlng
a seaL aL Lhe Lable. lor Loo long Lhose ln power have forsaken Lhe fuLure Lo
preserve Lhe pasL, whlle creaLlng barrlers Lo enLry for young folks (uegnan).

ln Congress, young elecLed offlclals Lake a dlfferenL approach Lo governlng. We
are less sLrldenL and more wllllng Lo hear each oLher ouL," says Congressman Aaron
Schock, now 32. Pe adds, 1he older members are more concerned abouL process and
less wlLh resulLs." Pe suspecLs more young members ln Congress would lncrease Lhe
speed aL whlch Lhe lnsLlLuLlon operaLes and would focus Lhe leglslaLure on Lhe counLry's
long-Lerm flscal and envlronmenLal healLh." As Schock recenLly Lold 8uzzfeed: l Lhlnk lf
you gaLhered Lhe 40 members under 40 and locked us ln a room, we could solve Lhls
naLlon's problems ln 24 hours" (!ohnson).

28
<$-1&(/ ;;;= P.,,&$,' 1( 6))&-$

Cnly abouL one ln a hundred Amerlcans wlll run for offlce aL any Llme durlng
Lhelr llfeLlme (MacManus). 1he sacrlflce of Llme, physlcal efforL and personal prlvacy are
large barrlers for poLenLlal candldaLes of 6(8 age -- Lherefore, Lhey are noL dlscussed ln
deLall here. 1he focus lnsLead ls on Lhe range of lnsLlLuLlonal, lnherenL and lmpllclL
barrlers dlsproporLlonaLely or unlquely faced by young people, ln boLh runnlng for offlce
and ln belng elecLed Lo offlce. Lach ls addressed ln order of percelved magnlLude,
alLhough furLher research ls necessary Lo LesL Lhese assumpLlons.
KCB *F$ E5&F&9&5&12 %$Q7&,$+$/1' R* S&'1(,2T

1he mosL lmmovable barrler Lo young adulLs holdlng pollLlcal offlce on Lhe
federal level ls enshrlned rlghL ln Lhe unlLed SLaLe ConsLlLuLlon. ArLlcle l, SecLlon ll
sLlpulaLes: no erson shall be a 8epresenLaLlve who shall noL have aLLalned Lo Lhe Age
of LwenLy flve ?ears, and been seven ?ears a ClLlzen of Lhe unlLed SLaLes, and who shall
noL, when elecLed, be an lnhablLanL of LhaL SLaLe ln whlch he shall be chosen." Slmllarly,
Lhe ConsLlLuLlon seLs ellglblllLy requlremenLs aL age 30 for senaLors and 33 for presldenL.
1hese requlremenLs ouLrlghL deny Lhe hlghesL form of pollLlcal expresslon and
parLlclpaLlon -- Lhe ablllLy Lo hold offlce (and Lherefore, Lo run for offlce) -- Lo clLlzens
based on an lmmuLable quallLy, Lhough Lemporary.
1he sLaggered age llmlLs for Lhe Pouse of 8epresenLaLlves, Lhe SenaLe and Lhe
presldency were lnvenLed on Lhe spoL durlng Lhe ConsLlLuLlonal ConvenLlon ln
hlladelphla ln 1787. 1he lramers dld noL copy Lhe example of any parLlcular sLaLe or
forelgn counLry. AL Lhe Llme, only Lwo sLaLes had age resLrlcLlons for Lhe leglslaLure, aL
29
23, and only Lwo oLhers had resLrlcLlons for Lhe governorshlp, one aL 30 and Lhe oLher aL
33, however, Lhere were properLy requlremenLs ln oLher sLaLes LhaL, ln pracLlce, served
as an age resLrlcLlon. AL Lhe Llme, Lngland had an age resLrlcLlon of 21 for parllamenL. ln
speculaLlng why Lhe lramers developed Lhe sysLem Lhey dld, comedlan !on SLewarL
[okes Lhey were proLecLlng agalnsL Lyranny: 1he average llfe span ln colonlal Llmes was
41.3, so wlLh 33 as Lhe mlnlmum [for Lhe resldency], even a bruLal LyranL would have
only flve, seven years Lops, before gouL, cholera, and/or syphllls re-democraLlzed Lhe
naLlon" (Seery).
A beLLer explanaLlon of age resLrlcLlons can be found ln !ames Madlson's noLes
on Lhe ConsLlLuLlonal ConvenLlon, where a clash of democraLlc Lheory unfolded
beLween Ceorge Mason of vlrglnla and !ames Wllson of ennsylvanla.
Mason belleved popular elecLlon was a sLraLeglc check on governmenL" and
was Lhe chlef archlLecL of age resLrlcLlons, whlle Wllson saw elecLlons as Lhe very
deflnlLlon of democraLlc governmenL" and vehemenLly opposed any age resLrlcLlon on
holdlng offlce above Lhe age of suffrage. AL Lhe convenLlon, Mason reasoned LhaL lL was
absurd" for a clLlzen, upon Lhe age of Lurnlng 21, Lo noL only make a bargaln for
hlmself" buL also manage Lhe affalrs of a greaL naLlon." lndeed, he remarked upon hls
own ablllLy aL Lhe age of 21 by saylng hls own pollLlcal oplnlons aL Lhe Llme were Loo
crude and erroneous Lo merlL an lnfluence on publlc measures." Wllson flred back,
accordlng Lo Madlson, sLaLlng LhaL Lhe proposal would serve Lo damp Lhe efforL of
genlus, and of laudable amblLlon." Wllson conLended LhaL Lhe voLers should be Lhe
[udges of who ls flL Lo hold offlce. AlLhough age requlremenLs were lnlLlally voLed down
30
10-1 by Lhe convenLlon, Mason was neverLheless successful ln puLLlng a mlnlmum age
of 23 for Lhe Pouse wlLh a voLe of 7-3 aL a laLer daLe. Age resLrlcLlons for Lhe SenaLe and
presldency passed unanlmously and wlLhouL debaLe (Seery).
uurlng Lhe raLlflcaLlon perlod, age llmlLs were noL a focus of debaLe. When Lhey
were dlscussed, Lhe llmlLs were descrlbed as a senslble way Lo ensure LhaL only Lhe mosL
quallfled persons could hold offlce. !ames McPenry reflecLed LhaL Lhe convenLlon
deemed Lhe age of 23 necessary Lo maLure Lhe [udgmenL and form Lhe mlnd by hablLs
of reflecLlon and experlence" (Seery, 31). noah WebsLer, an ardenL supporL of Lhe new
consLlLuLlon and Lhe age llmlLs lL conLalned, wroLe LhaL Lhe ellglbly requlremenLs fllLered
ouL represenLaLlves who are noL llable Lo Lhe blas of passlons LhaL govern Lhe young"
(Seery, 33). 1he sLaggered age llmlLs were a way Lo promoLe more experlence and greaL
[udgmenL for hlgher offlces, from Lhe Pouse Lo Lhe SenaLe Lo Lhe presldency.
KCI J$,-$@1&(/' () J(5&1&-' ./3 J(5&1&-.5 E))&-.-2

