Scientific Writing: An Introduction

Writing Guidelines for Students http://writing.eng.vt.edu/

The Craft of Scientific Writing 3rd edition (Springer-Verlag, 1996)

Scientists and engineers are called upon to communicate in many different situations
Reports Articles Proposals Web Pages Conferences Lectures Meetings Posters

specific technical audiences

general technical audiences

non-technical audiences

How well you communicate affects your career

Survey (Richard M. Davis)

Successful engineers spent 25% of work week writing

Survey (Wisconsin)
Professional engineers found writing their most useful subject in college

Survey (Virginia Tech)

Recruiters claim that engineers need more work on their writing

This presentation discusses the importance of scientific writing g and introduces key y principles p p
Importance of Scientific Writing

K P Key Principles i i l

audience occasion i purpose

[Report, 1986]

Scientific writing differs from other kinds of writing

Subject Matter Writing Constraints
audience occasion occas o purpose
[Franklin, 1952]

Purpose of Writing
To inform

Writing Style

To persuade
[Peterson, 1987]

Importance of Scientific Writing: How well you communicate affects the well-being of others
Explosion was caused by failure of Orings in the solid rocket boosters Engineers knew of O-ring problems well before fatal launch Engineers failed to communicate seriousness of problem The findings of the Crippen group and the Phillips review: Need a new shuttle management structure with the aim of preventing communication deficiencies that contributed to the Challenger accident."

Space Shuttle Challenger (January 28, 1986)

We can split the writing process into stages

Getting in the Mood Writing the First Draft

Revising, Revising, Revising

Finishing

An excellent way to improve your writing is to choose good models

AIP

Cal-Tech

Maria Goeppert Mayer

Linus Pauling

You should begin the writing process by analyzing your constraints

Audience
Who they are What they know Why they will read How they will read

Occasion

Format Formality Politics and ethics Process and deadline

Purpose

To inform To persuade

Format is the arrangement of type on the page

typography

layout

In scientific writing, formats vary considerably to serve different situations

The most effective combustion method is an atmospheric fluidized bed

cleaned exhaust

90% removal capability

separator

low capital costable to use in existing equipment high operating cost ability to use different grades of coal
grid air inlet

Formal Reports

Journal Articles

Presentation Slides

Follow the format that is expected or required for the situation (template posted on BB)

Three aspects of writing affect the way that (i.e., , grade) g ) your y documents readers assess (

Content

Form

Style

Form embodies the format and mechanics of the writing

mechanics format
grammar t typography h layout usage punctuation spelling

In your layouts, use white space for association, , emphasis, p , and hierarchy y

space for margins

space for headings

space for illustrations

Style is the way you communicate the content to the audience

[Peterson, 1987]

Illustration

words wordswords wordswordswords wordswordswordswords wordswordswords wordswordswords wordswordswords wordswordswords

Structure style

Language

Structure: the Strategy of Style

If a man can g group p his ideas, , then he is a writer. Robert Louis Stevenson

Ending

Middle

Beginning

The organization of a scientific document can be viewed as a beginning, middle, and ending
Conclusions Bibliography g p y Appendix Ending Results and Discussion Middle Title Abstract Theory/Methods (i.e. Introduction)

Beginning

Beginnings prepare readers for understanding the work

o e ts readers orients eade s to document

Title

Summary (abstract)

tells readers what happens in document

Introduction

prepares readers for the middle

A strong title orients readers to your area of work y

Effects of Humidity on the Growth of Avalanches

Effects of Humidity on the Growth of Electron Avalanches in Electrical Gas Discharges

Several names for summaries exist

Summary

Technical Ab t Abstract t

Informative Abstract

Abstract

Descriptive Abstract

Executive Summary

Although several names exist for summaries, there are essentially two approaches
This paper describes a new inertial navigation system for mapping oil and gas wells. wells In this paper, paper we will compare the mapping accuracy and speed for this new system against the accuracy and speed for conventional systems systems. D Descriptive i ti

This paper describes a new inertial navigation system that will increase the mapping accuracy of oil wells by a factor of ten. The new system uses three-axis navigation that protects sensors from high-spin high spin rates. The system Informative also processes its information by Kalman filtering (a statistical sampling technique) in an on-site computer. Test results show the three-dimensional location accuracy y is within 0.1 meters for every 100 meters of well depth, an accuracy ten times greater than conventional systems.

