(Earth moving machines: Construction and operational aspects of bulldozers, dumpers, loaders, scrapers and shovels, power and

capacity of earth moving machines. Construction equipment: Construction and operational aspects of mobile cranes, road rollers, elevators and elevating graders.) Construction Equipments arious construction equipments used are !. "umpers #. $crapers %. &ower $hovels '. (otor graders ). *ulldozers +. ,ipper -. ,oad roller .. Cranes /. 0renchers !1. 2heel loaders SCRAPERS $crapers are the result of a compromise between the best loading and the best hauling machines. $crapers are used to scrap the ground, load it simultaneously, then transport it over a distance, dump at the desired place and then spread or layered. 0he ability of these machines to deposit their loads in uniformly thic3 layer will facilitate the succeeding spreading operation, 4n the return trips to borrow pits the cutting blades of scrapers may be lowered enough to remove high spots, thereby assisting in maintaining the haul roads. 0hus, scrapers are designed to dig, load, haul, dump and spread. 0herefore sometimes it is called 5Carryall.

0he fig. shows the self propelled wheeled type scraper, it essentially consists of a large scoop provided with cutting edge. 0he scoop is in the form of buc3et on hollow container, which is 3nown as bowl or body. 0he scoop can e6cavate, transport and dump the material wherever required.

0he cutting edge of scoop does the e6cavate wor3 and the e6cavated material goes on collecting in howl from the front gate. 0he material is transported to the site of dumping and is ta3en out from the tailgate of the bowl. 0hen facilitate the succeeding spreading operations to required and uniform thic3 layer. 0ypes of scrapers $crapers may be broadly classified into two main categories. 0hey are7 !) Crawler 8 tractor scraper #) 2heel 8 tractor scraper. a) $ingle 8 engine b) 0win 8 engine c) 0wo 8 bowl tandem d) Elevating $crapers. Crawler 8 tractor scrapers are used for relatively short haul distances, pulling a rubber 9 tyred self 9 loading scraper. 0he high drawbar pull in loading a scraper, combined with good traction even on poor haul roads, gives the crawler tractor an advantage for short hauls. 2heel 9 tractor scrapers are used for longer haul distances and the higher speed of a wheeled type tractor pulled self loading scraper will permit it to move earth more economically than a crawler9type tractor. CONSTRUCTION & WORKING OF POWER SHOVE &ower $hovels are used primarily to e6cavate earth and load it into truc3s or tractor pulled wagons or onto or onto conveyor belts. 0hey are capable of e6cavating all classes of earth, e6cept solid roc3, without prior loosening, li3e in quarries, mines in any road pro:ects etc. therefore a power shovels are considered as basic tool for e6cavating the materials and loading. 0hey may be mounted on crawler trac3s, in which case they are referred to as crawler mounted shovels. $uch shovels have very low travel speeds. ;owever, they may be mounted an rubber9tired wheels. $ingle9engine self9propelled units are powered and operated from e6cavator cab. 0he non9self9propelled units mounted on the rear of trac3s, which are referred to as truc39mounted, have separate engines for operating them. <ig. illustrates a crawler9mounted shovel.

!) 0he *asic &arts and 4peration of a $hovel: 0he basic parts of a power shovel include the mounting, cab, boom, dipper stic3 and buc3et or dipper and under carriage unit. 0hese parts for a cable9 controlled shovel. #) &ower unit: =t implies engine which supplies necessary power, enables to more and various operations to be performed by the shovel. >nder carriage unit: =t refers to travel assembly. =t also include, steering and bra3ing system. <or more details please refer 5under carriage mechanism? in topic tractors. %) ;oist and loading assembly: =t is used for hoisting the dipper and loading the material into predetermined place. =t essentially consists of rigid boom and dipper stic3 which is strongly built to withstand impact loading while e6cavation. 2ith a shovel in the correct position, near the face of earth to be e6cavated, the dipper is lowered to the floor of the pit, with the teeth pointing into the face. @ crowding force is applied through the shipper shaft and at the same time tension is applied to the hoisting line to pull the dipper up the face of the pit. =f the depth of the face is :ust right, i.e. depth of cut is correctly ad:usted. 0he dipper will be completely filled up and it is loaded to dump trac3s or dumped at the required place. 0o operate shovel in favorable condition i.e. economically, it will be necessary to reduce the depth of penetration of dipper face. 0he general operation of a hydraulically controlled shovel differ from those of a cable9controlled shovel primarily in that the operator forces are produced by pistons instead of by cables. ;ence, it is clear that the applications of power shovel are !) 0o e6cavate the soils of all types e6cept roc3s without prior loosening. #) 0o collect and dump the material. %) 0o load the e6cavated material into dump truc3s, conveyer belts etc. !U"PERS "umper is also 3nown as "ump truc3. 0he motor vehicle which is specially designed A constructed for carrying the heavy loads under various operations conditions can be called as "umpers.