Cne of Lhe maln reasons so few young people geL elecLed Lo offlce ls LhaL so few
young people deslre Lo run for offlce Lo begln wlLh. 8y and large, Loday's young people
are dlsconnecLed from pollLlcs alLogeLher because Lhey see lL as belng lneffecLlve. lf
you are 24 years old, all you know ls peLLy parLlsan pollLlcs whlle blg lssues aren'L geLLlng
addressed, whlle Lhe economy ls sLlll sLruggllng," commenLed 1rey Crayson, dlrecLor of
Lhe lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs aL Parvard unlverslLy (SLolberg). Accordlng Lo a recenL Parvard
survey, more young people agree LhaL pollLlcal lnvolvemenL rarely has Langlble resulLs"
Lhan dlsagree (Parvard). ?eL many vlew Lhe currenL generaLlon of young people as Lhe
nexL greaL clvlc generaLlon. olnLlng Lo growlng Lrends of naLlonal servlce parLlclpanLs,
31
soclal enLrepreneurs and oLher clvlc leaders, mlllennlal auLhor uavld 8ursLeln wrlLes,
Mlllennlals have selzed hold of Lhe world around Lhem, declded Lo make a dlfference,
and are dolng lL rlghL now" (8ursLeln). ln Lhls conLexL, young people's pollLlcal
dlsengagemenL may be beLLer undersLood as a raLlonal deslre Lo spend Lhelr Llme and
efforL where Lhey make can lmpacL, ln Loday's pollLlcal cllmaLe, LhaL means ouLslde of
governmenL.
lndeed, Lrends of dlsLrusL and dlsengagemenL are lncreaslng. Cynlclsm Loward
pollLlcs has Lurned Lhe very acL of pollLlcal engagemenL lnLo an acLlvlLy LhaL ls looked
down upon. Palf as many young people (33) belleve LhaL runnlng for offlce ls an
honorable Lhlng Lo do" compared wlLh communlLy servlce (70). lndeed, ln 2012, more
Lhan one-Lhlrd of young people parLlclpaLed ln communlLy servlce whlle only abouL a
quarLer descrlbed Lhemselves as pollLlcally acLlve (Parvard). ?oung people are reLreaLlng
from whaL Lhey belleve Lo be a fundamenLally broken pollLlcal sysLem. lf lL ls exceedlngly
dlfflculL Lo geL young people Lo conLacL Lhelr elecLed offlclal or even voLe ln an elecLlon,
Lhen Lhe ldea of persuadlng young people Lo spend a year or more deallng wlLh publlc
scruLlny and negaLlve aLLacks LhaL come wlLh runnlng for offlce, where Lhe besL-case
scenarlo ls wlnnlng elecLlon Lo a paralyzed and dysfuncLlonal leglslaLure, seems near
lmposslble.
KCK J(5&1&-.5 J.,12 A(9&5&U.1&(/

lor Lhelr many faulLs ln Loday's pollLlcs, pollLlcal parLles play an lmporLanL role ln
lubrlcaLlng democracy by educaLlng, organlzlng and moblllzlng clLlzens -- even Lhough
Lhey do so ln a sLraLeglcally selecLlve way. 1he pollLlcal parLles' efforLs Lo moblllze
32
clLlzens have conslderable lmpacL. When parLles make Lhe efforL, Lhe people Lhey
conLacL are far more llkely Lo parLlclpaLe ln elecLoral pollLlcs Lhan Lhe people Lhey pass
over" (8osensLone, 170). Cne of Lhe maln groups of people Lhey frequenLly pass over ls
young people. lor Loo long, candldaLes, pollLlcal parLles and Lhe medla have LreaLed
young people as lrrelevanL Lo Lhe pollLlcal process," uan Cllckman, a former member of
Congress and cablneL secreLary, recenLly wroLe (Parvard). lndeed, Lhe young are caughL
ln a chlcken/egg problem: because relaLlvely few parLlclpaLe, lnsLlLuLlons such as
pollLlcal parLles under-lnvesL ln Lhelr moblllzaLlon. 8uL because of Lhls underlnvesLmenL,
relaLlvely few young people parLlclpaLe elLher by voLlng, conLacLlng Lhelr elecLed
represenLaLlves or, as ls relevanL Lo Lhls sLudy, runnlng for offlce.
ln a survey of 380 young elecLed offlclals by 8uLgers unlverslLy's ?oung LlecLed
Leaders ro[ecL, fewer Lhan half declded Lo run on Lhelr own (46 male, 28 female). A
plurallLy had glven lL LhoughL and declded Lo run once someone else encouraged Lhem.
CLhers had noL LhoughL abouL lL unLll someone else suggesLed lL. Cf Lhose already ln
offlce, 86 percenL would llke Lo achleve hlgher offlce buL only 2 percenL named Lhe u.S.
SenaLe and 13 percenL named Lhe u.S. Pouse as Lhelr nexL sLep - even Lhough 24
percenL and 18 percenL, respecLlvely, would llke Lo end up Lhere someday (LagleLon,
2002d). lL ls clear from [usL Lhls polllng LhaL holdlng pollLlcal offlce ls llke cllmblng a
ladder, and mosL sLarL cllmblng when Lhey are pushed onLo lL. ollLlcal parLles Lend Lo
push older people.
ln Lhls conLexL, a key obsLacle for young people Lo achleve greaLer
represenLaLlon ln Congress ls LhaL pollLlcal parLles, Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL Lhey are even
33
focused ln recrulLlng and encouraglng young candldaLes, malnLaln a clear hlerarchy ln
how one can rlse Lo hlgher pollLlcal offlce. 1he ablllLy Lo run wlLh less conLrol from
parLy bosses and Lo geL on Lhe balloL easler helps ouL for young elecLed offlclals who
wanL Lo run for hlgh offlce" (Celock, 27). !ohn Celock, Lhe [ournallsL who lnLervlewed 90
young elecLed offlclals, polnLs Lo Mlchael lrerlchs from Champalgn CounLy, llllnols, as an
example. AL 24, lrerlchs reporLed LhaL he had Lo keep runnlng for offlces he was noL
lnLeresLed ln [usL Lo geL hls parLy's supporL Lo run for sLaLe senaLor years laLer. 1he
message from Lhe 8epubllcan arLy Lo 27-year-old Aaron Schock of llllnols, who was
conslderlng a run for an open congresslonal seaL ln hls dlsLrlcL was, don'L do lL - you'll
lose and be marked as a loser." Lven for promlslng up-and-comers, Lhe parLy Lends Lo
Lake a rlsk-adverse poslLlon (Schock). Schock wenL on Lo wln hls elecLlon. 8uL when
young candldaLes aLLempL Lo essenLlally sklp Lhelr spoL on llne, Lhey can pay Lhe prlce.
Cne sLark example ls nomlkl konsL, 28, who soughL Lo replace reLlrlng represenLaLlve
Cabrlelle Clffords ln Lhe 2012 elecLlon. Accordlng Lo konsL, Lhe reacLlon from Lhe
uemocraLlc arLy chalrman ln one Arlzona counLy was: SweeLle, sLarL aL school board."
1he parLy lnsLead backed an esLabllshmenL candldaLe ln Lhe prlmary and acLlvely
undermlned konsL's campalgn by hlrlng away key sLaff and lnLlmldaLlng supporLers
(konsL).
KCN ;/-7+9$/-2

lncumbency advanLage ls Lhe mosL powerful force ln elecLoral pollLlcs. ln sum:
voLers know Lhem, Lhey geL more medla exposure, Lhey can boasL abouL Lhelr
accompllshmenLs ln Congress, and Lhey have access and connecLlons Lo campalgn cash
34
- all of whlch are lngredlenLs Lo a successful campalgn" (Colby). And Lo Lhe exLenL LhaL
mosL lncumbenLs are older Amerlcans, Lhls presenLs an lnherenL challenge Lo young
people breaklng lnLo Lhe sysLem. noL only ls lL dlfflculL Lo unseaL an lncumbenL, buL
lncumbenLs are also decldlng Lo sLay ln offlce longer. ln Lhe 2012 elecLlon, 90 percenL of
u.S. Pouse members seeklng reelecLlon won Lhelr races, Lyplcal of recenL hlsLory.
8eelecLlon raLes fell below 90 percenL ln only Lhree elecLlons over Lhe pasL 40 years.
8eLween Lhe 104
Lh
Congress (1993-1996) and 111
Lh
Congress (2009-2010), Lhe share of
Pouse members who served more Lhan elghL years lncreased from 37 percenL Lo nearly
half (48). 1he average Pouse member served for 10.3 years, up from 7.4 year Lhree
decades ago (Classman). ulLlmaLely, 81 percenL of Lhe members of Lhe Pouse of
8epresenLaLlves who served ln Lhe 112
Lh
Congress wenL on Lo serve ln Lhe 113
Lh

Congress.