A document's introduction prepares readers for the discussion

Topic? Importance? Background? Arrangement? Introduction

The introduction defines the scope and limitations of the work

Women may not experience the same effects ff t Medical histories not considered

scope Proposed Study on Effects of Alcohol on Life Expectancy

Ten-year Ten year study Three classes of drinkers: non-drinkers moderate drinkers heavy y drinkers Men surveyed Other effects, such as exercise, exercise not considered

limitations

In the middle of a report, you present your work

Choose a logical strategy

[Sandia, 1985]

Common strategies exist p for the middles of scientific reports

Chronological

[Maizels, 2001]

Spatial
[Pratt & Whitney, 2000]

In a strong ending, you analyze results and give a future perspective

Conclusions
Analysis of Results

Analyze results from overall perspective

Future Perspective

Several options: Make recommendations Di Discuss f future t work k Repeat limitations

Illustration: The Meshing of Words With Images

Keep it as simple K i l as possible, ibl yet t no simpler. Albert Einstein

X-ray photograph of DNA [Rosalind Franklin, 1952]

For clarity, you should introduce and explain illustrations in the text

..., as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Here you insert a figure caption that explains the important details of the fig figure. re

Two types of illustrations exist: tables and figures

(figures can be graphs or images)
Table T bl 1. 1 Reactor R t power levels l l in i Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Pressurizer

Date
4/25 4/25 4/25 4/26 4/26 4/26

Time
1:00 am 2:00 pm 11:10 pm 1:00 am 1:19 am 1:23 am

Power Level
3200 MW 1600 MW 1600 MW 30 MW 200 MW 2,000,000 MW
Core Coolant Loss Reactor Vessel
Steam Generator

Figure 1. Simplified diagram of [Wolfson, , 1991]. ] nuclear reactor [

Tables can present words as well as numbers

Table 2. Sequence of events in the Chernobyl accident [Wolfson, 1991].
Date April 25 April 25 Time 1:00 a.m. 2:00 p.m. Power Level 3200 MW 1600 MW Event Operators begin power descent Power descent delayed for 9 hours Emergency core-cooling system disconnected Operators switch off automatic control Power descent resumed Power minimum reached Operators pull rods beyond allowable limits Operators start two additional coolant pumps Operators violate coolant flow limits Power surges g by y factor of 10,000 in 5 seconds

p 25 April

11:10 p.m.

1600 MW

April 26 April 26

1:00 a.m. 1:19 a a.m. m

30 MW 200 MW

April 26

1:23 a.m.

2,000,000 MW

When presenting numerical data, you choose between tables and graphs
Table 2. Blood glucose levels [Carlson, 1982].
Time (hour) midnight 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 noon 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 Normal (mg/dl*) 100.3 100 3 93.6 88.2 100.5 138.6 102.4 93.8 132.3 103.8 93.6 127.8 109 2 109.2 Diabetic (mg/dl) 175.8 175 8 165.7 159.4 72.1 271.0 224.6 161.8 242.7 219.4 152.6 227.1 221 3 221.3 300 250
Breakfast Lunch Dinner

Diabetic
Blood 200 Gl Glucose Level 150 (mg/dl) 100

Normal
50 0 12:00

6:00 am

12:00 Hour

6:00 pm

12:00

* decaliters/milligram

Figure 11. Blood glucose levels for normal l individual i di id l and d diabetic di b ti [Carlson, 1982].

Line graphs are common in engineering and science

2000

1500

Temperature (K)

1000

500

Experiment Simulation

0 0 2 4 6 8 10

Distance From Burner (mm) Figure 3. Fi 3 Computational C t ti l and d experimental i t l temperatures t t for f laminar diffusion flames [Sandia, 1987].

Bar graphs compare wholes

30

Normal range
20 Cells% 7-10 7 10

10

112 175 112175

211366

Flight Duration (Days) Figure 4. Response of T-cells in cosmonauts after short-term and long-term flights [Konstantinova, 1991].

Pie graphs compare parts of a whole

Medical and research wastes (16%) Industrial wastes (28%)

Government wastes (2%)

Power Reactor Industrial Medical Government

Power reactor wastes (64%) Figure 5. Volume of low-level nuclear wastes from various sources [League, 1985].

Gantt charts are a type of bar charts

Task 1979 1981 1983 1985 1987 1989

Construction

Test and Evaluation

Power Production

Figure 5. Schedule for the construction, evaluation, and production phases of the Solar One Power Plant.