33
Lven Lhough Congress has becomlng an lncreaslngly dysfuncLlonal and paralyzed
body, lL has become more deslrable Lo sLay as a career pollLlclan Lhan as a clLlzen
leglslaLor. 1hls ls parLlally because effecLlveness ln Congress ls more dependenL on
havlng been Lhere longer. Changes ln Pouse rules made senlorlLy lncreaslngly
lmporLanL and provlded a moLlvaLlon for represenLaLlves Lo keep Lhelr seaLs" (almer).
ln addlLlon, over Llme, members beneflL from a greaLer supporL sLrucLure LhaL allows
Lhem Lo generaLe publlclLy, serve consLlLuenLs, and recelve supporL ln organlzlng Lhelr
offlces and formlng agendas LhaL help Lhem be effecLlve leglslaLors" (Classman). lurLher,
from a purely self-lnLeresLed perspecLlve, posL-congresslonal careers LhaL Lrade on
members' lnsLlLuLlonal knowledge and lnfluence have also proven Lo be a lucraLlve
lncenLlve Lo sLlck around WashlngLon and bulld clouL. A 2013 KL5 >$-68 analysls of Lhe
98 lawmakers who reLlred, reslgned or losL reelecLlon slnce !anuary 2011 ldenLlfled 16
who Look poslLlons wlLh groups LhaL lnfluence pollcy, (uSA 1oday).
Lver slnce scholars noLlced an upLlck ln lncumbenL reelecLlon advanLage ln Lhe
mld-1960s, varlous explanaLlons have been debaLed aL lengLh. Some say LhaL
lncumbenLs have been able Lo access greaLer resources Lo perform Lhelr [obs (llorlna)
and Lo run Lhelr campalgns (loulrnales). CLhers say LhaL lncumbenLs have beneflLed
from parLy reallgnmenL, ln whlch campalgns have become more candldaLe-focused
raLher Lhan parLy-focused (Mayhew). SLlll anoLher school of LhoughL suggesLs Lhe
percelved and/or acLual presence of Lhese oLher facLors scare off" hlgh-quallLy
challengers, and furLhermore, LhaL candldaLe quallLy lncreaslngly maLLers (Cox). Whlle lL
may seem lnLulLlve LhaL congresslonal redlsLrlcLlng has played a slgnlflcanL role ln
36
boosLlng lncumbenL advanLage, Lhe llLeraLure . has been unlform ln lLs dlsmlssal of
redlsLrlcLlng as a cause of Lhe change" (lrledman). Cne reason ls LhaL redlsLrlcLlng does
noL seem Lo affecL Lhe slze of lncumbenL advanLage. lL ls equally powerful aL Lhe sLaLe
and federal levels. lL ls equally lmporLanL ln leglslaLlve and execuLlve elecLlons"
(Ansolabehere). WhaLever Lhe preclse reason or mlx of reasons, Lhe effecL of
lncumbency on voLe share ls esLlmaLed Lo range from 3 Lo 8 percenL (loulrnales).
KCV W$1 >(,1# H :.+@.&F/ 4&/./-$

Cf all Lhe poLenLlal facLors fuellng lncumbency advanLage and of all Lhe facLors
LhaL are key ln wlnnlng a campalgn, Lhe way elecLlons are flnanced ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes
may have a dlsproporLlonaLe lmpacL on young people, necesslLaLlng some speclal
aLLenLlon. 8y Lhelr naLure, young candldaLes have smaller and (glven Lhe llkellhood LhaL
Lhey, Loo, are young) less wealLhy personal and professlonal neLworks Lhan older
candldaLes. ln oLher words, young candldaLes have a relaLlvely weak ablllLy Lo ralse
money or even self-fund slmply because Lhey have less access Lo wealLh (Schock). ln
2010, Lhe average neL worLh of Amerlcans ages 29-37 was $97,060, whlle Lhe neL worLh
of Amerlcans ages 63-73 was $843,218. Lven more sLrlklng ls LhaL, slnce 1983, young
Amerlcans' neL worLh has -/*1/63/- by 21 percenL whlle older Amerlcans' neL worLh
'(*1/63/- by 79 percenL (SLeuerle).
1o be sure, ralslng and spendlng more money does noL necessarlly lncrease a
candldaLe's share of Lhe voLe ln 6,, cases. 1he long-sLandlng convenLlonal wlsdom ln
pollLlcal sclence ls LhaL challenger spendlng [has] slzable lmpacLs on Pouse of
8epresenLaLlves elecLlon ouLcomes buL LhaL spendlng by lncumbenLs [ls] relaLlvely
37
unproducLlve." lncumbenL spendlng has Lhe mosL effecL when Lhe offlceholder ls forced
Lo respond Lo a serlous challenger who spends ln excess of $182,000 (Magee). 1hls ls
largely a resulL of Lhe facL LhaL voLers usually know more abouL Lhe lncumbenL Lhan Lhe
challenger, and campalgns are won or losL dependlng on who can beLLer deflne Lhe
challenger.
Cne sLudy showed LhaL lncumbency causes approxlmaLely a 23 [ump ln a
parLy's share of LoLal conLrlbuLlons" (loulrnales). 1hls advanLage ls, Lo a large exLenL, a
resulL of conLrlbuLlons from people or enLlLles LhaL seek access Lo Lhose who have
pollLlcal power. Speclal-lnLeresL organlzaLlons and corporaLlons, raLher Lhan lndlvldual
voLers, seem Lo be mosL moLlvaLed Lo glve Lo lncumbenLs. 1hls can LranslaLe Lo an
advanLage of 0.21 Lo 4.48 percenL of Lhe voLe share, exLrapolaLlng from oLher relaLed
daLa. lurLhermore, one sLudy found LhaL [a]n lncumbenL who beglns Lhe campalgn
wlLh a large amounL of cash on hand does slgnlflcanLly beLLer ln Lhe elecLlon, even afLer
conLrolllng for how much each candldaLe ulLlmaLely spends." 1hls could be because
large campalgn war chesLs scare off poLenLlal hlgh-quallLy challengers, such as Lhose
wlLh experlence ln elecLed offlce (Magee).
KCX *F$&'+

lL has long been undersLood LhaL voLers who are lnfluenced by speclflc candldaLe
characLerlsLlcs such as gender and sex Lend Lo supporL candldaLes who are mosL llke
Lhem. Several sLudles have found LhaL Lhls slmllarlLy hypoLhesls" exLends Lo Lhe
dlmenslon of age. Whlle sexlsm and raclsm are rouLlnely dlscussed and admonlshed ln
our culLure and medla, Lhere ls relaLlvely less awareness abouL Lhe prevalence of
38
agelsm -- even Lhough lL has been demonsLraLed Lo have sLronger effecLs Lhan oLher
klnds of dlscrlmlnaLlon.
A 1980 experlmenL, for example, asked 1,138 undergraduaLes aL Lhe unlverslLy
of kenLucky Lo casL balloLs ln a slmulaLed mayoral elecLlon. 1hls was lnLended Lo LesL
how voLers reacL Lo slmllarly quallfled candldaLes based on Lhelr age, sex and race.
Clven opLlons of a young (age 31), mlddle-aged (age 33) and old candldaLe (age 72), Lhe
sLudenLs mosL favored Lhe young candldaLe (37.3) and leasL favored Lhe old one
(33.2). ln facL, a candldaLe's age had a greaLer lmpacL on voLlng behavlor Lhan dld a
candldaLe's sex or race." AlLhough Lhe sLudy cauLloned agalnsL generallzlng Lhe resulLs
Lo Lhe populaLlon as a whole, naLlonal elecLlons and real-world scenarlos, lL dld suggesL
LhaL lLs flndlngs were conslsLenL wlLh Lhe vlew LhaL voLers Lend Lo prefer Lhose who are
slmllar Lo Lhemselves and Lend Lo dlsllke Lhose who are dlsslmllar from Lhemselves" and
unequlvocally lmply LhaL a candldaLe's age . should be LreaLed ln Lhe fuLure as a
poLenLlally powerful deLermlnanL of voLer preferences" (Slgelman, 267). Mlllennlal
Congressman Aaron Schock, a 8epubllcan, noLes LhaL he won abouL Lhe same
percenLage of Lhe youLh voLe ln hls dlsLrlcL as resldenL Cbama dld ln Lhe 2012 elecLlon,
as he dlscerned from Lhe preclncL LhaL lncludes 8radley unlverslLy (Schock) -- lndlcaLlng
LhaL young people (assumed Lo be progresslve/uemocraLlc voLers) crossed parLy llnes Lo
help elecL someone who spoke Lo Lhelr lssues dlrecLly and could relaLe Lo Lhem
personally.
1hree years laLer, anoLher sLudy soughL Lo LesL wheLher Lhe same flndlngs would
apply uslng a sample LhaL lncluded voLers of varylng ages. 1he sLudy conflrmed LhaL a
39
OUR AGING POPULATION
slmllarlLy blas was presenL for all voLers based on age. ln a maLchup of young and old,
supporL for Lhe 72-year-old candldaLe won ma[orlLy supporL only by Lhose voLers over
Lhe age of 63 (70.6). Llkewlse, ln Lhe same maLchup, Lhe old candldaLe recelved Lhe
leasL supporL from Lhose aged 18-23 (33.3). Pere, Loo, age conslderaLlons were
sLronger Lhan sex or race. lurLher, Lhe age blas of senlor clLlzen voLers does noL slmply
reflecL a preference for candldaLe of Lhelr own age, older voLers also sLrongly re[ecLed
Lhe younger candldaLe when LhaL candldaLe was head-Lo-head agalnsL a mlddle-aged
candldaLe (80-10). lf Lhese resulLs lndeed reflecL real voLlng Lendencles, we should
expecL Lo see real problems for young candldaLes ln fuLure elecLlons," Lhe sLudy
concluded, noLlng Lhe aglng of Lhe elecLoraLe (lllavln, 360). [1he older voLers']
presumpLlon was LhaL l was less knowledgeable," sald Schock, noLlng LhaL he was able
Lo wln many over once Lhey were able Lo geL Lo know hlm personally (Schock).









40
AlLhough Lhe age blas cuLs boLh ways, Lhe resulL sLrongly dlsadvanLages young
candldaLes slmply because older voLers comprlse a greaLer porLlon of Lhe elecLoraLe. ln
Lhe 2010 elecLlon, voLers under 33 comprlsed 30 percenL of Lhe voLlng-age populaLlon
and 17 percenL of Lhe elecLoraLe. voLers over 63 comprlsed 18 percenL of Lhe voLlng-age
populaLlon and 24 percenL of Lhe elecLoraLe. Clder voLers were dlsproporLlonaLely
lnfluenLlal because young voLers Lurned ouL aL 27 percenL whlle older voLers Lurned ouL
aL over Lwlce Lhe raLe (61) (u.S. Census 8ureau, 2012). And, as prevlously noLed, Lhe
share of Lhe senlor voLe wlll only lncrease ln Lhe fuLure as our populaLlon ages.


41
<$-1&(/ ;Y= %$-(++$/3.1&(/'

lf havlng more young elecLed offlclals ls good for democracy 6(- lf currenL
barrlers Lo young people runnlng and belng elecLed Lo offlce are lncreaslngly hlgh and
prohlblLlve, Lhen lL ls socleLy's duLy Lo Lake acLlon Lo lower Lhose barrlers. CovernmenL,
on boLh Lhe local and federal levels, shares Lhls obllgaLlon wlLh clvll socleLy. As wlLh any
reform, Lhose ln Lhe pollLlcal class who prlmarlly beneflL from Lhe sLaLus quo are llkely Lo
proLesL several recommendaLlons below. 1hls underscores Lhe necesslLy for young
people Lhemselves Lo lead Lhe change Lhrough Lhelr advocacy, raLher Lhan walL on
someone or someLhlng else Lo do so -- and Lo do lL soon, as pollLlcal power wlll only
furLher concenLraLe over Llme ln Lhe hands of Lhose leasL llkely Lo champlon Lhe
necessary reforms.
NCB :(/'1&171&(/.5 Z*0E *+$/3+$/1[