When presenting images, you choose between photographs, drawings, and diagrams

Combustor
2 3

Compressor

Turbine

The main advantage of photographs is realism

60 seconds

59.5 seconds

59 seconds Figure 2. Space Shuttle Challenger, from about 59 seconds to 60 seconds into launch (January 28, 1986). On the right rocket, flame first becomes visible and then impinges on tank.

One advantage of drawings is control of detail

Combustor Simulator Turbine Vanes
Secondary Flow Dilution Jet Primary Flow

Secondary Flow

Film-Cooling Holes

Figure 5. 5 Wind tunnel experiment at Virginia Tech for evaluating film-cooling designs for the blades of gas turbine engines [Thole and others, 2000].

The main advantage of a diagram is the ability to show flow of a variable through a system

Figure 8. Schematic of test stand for evaluating components of an air conditioner design.

Scientists and engineers often use illustrations that are too complex for the text
The thermal storage g system y stores heat in a huge, steelwalled tank. Steam from the solar receiver passes through heat exchangers to heat the thermal oil, which is pumped into the tank The tank then tank. provides energy to run a steam generator to produce p oduce electricity. e ect c ty A schematic of this system is shown in Figure 5.
RECEIVER DSPH TSU

TSH FLASH TANK FT

DEARATOR HP HTR

TURBINE

T S S G

HOT WELL

Figure 5. Schematic of thermal storage system.

The precision of the illustrations should reflect the p precision of the text
The thermal storage system, shown in Figure 6, stores heat in a huge, steel-walled tank. Steam from the solar receiver i heats h t a thermal th l oil, il which hi h is i pumped d into i t the th tank. t k The tank then provides energy to run a steam generator to produce electricity.

650F 650 F

580F 580 F Heat Exchanger

575F

530F Heat Exchanger

solar receiver
435F

Thermal Tank
425F 425F

steam generator
250F

Figure 6. Fi 6 Schematic S h ti of f thermal th l storage t system t for f the th solar l power plant.

Inconsistencies between text and i images disrupt di t fluidity fl idit

The testing hardware hard are of the rocket shown in Figure 8 has five main components: camera, digitizer computer digitizer, computer, I/O interface, interface and mechanical interface. Commands are generated by the g computer, then passed through the I/O interface to the mechanized interface where the keyboard of the ICU is operated. Th display The di l of f the th ICU is i read d with a television camera and then digitized. This information is then manipulated by the computer to direct the next command.
CONTROL TERMINAL CAMERA DIGITIZER COMPUTER PRINTER

ROCKET

ELECTROMECHANICAL INTERFACE

Figure 8. Testing hardware.

Precise

Language: the Way y We Use Words

Short Sh t words d are the th best, b t and d short words when old are best of all. Winston Churchill

Clear Forthright Familiar Concise Fluid

word word word word word d word word word word wordwordwordwordwordwordword wordwordwordwordword word word word d word d word word wordwordwordwordword

Generalities that are not anchored with specifics are soon forgotten
After finding that high winds ( (and not hail) ) had cracked the ten solar mirrors, we began stowing all mirrors in a horizontal position during thunderstorms.

After recognizing some problems with the solar mirrors, we took subsequent corrective measures.

Trash

For precise language, you should avoid over-specifying details

The number of particular hydrocarbon combinations in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C20H42 is 366 366,319 319 and the number for C40H82 is 62,491,178,805,831.

The number Th b of f hydrocarbon h d b combinations bi ti in our study is enormous. For example, the number of possible C40H82 is more than 62 trillion.

For precision, you must choose the appropriate level of detail

Operations at the plant stopped momentarily because the thermal storage charging system desuperheater attemperator valve was replaced replaced.

Operations at the plant stopped for 1.5 hours so that a valve in the thermal storage system could be replaced.

Complex wording buries ideas

This study will consider why current solar energy systems such as Solar One systems, One, have not reached the commercial stage and will find out what steps we can take to make these systems commercial.

R.I.P. The goal of this study is to develop a commercialization strategy for solar energy systems by analyzing factors impeding early commercial projects (i.e., SOLAR ONE) and by identifying the potential actions that can facilitate the viability of the projects.

Complex sentences misdirect readers

The goal of the work was to confirm the nature of electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fi ld at fields t high hi h pressures and d electrode gaps which approach those obtained in engineering practice, p , prior p to the determination of the processes which set the criterion for breakdown in the above-mentioned gas in uniform and non-uniform fields of engineering significance.