Lowerlng Lhe age of ellglblllLy Lo hold offlce Lhrough a consLlLuLlonal amendmenL
ls Lhe mosL fundamenLal yeL also Lhe mosL challenglng reform Lo level Lhe playlng fleld
for young candldaLes. Whlle we musL keep ln mlnd LhaL Lhe ConsLlLuLlon's venerable
hlsLory behooves us Lo reslsL amendmenLs unless Lhe argumenLs ln Lhelr supporL are
overwhelmlng," Lhls ls undoubLedly one such case -- for all Lhe aforemenLloned reasons
why youLh represenLaLlon ls good for democracy 6(- more (Cooper). As proposed ln
deLall by !ohn Seery, an All CeneraLlons Lllglble (ACL) AmendmenL Lo Lhe u.S.
ConsLlLuLlon would ensure every Amerlcan who ls ellglble Lo voLe would also be ellglble
Lo offer hlmself or herself Lo Lhe elecLoraLe as a candldaLe for federal offlce.
42
llrsL, on lLs face, an ACL AmendmenL change ls a maLLer of democraLlc prlnclple.
Pannah ArendL wroLe: LllglblllLy . ls a necessary corollary Lo Lhe rlghL Lo voLe, lL means
LhaL everyone ls glven Lhe opporLunlLy Lo dlsLlngulsh hlmself ln Lhose Lhlngs ln whlch all
are equals Lo begln wlLh . Lhey consLlLuLe ln a modern democracy Lhe very
qulnLessence of clLlzenshlp" (Seery, 73). Second, ln pracLlcal Lerms, lL would allow Lhe
posslblllLy for greaL leaders Lo emerge. Machlavelll wroLe: When a young man has such
an excepLlonal ablllLy LhaL he makes hlmself known Lhrough some lllusLrlous deed, lL
would be a mosL damaglng Lhlng lf Lhe clLy were noL able Lo avall lLself of hls LalenL"
(Seery, 63). 1he SLeve !obs, Mlchael !ordon or 1aylor SwlfL of pollLlcs may be walLlng.
1hlrd, Lhe amendmenL would advance Lhe democraLlc alm of elecLoral compeLlLlveness
by vlrLue of expandlng Lhe candldaLe pool (Seery, 110).
lurLhermore, as Lhe unlverslLy of lowa's Wllllam Cooper wroLe ln hls 1988
reexamlnaLlon of Lhe assumpLlons of age llmlLs for holdlng federal offlce, Lhe currenL
rules ln place, premlsed on Lhe concepL of ensurlng good [udgmenL, are boLh lnvalld and
lnconslsLenL. Cn one hand, Lhe developmenL of [udgmenL ls lrrelevanL when Lhe Lask aL
hand ls a cholce 60$() lndlvlduals aL a glven polnL ln Llme." ln any glven elecLlon, lL
seems self-evldenL LhaL Lhe voLers are Lo declde Lhe relaLlve quallflcaLlons of Lhe
candldaLes. Cn Lhe oLher hand, even lf one belleves lL ls Lhe role of Lhe ConsLlLuLlon (noL
Lhe elecLoraLe) Lo seL some mlnlmum Lhreshold of maLurlLy, why dld Lhe lramers noL
lnclude a slmllar age llmlL for members of Lhe Supreme CourL, or an upper llmlL Lo all
offlclals Lo ensure unlversal flLness Lo hold offlce? Cooper concludes Lhese omlsslons
render age resLrlcLlons lndefenslble (Cooper).
43
An ACL amendmenL would have slmllar hlsLorlcal precedenL. Cn !uly 1, 1971, 38
sLaLes raLlfled whaL became Lhe 26
Lh
AmendmenL Lo Lhe ConsLlLuLlon, whlch prohlblLed
Lhe federal governmenL or sLaLe governmenLs from seLLlng a voLlng age hlgher Lhan 18.
1he vleLnam War was Lhe lmpeLus behlnd Lhe amendmenL, as young men under 21
were belng senL Lo flghL for Lhe counLry buL were noL ellglble Lo voLe ln mosL sLaLes.
CreaLer pressure was puL on Lhe federal governmenL when some sLaLes began Lo
change Lhelr own ellglblllLy requlremenLs, whlch would have necesslLaLed keeplng a
separaLe seL of reglsLraLlon rolls for sLaLe and federal balloLs. 1hls change ls ample
evldence LhaL Lhe ConsLlLuLlon has noL fully wlLhsLood Lhe LesL of Llme wlLh respecL Lo
lLs orlglnal assumpLlons and requlremenLs abouL age" (Seery, 9).
?eL Lhe 26
Lh
AmendmenL was lnsufflclenL ln addresslng Lhe underlylng problem,
as younger voLers sLlll have Lo choose beLween older candldaLes. [S]uffrage maLLers,
buL only wlLhln and refracLed Lhrough Lhe Lerms of represenLaLlon" (Seery, 31). 1he
same argumenL made durlng Lhe vleLnam War could be made Loday. Cver Lhe pasL 10
years, 6,648 u.S. servlce members have dled as parL of CperaLlon lraql lreedom and
CperaLlon Lndurlng lreedom. More Lhan half of Lhose who gave Lhelr llves were under
Lhe age of 23 (laces). ?eL noL one member of Congress from Lhls same age cohorL was
dlrecLly lnvolved ln Lhe debaLe or aL Lhe declslon-maklng Lable ln Lhe federal
governmenL. 1he popular slogan of Lhe youLh suffrage movemenL 30 years ago, Cld
enough Lo flghL, old enough Lo voLe" could easlly be LranslaLed lnLo a modern
equlvalenL: Cld enough Lo flghL, old enough Lo run."
44
MosL oLher counLrles have a lower age of ellglblllLy Lhan Lhe unlLed SLaLes or
have begun Lo lower Lhe Lhreshold. Cf 22 advanced democracles, half have no hlgher
age resLrlcLlon on runnlng for Lhe lower house of governmenL Lhan Lhe voLlng age. Cnly
lLaly and !apan resLrlcL Lhe age as hlgh as Lhe unlLed SLaLes, aL 23 years old (Seery).
Among oLher counLrles, 8rlLaln lowered lLs age of ellglblllLy from 21 Lo 18 based on a
2004 reporL by Lhe 8rlLlsh arllamenL's LlecLoral Commlsslon. 1he reporL acknowledged
LhaL Lhe prlnclpal concern ln deLermlnlng boLh Lhe voLlng age and age of candldacy ls
ensurlng LhaL Lhose who are parLlclpaLlng ln Lhe democraLlc process have obLalned
sufflclenL maLurlLy." Whlle Lhe convenLlonal wlsdom ls LhaL more maLurlLy ls requlred
Lo hold offlce Lhan Lo voLe ln an elecLlon, Lhe reporL noLed: Lhe elecLlon process lLself
already provldes a far more subLle and flexlble mechanlsm by whlch Lhe elecLoraLe can
prevenL candldaLes Lhey conslder undeslrable or lnapproprlaLe from obLalnlng Lhe
power of elecLed offlce." Accordlng Lo publlc oplnlon polllng ln 8rlLaln, 38 percenL
agreed wlLh Lhe sLaLemenL LhaL lf you're old enough Lo voLe, you're old enough Lo be a
candldaLe (1he LlecLoral Commlsslon).
AL Lhe very leasL, a slmllar process could be followed ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln Lhe
form of a presldenLlal commlsslon. ln hls 2013 SLaLe of Lhe unlon Address, resldenL
Cbama announced a nonparLlsan commlsslon Lo lmprove Lhe experlence of all voLers, ln
response Lo complalnLs abouL long llnes and voLer access ln Lhe 2012 elecLlon. 1he
commlsslon was esLabllshed by execuLlve order ln March 2013 and wlll be co-chalred by
Lop campalgn aLLorneys from Lhe campalgns of Cbama and hls opponenL, MlLL 8omney.
A slmllar resldenLlal Commlsslon on Lhe Clvlc arLlclpaLlon of ?oung Amerlcans should
43
be esLabllshed Lo make recommendaLlons of how Lo lower Lhe barrlers young people
face ln voLlng, runnlng for offlce and oLher forms of democraLlc parLlclpaLlon. 1he
commlsslon can be speclflcally asked Lo evaluaLe Lhe merlLs of an ACL AmendmenL.
NCI :.+@.&F/ 4&/./-$ %$)(,+

As dlscussed, young people are lnherenLly dlsadvanLaged by Lhe hlgh cosLs of
runnlng for offlce, as Lhey lack access Lo wealLh on a personal level and wlLhln Lhelr
neLwork of peers. lmplemenLlng a sysLem of volunLary publlc flnanclng of federal
campalgns could serve Lhe dual purpose of empowerlng young candldaLes and lessenlng
Lhe corrupLlng lnfluence of money ln pollLlcs by levellng Lhe playlng fleld beLween an
lncumbenL and a poLenLlal challenger.
llrsL, Congress should lmplemenL a sysLem of volunLary publlc flnanclng based
on unlversally dlsLrlbuLed democracy vouchers" - essenLlally a Lax rebaLe of $30 for
every reglsLered voLer ln Amerlca. ln proposlng such a sysLem, professor and acLlvlsL
Lawrence Lesslg explalned: 1haL voucher could Lhen be glven Lo any candldaLe for
Congress who agreed Lo one slmple condlLlon: Lhe only money LhaL candldaLe would
accepL Lo flnance hls or her campalgn would be elLher 'democracy vouchers' or
conLrlbuLlons from clLlzens capped aL $100. no AC money. no $2,300 checks. Small
conLrlbuLlons only" (Lesslg). 1he voucher sysLem has many advanLages: lL ls premlsed on
empowermenL, noL resLrlcLlon, lL can pass consLlLuLlonal musLer slnce lL ls LoLally
volunLary, lL ls a sysLem of publlc flnanclng run by Lhe people, noL a cenLral bureaucracy.
1he voucher plan Lransforms campalgn flnance from an lnegallLarlan embarrassmenL
lnLo a new occaslon for clvlc responslblllLy" (Ackerman). MosL lmporLanLly, Lhls sysLem
46
can help young candldaLes ralse conLrlbuLlons from oLher young people who oLherwlse
have fewer resources Lo donaLe and llmlL Lhe amounL of money parLlclpaLlng lncumbenL
candldaLes can ralse ln large quanLlLles from pollLlcal acLlon commlLLees, corporaLlons
and wealLhy conLrlbuLors.
Second, Congress should pass a law prohlblLlng any candldaLe from spendlng
money ln a currenL elecLlon cycle LhaL was ralsed durlng a prevlous elecLlon cycle.
CandldaLes roll over enormous amounLs of money from one cycle Lo Lhe nexL, glvlng
lncumbenLs a bullL-ln advanLage over new (lncludlng young) candldaLes and Lhe ablllLy
Lo scare off challengers. AL Lhe end of Lhe 2012 elecLlon cycle, Lhe average member of
Congress ralsed $1.78 mllllon, spenL $1.69 mllllon and had $393,073 cash on hand - for
a LoLal of $172 mllllon cash on hand golng lnLo Lhe 2014 elecLlon cycle (Cpen SecreLs). A
new law could requlre all candldaLe commlLLees Lo elLher refund Lhls money, donaLe lL
Lo a quallfled charlLy or, lf Lhe prevlous proposed law ls slmulLaneously enacLed, roll
over Lhe funds lnLo Lhe democracy voucher program. ln 2011, 8ep. 8ob Woodall (8-Ca.)
lnLroduced Lhe CompeLlLlve LlecLlons AcL (P8 2788) for a slmllar purpose.
NCK :&D&- E37-.1&(/

?oung people's reLreaL from pollLlcs can poLenLlally be reversed lf a greaLer
sense of clvlc obllgaLlon and pollLlcal efflcacy were culLlvaLed from a younger age. Clvlc
skllls and behavlors are noL passed from one Amerlcan generaLlon Lo anoLher ln our
unA -- Lhey are LaughL, experlenced and learned. lndeed, Lhe cenLral purpose of publlc
educaLlon, as vlewed by Lhe lounders, was Lo help fosLer an lnformed, educaLed and
engaged socleLy. varlous sLudles have shown LhaL effecLlve clvlc learnlng lncreases Lhe
47
democraLlc accounLablllLy of elecLed offlclals, lmproves publlc dlscourse and promoLes
clvlc equallLy by glvlng every clLlzen, regardless of background, Lhe Lools Lo be a full
parLlclpanL" (Cuardlans). [l]L Lakes dellberaLe efforLs Lo prepare young people Lo
parLlclpaLe effecLlvely and wlsely ln publlc llfe" (Levlne). Powever, formal clvlc educaLlon
lnslde Lhe classroom and opporLunlLles for clvlc learnlng ouLslde Lhe classroom have
been dlrecLly reduced and lndlrecLly crowded ouL by oLher prlorlLles, such as ln maLh
and sclence. ln 2010, only 67 percenL of 12
Lh
graders reporLed sLudylng Lhe u.S.
ConsLlLuLlon whlle ln school. ln 2013, Lhe u.S. ueparLmenL of LducaLlon opLed Lo end
Lhe naLlonal exam ln clvlcs and u.S. hlsLory, as parL of Lhe naLlonal AssessmenL of
LducaLlonal rogress -- whlch wlll surely lead Lo even less clvlcs lnsLrucLlon ln schools
across Lhe counLry (Mlller).
8esLorlng a promlnenL role for clvlc educaLlon and relaLed experlenLlal
opporLunlLles, such as elecLed sLudenL counclls and sLudenL advlsory commlLLees, can
play a cruclal role ln revlvlng young Amerlcans' clvlc behavlors. lnsLead of belng Lurned
away from pollLlcal engagemenL, young people who have been exposed Lo Lhls
lnformaLlon and Lhese acLlvlLles may be more llkely Lo be lnvolved as voLers, advocaLes
and even as candldaLes when Lhey leave school. 1o Lhls end, local school boards should
(l) embed Lhelr clvlc mlsslon lnLo Lhelr own mlsslon sLaLemenL, (ll) lncorporaLe clvlc
learnlng across Lhe currlculum as an lnLerdlsclpllnary sub[ecL, (lll) provlde opporLunlLles
for sLudenLs Lo pracLlce clvlc skllls ln school governance, (lv) lnclude meLrlcs of clvlc
learnlng ln Lhelr reporL cards and (v) devoLe resources for ongolng professlonal
developmenL of soclal sLudles/clvlcs Leachers (Cuardlans).
48
NCN J(5&1&-.5 6,F./&U.1&(/ R"$.-# 4(, *+$,&-. \ EA;]?^' ]&'1T

1hose who care abouL seelng more young people run and geL elecLed Lo offlce
should noL walL around for a consLlLuLlonal ACL amendmenL or varlous governmenL
reforms. 1hey should band LogeLher Lo form an organlzaLlon LhaL recrulLs, Lralns and
supporLs young candldaLes, sLarLlng as soon as Lhe 2014 elecLlon cycle. 1hls organlzaLlon
mlghL be LhoughL of as a cross beLween 1each lor Amerlca and LMlL?'s LlsL.
llrsL and foremosL, Lhe organlzaLlon would reframe runnlng for offlce as Lrue
publlc servlce LhaL ls as worLhy of young people's Llme and efforL as oLher klnds of
servlce -- such as Leachlng, menLorlng and volunLeerlng. Campalgns for Congress could
be relmaglned as one-year commlLmenLs of servlce, where candldaLes are engaged ln
renewlng our democracy 63 6 *6(-'-6%/ by educaLlng Lhe publlc abouL Lhe challenges
we face, developlng soluLlons Lo sysLemlc problems and engaglng new clLlzens as
volunLeers and voLers. ln Lhls conLexL, candldaLes can poLenLlally flnd value ln runnlng
for offlce even lf Lhey are noL elecLed. lurLher, Lhe organlzaLlon could donaLe and/or
bundle enough funds Lo Lhe candldaLe's campalgn commlLLee Lo provlde Lhe candldaLe
wlLh a llvlng sLlpend, whlch ls fully legal buL noL frequenLly uLlllzed by candldaLes
presenL day. 1hls approach would drasLlcally lower, especlally on Lhe federal level, boLh
Lhe flnanclal and psychologlcal barrler Lo enLry for young candldaLes, who oLherwlse do
noL have Lhe personal resources or Lhe deslre Lo be a candldaLe.
1he organlzaLlon could also serve as an elecLoral moblllzaLlon Lool by ldenLlfylng
young people wlLh Lhe credlblllLy and experlence Lo run for offlce (such as
enLrepreneurs, veLerans, clvlc leaders, servlce program alumnl, sLaLe/local young
49
elecLed offlclals), Lralnlng Lhem as candldaLes for federal offlce, servlng as a consulLancy
Lo develop Lhelr campalgn and sLaff and helplng Lo ralse money from a naLlonal neLwork
of young and young-aL-hearL Amerlcans who supporL Lhe mlsslon. AlLhough lL
champlons a clear pollLlcal agenda, LMlL?'s LlsL provldes Lhe ldeal model. Slnce lLs
foundlng ln 1983, Lhe organlzaLlon has used Lhe Larly Money ls Llke ?easL phllosophy Lo
help elecL 101 pro-cholce uemocraLlc women members of Congress, 19 senaLors, 10
governors and hundreds of local and sLaLe candldaLes. SLaLes Lhe group's webslLe: We
are conLlnually maklng lnvesLmenLs Lo help women develop pollLlcal skllls and culLlvaLe
resources so LhaL we can brlng more women lnLo pollLlcs and elecLed offlce."
ln Lhe near Lerm, such an organlzaLlon can have Lhe greaLesL lmpacL ln helplng Lo
lncrease youLh represenLaLlon ln Congress. And ln an age when barrlers Lo
communlcaLlon and collaboraLlon have largely collapsed as a resulL of soclal Lechnology,
such an organlzaLlon can rely on Lhe small conLrlbuLlons of mllllons of young people
(raLher Lhan Lhe conLrlbuLlons of mllllons from a small group of wealLhy people) ln order
Lo compleLely change pollLlcs as usual.




30
:(/-57'&(/

1he argumenL of Lhls paper ls noL LhaL young people musL be proporLlonaLely
represenLed ln governmenL -- raLher, my argumenL ls LhaL lL would good for Lhe nexL
generaLlon, and more lmporLanLly, good for our democracy Loday lf Lhe represenLaLlon
of young people were dramaLlcally lncreased over Llme and especlally ln Congress. WhaL
Lhls paper seeks ls Lhe opporLunlLy for excepLlonal young leaders Lo provlde a servlce Lo
Lhelr counLry as elecLed offlclals ln order Lo represenL Lhe unlque perspecLlve and
lnLeresLs of Lhelr generaLlon, slgnal Lo Lhelr peers LhaL pollLlcal lnvolvemenL ls expecLed
and lmporLanL, and encourage lnLergeneraLlonal [usLlce ln publlc pollcy.
ulLlmaLely, elecLlng young leaders of Lhe mlllennlal generaLlon Lo offlce on Lhe
local, sLaLe and federal levels may be key Lo confronLlng Amerlca's susLalnablllLy
challenges durlng Lhls Llme of hyper-parLlsanshlp and pollLlcal grldlock. 1hese leaders
are focused on Lhe fuLure, Lranscend ldeologlcal dlvldes and are capable of brlnglng a
renewed sense of publlc servlce Lo pollLlcs. now, lL ls up Lo us Lo clear Lhe way by
reformlng our governlng lnsLlLuLlons, revamplng our educaLlonal programs and lnvesLlng
ln Lhe LalenL LhaL already exlsLs among us. 1he sLaLus quo of an aglng governlng class,
paralyzed by parLlsan dlvlslons and operaLlng wlLhouL lncenLlves for shorL-Lerm acLlon
on long-Lerm problems should be an unaccepLable opLlon -- as Lhe rlse of an Amerlcan
geronLocracy would surely lead Lo Lhe fall of our democracy.
31
>(,_' :&1$3

Ackerman, 8ruce. CredlLlng Lhe voLers: A new 8eglnnlng for Campalgn llnance." >&/
50/1'*6( @1$32/*%: uecember 19, 2011. <hLLp://prospecL.org/arLlcle/credlLlng-
voLers-new-beglnnlng-campalgn-flnance>

Amer, Mlldred. Membershlp of Lhe 111
Lh
Congress: A roflle." Congresslonal 8esearch
Servlce. uecember 31, 2008.