At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gap distances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied in uniform fields.

The more muddled the original, the more revisions are needed to streamline it

At high pressures (760 torr) and typical electrode gap distances (1 mm), the electrical breakdown of nitrogen was studied in uniform fields.

In our study, we examined the electrical breakdown of nitrogen in uniform fields. For these experiments, the electrode gap distances were typical (1 mm), while the pressures were relatively high (760 torr).

An ambiguity is a group of words that can g have more than one meaning
We examined neat methanol and d ethanol th l and d methanol th l and ethanol with 10% water.

We examined W i d four f fuels: f l neat t methanol, neat ethanol, methanol with 10% water, and ethanol with 10% water. water

Ambiguities occur for many reasons

The proposed schedule is discussed below for the next four years.

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As light hydrocarbons evaporate the oil vapor apo p pressure essu e falls. a s Although engineers realized the design flaws in the Titanic soon after its sinking in 1912, the reasons for the severe damage g inflicted by y the iceberg g remained a mystery until its discovery in 1985.

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Pretentious diction often causes problems with tone

approximately facilitate implement individualized operationability utilization

about cause; bring about carry out individual can operate use

Weak verbs hide the energy of your work

A new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from diesel exhaust engines g is presented. Flow tube experiments to test this process are discussed. The percentage decrease in nitrogen oxide emissions is revealed. This paper presents a new process for eliminating nitrogen oxides from the exhaust of diesel engines. To test this process, we performed f d experiments i t in i flow tubes. These experiments percent decrease in revealed a 99 p nitrogen oxide emissions.

To tighten your writing, eliminate redundancies and writing zeroes

Vibration measurements made in the course of the Titan flight test program were complicated by the presence of intense high-frequency high frequency excitation of the vehicle shell structure during the re-entry phase of the flight.

Vibration measurements made in the Titan flight were complicated by intense highfrequency excitation of the vehicle shell during re-entry.

When sentence openers do not vary, the sentences do not seem to connect
Z

Z
Z

Mount St. St Helens erupted on May 18 18, 1980 1980. A cloud of hot rock and gas surged northward from its collapsing slope. The cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and l k lakes. Th The effects ff t of fM Mount t St St. H Helens l were well ll documented d t d with geophysical instruments. The origin of the eruption is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion of steam. Some scientists believe the steam comes from groundwater heated by the magma. Other scientists believe the steam comes from water originally dissolved in the magma. We need to understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions. We need to determine how much water the magma contains. t i

Varying sentence openers allows for more kinds of transitions between sentences

Sentence #1

Sentence #2

Sentence #3

Topic of Sentence Time of action Location of action Manner of action Subordinate action Reason for action

Subject Prepositional Phrase Prepositional Phrase Adverb Dependent Clause Infinitive Phrase

Vary sentence openers to vary rhythm

subject-verb Mount St. Helens erupted on May In minutes, the mountain emitted Recently, debate has arisen... Although the exact time of the eruption p surprised p scientists, evidence had been collected... To understand the eruption, we have to...

prepositional phrase adverb dependent clause

infinitive phrase

Varying sentence openers enlivens the writing g and allows connections

Mount St. Helens erupted on May 18, 1980. Its slope collapsing, the mountain emitted a cloud of hot rock and gas collapsing gas. In minutes, the cloud devastated more than 500 square kilometers of forests and lakes. Although the effects of the eruption were well documented, the origin is not well understood. Volcanic explosions are driven by a rapid expansion p of steam. Recently, y debate has arisen over the source for the steam. Is it groundwater heated by magma or water originally dissolved in the magma itself? To understand the source of steam in volcanic eruptions eruptions, we need to determine how much water the magma contains.

Avoiding Common Errors

One of the most important skills a writer can have is the ability to compose clear, complete sentences. The sentence is the basic unit of communication in all forms of English. Funk, McMahan, and Day Elements of Grammar

Punctuation rules are designed to have sentences be read one way

Colon: a colon introduces a formal list list, long quotation, equation, or definition. Semi-Colon: S iC l a semi-colon i l either ith joins j i two t independent clauses (closely linked in g ) or separates p complex p items in a list. thought) Dash: a dash acts as a parenthesis to separate items that cannot be separated by commas. commas Comma: a comma separates details in a sentence.