Ansolabehere, SLephen and !ames M. Snyder. 1he lncumbency AdvanLage ln u.S.
LlecLlons: An Analysls of SLaLe and lederal Cfflces, 1942-2000." D,/*%'$( M69
N$+1(6,A I+,/3O @$,'%'*3O 6(- @$,'*8, vol. 1, no. 3 (2004): 313-38.

AnLholls, Wllllam and SLrobe 1alboLL. P63% P$1961-A D%&'*3 6(- @$,'%'*3 '( %&/ 5)/ $4
C,$.6, Q610'(). 8rooklngs lnsLlLuLlon ress: 2010.

8aLlnl, nlcoleLLa and Clovannl Callegarl. 8alanclng Lhe 8urden." F(%/1(6%'$(6, G$(/%618
P+(-: P'(6(*/ 6(- J/7/,$20/(%, vol. 48, no. 2 (!une 2011).

8raLLon, kaLhleen and Leonard . 8ay. uescrlpLlve 8epresenLaLlon, ollcy CuLcomes,
and Munlclpal uay-Care Coverage ln norway." 50/1'*6( N$+1(6, $4 @$,'%'*6,
L*'/(*/, vol. 46, no. 2 (Aprll 2002): 428-37.

8ursLeln, uavld. P63% P+%+1/A H$9 %&/ G',,/(('6, C/(/16%'$( F3 L&62'() E+1 Q$1,-.
8eacon ress: 2013.

8usemeyer, Marlus. uemands for 8edlsLrlbuLlve ollcles ln an Lra of uemographlc
Aglng." Max lanck lnsLlLuLe for Lhe SLudy of SocleLles. March 2008.

Coda, Marc. ersonal lnLervlew. May 19, 2013.

Colby, !ennlfer. 1he CrayesL Congress." n8C news. <hLLp://www.nbcnews.com/ld/
13348238/ns/pollLlcs/L/grayesL-congress/#. ub3CacnCl>

Cooper, Wllllam. A 8eappralsal of ConsLlLuLlonal Age 8equlremenLs for Congress and
Lhe resldenL." R$()1/33 6(- %&/ @1/3'-/(*8, vol. 13, no. 1 (Sprlng 1988).

uegnan, Lvan. Why We SupporL ?oung CandldaLes." 8luenC: lebruary 28, 2012.
<hLLp://www.bluenc.com/why-we-supporL-young-candldaLes>

LagleLon lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs. AbouL Lhe ?oung LlecLed Leaders ro[ecL." 8uLgers
unlverslLy. 2002a.
<hLLp://www.eagleLon.ruLgers.edu/programs/yppp/yelpreporLs.php>

32
LagleLon lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs. ?oung LlecLed Leaders Are lew and lamlllar." 8uLgers
unlverslLy. 2002b. <hLLp://www.eagleLon.ruLgers.edu/programs/yppp/
?elpreporLs.php>

LagleLon lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs. ?oung LlecLed Leaders ln PlsLory." 8uLgers unlverslLy.
2002c. <hLLp://www.eagleLon.ruLgers.edu/programs/yppp/yelpreporLs.php>

LagleLon lnsLlLuLe of ollLlcs. WhaL Makes ?oung eople 8un?" 8uLgers unlverslLy.
2002d. <hLLp://www.eagleLon.ruLgers.edu/programs/yppp/yelpreporLs.php>

1he LlecLoral Commlsslon. Age of LlecLoral Ma[orlLy: 8eporL and 8ecommendaLlons."
Aprll 2004. <lmage.guardlan.co.uk/sys-
flles/ollLlcs/.../04/.../elecLoral_commlsslon.pdf>

laces of Lhe lallen." Q63&'()%$( @$3%: !une 23, 2013.
<hLLp://apps.washlngLonposL.com/naLlonal/fallen/>

llorlna, Morrls . R$()1/33A S/83%$(/ $4 %&/ Q63&'()%$( D3%6.,'3&0/(%.
?ale unlverslLy ress: 1989.

lowler, uerek, !ennlfer L. Merolla and Abbylln P. Sellers. 1he LffecLs of uescrlpLlve
8epresenLaLlon on ollLlcal ALLlLudes and 8ehavlors."

lranLzlch, SLephen and SLeven Schler. R$()1/33A C60/3 6(- L%16%/)'/3.
<hLLp://books.google.com/books?ld=8Afk162guCgC&pg=A107#v=onepage&q
&f=false>

Callup. Amerlcans ulvlded on CuLlook for nexL CeneraLlon." !anuary 8, 2013.
<hLLp://www.gallup.com/poll/139737/amerlcans-dlvlded-ouLlook-nexL-
generaLlon.aspx>

Classman, MaLLhew. Congresslonal Careers: Servlce 1enure and aLLerns of Member
Servlce, 1789-2011." Congresslonal 8esearch Servlce.

Cuardlans of uemocracy." Campalgn for Lhe Clvlc Mlsslon of Schools. 2011.

!ohnson, 8enny. Congressman knows Pow Lo Solve All of Amerlca's roblems ln 24
Pours." ?+TT4//-: lebruary 20, 2013. hLLp://www.buzzfeed.com/benny[ohnson/
congressman-knows-how-Lo-solve-all-of-amerlcas-problems-ln-2>

klrby, Lmlly and kel kawashlma-Clnsberg. 1he ?ouLh voLe ln 2008." Cl8CLL. AugusL 17,
2009. <http:www.civicyouth.oignew-census-uata-confiim-inciease-in-
youth-votei-tuinout-in-2uu8-election>

33
konsL, nomlkl. ersonal lnLervlew. May 19, 2013.

koLllkoff, Laurence and ScoLL 8urns. >&/ R,63& $4 C/(/16%'$(3A L67'() E+13/,7/3O E+1
S'-3O 6(- E+1 D*$($08: Ml1 ress: 2012.

Lesslg, Lawrence. More Money Can 8eaL 8lg Money." #/9 <$1= >'0/3: november 16,
2011. <hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2011/11/17/oplnlon/ln-campalgn-flnanclng-
more-money-can-beaL-blg-money.hLml>

Levlne, eLer. >&/ P+%+1/ $4 J/0$*16*8A J/7/,$2'() %&/ #/B% C/(/16%'$( $4 50/1'*6(
R'%'T/(3: unlverslLy ress of Lngland: 2007.

LlsL of currenL Pouse members by age." Wlklpedla. <hLLp://en.wlklpedla.org/wlkl/
CurrenL_members_of_Lhe_unlLed_SLaLes_Pouse_of_8epresenLaLlves>

LlsL of currenL SenaLe members by age." Wlklpedla. <hLLp://en.wlklpedla.org/wlkl/
LlsL_of_currenL_unlLed_SLaLes_SenaLors>

Llu, Lrlc. 1he Mlllennlal CeneraLlon Can Lead us CuL of Crldlock 8ead." >'0/: March 3,
2013. <hLLp://ldeas.Llme.com/2013/03/12/vlewpolnL-Lhe-mlllennlal-generaLlon-
can-lead-us-ouL-of-grldlock/#lxzz2W!xm0P8?>

MacManus, Susan. <$+() 7: E,-A C/(/16%'$(6, R$0.6% '( %&/ UV
3%
R/(%+18: WesLvlew
ress: 1996.

Magee, ChrlsLopher. 1he lncumbenL Spendlng uzzle." L$*'6, L*'/(*/ W+61%/1,8, vol. 93,
no. 4 (2012): 932-49.

Mayhew, uavld. 1974. "Congresslonal LlecLlons: 1he Case of Lhe vanlshlng Marglnals."
@$,'%8, vol. 6: 293-317.

Mcuonald, Mlchael. voLer 1urnouL ln Lhe 2010 MldLerm LlecLlon." >&/ P$1+0O volume
8, lssue 4 (2010).

Mlller, Cheryl and Cary SchmlLL. uoes Cbama Care LhaL u.S. SLudenLs Aren'L repared
Lo 8e u.S. ClLlzens?" R&1'3%'6( L*'/(*/ G$('%$1: !une 21, 2013.
<hLLp://www.csmonlLor.com/CommenLary/Cplnlon/2013/0621/uoes-Cbama-
care-LhaL-uS-sLudenLs-aren-L-prepared-Lo-be-uS-clLlzens>

norrls, lppa and Mona Lena krook. Cne of us: MulLllevel Models Lxamlnlng Lhe
lmpacL of uescrlpLlve 8epresenLaLlon on Clvlc LngagemenL." aper presenLed as
ASA meeLlng ln 1oronLo, 2009.

Cpen SecreLs. SLaLs aL a Clance: llnanclal AcLlvlLy for All u.S. 8epresenLaLlves, 2011-
34
2012." <hLLp://www.opensecreLs.org/overvlew/lndex.php?
cycle=2012&Lype=M&dlsplay=1>

almer, 8rlan. uemocracy or CeronLocracy: ls Congress CeLLlng Clder?" L,6%/. !anuary
2, 2013.
<hLLp://www.slaLe.com/arLlcles/news_and_pollLlcs/explalner/2013/01/average_
age_of_members_of_u_s_congress_are_our_senaLors_and_represenLaLlves.hLm
l>

ew 8esearch CenLer's lorum on 8ellglon & ubllc Llfe. Changlng ALLlLudes on Cay
Marrlage." !une 2013. <hLLp://feaLures.pewforum.org/same-sex-marrlage-
aLLlLudes/sllde2.php>

ew 8esearch CenLer for Lhe eople & Lhe ress. Ma[orlLy now SupporLs Legallzlng
Marl[uana." Aprll 4, 2013. <hLLp://www.people-press.org/2013/04/04/ma[orlLy-
now-supporLs-legallzlng-marl[uana/>

ew 8esearch CenLer's Soclal & uemographlc 1rends pro[ecL. 1he 8lg CeneraLlon Cap
aL Lhe olls ls Lchoed ln ALLlLudes on 8udgeL 1radeoffs." uecember 20, 2012.
<hLLp://www.pewsoclalLrends.org/2012/12/20/Lhe-blg-generaLlon-gap-aL-Lhe-
polls-ls-echoed-ln-aLLlLudes-on-budgeL-Lradeoffs/>

ew 8esearch CenLer for Lhe eople & Lhe ress. 1he CeneraLlon Cap and Lhe 2012
LlecLlon." november 3, 2011. <hLLp://www.people-
press.org/2011/11/03/secLlon-6-generaLlons-and-enLlLlemenLs/>

lllavln, !ane. Age, 8ace, and Sex SlmllarlLy Lo CandldaLes and voLlng reference."
N$+1(6, $4 522,'/- L$*'6, @38*&$,$)8, vol. 17, no. 4 (1987): 331-68.

8ock Lhe voLe. ?ouLh voLe 8lvals LargesL ln Amerlcan PlsLory." november 3, 2008.
<hLLp://www.rockLhevoLe.com/abouL/press-room/press-releases/youLh-voLe-
rlvals-largesL-ln.hLml>

8osensLone, SLeven and !ohn Pansen. G$.','T6%'$(O @61%'*'26%'$( 6(- J/0$*16*8 '(
50/1'*6. Longman: 2003.

Schock, Aaron. ersonal lnLervlew. !une 13, 2013.

Seery, !ohn. >$$ <$+() %$ I+(. ennsylvanla SLaLe unlverslLy ress: 2011.

Slgelman, Lee and Carol k. Slgelman. Sexlsm, 8aclsm and Agelsm ln voLlng 8ehavlor: An
LxperlmenLal Analysls." L$*'6, @38*&$,$)8 W+61%/1,8, vol. 43, no. 4 (uecember
1982): 263-69.

33
SLolberg, Sheryln. lor 'Mlllennlals,' a 1lde of Cynlclsm and a arLlsan Cap." #/9 <$1=
>'0/3: Aprll 29, 2013. <hLLp://www.nyLlmes.com/2013/04/30/us/pollLlcs/
for-mlllennlal-voLers-a-Llde-of-cynlclsm-Loward-pollLlcs.hLml?_r=0>

SLuerele, Lugene. LosL CeneraLlons? WealLh 8ulldlng among ?oung Amerlcans." urban
lnsLlLuLe. March 13, 2013. <hLLp://www.urban.org/publlcaLlons/
412766.hLml>

1epe, Markus and leLer vanhuysse. Are Aglng CLCu Welfare SLaLes on Lhe aLh Lo Lhe
ollLlcs of CeronLocracy?" N$+1(6, $4 @+.,'* @$,'*8, vol. 29 (2009).

ueda, Mlchlko. 1he lmpacL of MlnorlLy 8epresenLaLlon on ollcy CuLcomes: Lvldence
from Lhe u.S. SLaLes." R6,'4$1('6 F(3%'%+%/ $4 >/*&($,$)8: March 2008.

uSA 1oday. Lx-Lawmakers Co Lo Lobbylng-8elaLed !obs." March 26, 2013.
<hLLp://www.usaLoday.com/sLory/news/pollLlcs/2013/03/23/former-
lawmakers-lobbylng-[obs/2011323/>.

u.S. Census 8ureau. Age and Sex ComposlLlon ln Lhe unlLed SLaLes ln 2011."
<hLLp://www.census.gov/populaLlon/age/daLa/2011comp.hLml>.

u.S. Census 8ureau. LlecLlons: voLlng-Age opulaLlon and voLer arLlclpaLlon." 2012.
<hLLp://www.census.gov/compendla/sLaLab/caLs/elecLlons/voLlng-
age_populaLlon_and_voLer_parLlclpaLlon.hLml>.

u.S. Census 8ureau. 1he nexL lour uecades." May 2010.

van arl[s, hlllppe. 1he ulsfranchlsemenL of Lhe Llderly, and CLher ALLempLs Lo Secure
lnLergeneraLlonal !usLlce." @&',$3$2&8 6(- @+.,'* 5446'13, vol. 27, no. 4 (AuLumn
1998): 292-333.

Q6,, L%1//% N$+1(6,. 1he CaplLol's Age yramld: A Craylng Congress." CcLober 13, 2010.
<hLLp://onllne.ws[.com/publlc/resources/documenLs/lnfo-
CCnC8LSS_ACLS_1009.hLml>

Wlnograd, Morley and Mlchael Pals. Mlllennlals Are Looklng for SomeLhlng CompleLely
ulfferenL." G',,/(('6, G6=/$7/1. AugusL 12, 2010.
<hLLp://www.mlllennlalmakeover.com/ArLlcles/Mlllennlals20Are20Looklng
20for20SomeLhlng20CompleLely20ulfferenL.hLm>

WolbrechL, ChrlsLlna and uavld L. Campbell. Leadlng by Lxample: lemale
Members of arllamenL as ollLlcal 8ole Models." 50/1'*6( N$+1(6, $4 @$,'%'*6,
L*'/(*/, vol. 31, no. 4 (CcLober 2007): 921-39.