Unclear pronoun references cause ambiguities

Because the receiver presented the radiometer with a high flux environment, it was mounted in a silver-plated stainless steel container.

it???

If you receive an e-mail titled "Win A Holiday," do not open it. It will erase everything on your hard drive. Forward this e-mail out to as many y people as you can. This is a very malicious virus and not many people know about it.

this??? This???

Usage
Choose the right word, not its second cousin. The difference between the right word and the almost right word is the difference between lightning and lightning-bug. Mark Twain

word d word word word word

right word word word

Two common usage errors are possessives and subject-verb disagreements

The criteria for assessing the environmental effects of acid rain (are / is) given in the next section. So far, the daily number of engineers applying (has / have) remained constant. The goggles protect a (persons / persons) eyes from any damaging effects that a laser could cause. In accordance with my (boss / bosss) schedule, the first series of computers was replaced.

are has persons

bosss

To decide upon the verb tense in a document, you first plant a reference flag for t=0
Past Tense:
Events that have already occurred

Present Tense:
Timeless details or details at time of reading

Future Tense:
Events that will occur after project

t=0 t
The pressure was... For the experiment, we assumed A was shown As h b back ki in Figure 1... Air is 79 percent nitrogen. Figure 1 shows The computer code in A Appendix di B i includes... l d Future work will focus on....

The verb tenses of sentences that refer to the document depend upon position
Introduction This report presents a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Results and Discussion ...Figure 1 shows the circuit that connects the light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. Conclusions This report has presented a design for connecting light emitting diodes to the HC11 microcontroller. As was shown in Figure 1, the circuit...

Use numerals when referring to measurements

When to use numerals Specific Spec c measurements easu e e ts Percentages Monetary figures Large numerals When to write out numbers Counting (one or two words) Informal measurements First word of sentence twenty-three gages two hours Thirty-three... 3 volts, o ts, 2 seco seconds, ds, 1 m/s /s 15 percent $3000 5 million

Although equations are separated by white space, they y should be treated as p part of the sentence

To calculate the strain, , we used equation 1:

(1)

where is the stress estimated by FEPC and E is the modulus of elasticity of aluminum. aluminum

The Craft of Editing

Editing isnt Editi i t a cosmetic ti process. Its It a thinking process. Richard Rhodes, author M ki of Making f the th Atomic At i Bomb B b

Although editing is a large subject, we will focus on the editing g that occurs in the sign-off g process p

Editing documents: Reviewing g Line editing Online editing Proofreading Reducing g friction: Actions by authors Actions by editors

Before editing someones document, you should first consider your constraints

Audience of Document

Format of Document

Process to Publish Document

Formality of Document

Other Editors of Document

Politics and Ethics

Three aspects of the writing affect the way that editors assess documents

Content

Form

Style

Editing for content involves deciding what message to send

Is the content appropriate? Is the content correct?

Is the content complete? l t ?

Editing for form concerns whether the communication is properly presented

Focus on punctuation Focus on grammar Focus on usage

Focus on format

Focus on spelling

Editing for style involves deciding how to communicate the message

Focus on language

Focus on structure

Focus on illustration

What variables determine how much change g you y make?

Importance of Change

Consistency of Change

Disposition of Writer

Difficulty of Change g

A well-done edit has three characteristics: clarity, consistency, and hierarchy

clarity

consistency
effect ff t effect effect affect e

hierarchy
most important

deletee

next most important

least important

One convention is to circle comments, but not added words or letters

Last year, city engineers came up with a plan to address the tetrachloroethanecontaminated soil required to be excavated for planned thoroughfare construction that will occur within right-of-way adjacent to Building 1817, which houses the Genetics Laboratory.
au* sentence too long

devised for

This construction / #the

*au: are you implying that Chem E contaminated the soil?

Reducing the friction between editors and authors calls for action on both sides
Authors Editors

Identifying constraints Submitting outlines early Allotting time for editors Mulling over criticisms

Identifying pet peeves Negotiating gray areas Establishing boundaries Controlling tone Understanding authors

Pet peeves are those rules that you enforce more strictly than other editors do
naked thisavoid bureaucratic nounsavoid nouns avoid however however to join two independent clausesavoid series commause comma use exclamation l ti pointavoid i t id

When editing someones writing, consider tone

Editor

Lead with the positive

Edit one another as you would wish to b edited be dit d

Author

END