0hese are meant for carrying roc3s, coal, minerals, aggregate and other materials in construction wor3s. "umper may be 4B road ehicle or 4<< road vehicle. 4B road "umpers generally used in normal roads such as in road construction, while 4<< road means, vehicle is used apart from good words, i.e. in terrains li3e in dam construction mines etc. 0he constructional features of "umper is similar to that heady duty truc3, e6cept a high strength container or trolley is mounted at bac3 side of the Cabin and ;ydraulic assisted load raising and lowering facility is provided for dumping material in the trolley. $ome dumpers may have # hydraulic cylinders and the size of rear wheel and number of rear a6les may vary with load carrying capacity and mode of operations. $uspension at front is of rigid elliptical type and at rear heavy duty leaf springs are provided to absorb high impact loading under severe operating conditions. Container for dumper is specially constructed to withstand ill handlings. ;eavy duty air cleaner, filter, share proof mountings of all instruments, dust proof electrical systems and cushion mountings for radiator may present in some dump truc3s.

"umpers play important vole in dam construction, road ma3ing, mining etc. for carrying materials and dumping at required place quic3ly and conveniently. CONSTRUCTION AN! WORKING OF RIPPERS ,ipper is used for loosening the ground and for pulling up the roots, roc3s etc. 0hey play vital role in constructional wor3s li3e dams, mining, road constructions etc. ,ippers may be classified into # types. !) &ulled type #) 0ractor mounted type

Cin3age used to mount ripper on a tractor: ;ydraulically operated, tractor mounted ripper is found increasing use in various wor3s than towed type. <ig. shows ripper using three shan3s. 0he number of shan3s used depends on the size of the tractor, the depth of penetration desired, the resistance of material being ripped and the degree of brea3age of the material. 0he lin3age as shown is of parallel9type lin3age. =n this type depth of penetration is varied. 0he point is 3ept at a constant angle, which reduces wear and stabilizes the production. Crawler mounted hydraulic operated ripper is preferred more because of, =n case of hard soil, the process of loosening the soil requires more 5traction power?. $lippages of trac3 are not considerable. @ttachment and dis9attachment of ,ipper is avoided as they may be integral. @ll the mechanisms included in under carriage of ripper are very similar to these crawler tractors. 0he ripper is actuated by hydraulic blades. 0he teeth of blade is replicable in case get worn. ,ippers are generally preferred in road construction, dam, quarries etc. CRANES Cranes are hoisting equipment used for lifting or carrying the loads and placing them at desired place. Cranes essentially meant for lifting heavy materials and placing them on dump truc3s, belt conveyors or at other required places.

0ypes of Cranes !) Crawler9(ounted Cranes ("erric3 Crane) #) ,ubber 9 0yre mounted or (obile Cranes %) &ortable Crane. @pplication of Cranes (ain application of cranes is to lift and place heavy materials at required place. Ci3e in !) Carge building wor3s. #) =n "am, road construction %) =n quarries and mines ') =n construction of bridges, industries and in shipping etc. #$ Cr%&'er("ounte) Cr%nes *!erric+ Cr%ne$

Cranes are the hoisting equipment used for lifting the loads and placing them at desired place. 0o perform these functions cranes have mainly three motions !) ;oisting, #) $winging and %) "umping. <ig. shows a typical "erric3 crane. =t mainly consists of a hoist boom which is strongly built wire rope and associated lifting or winding mechanism and these are mounted on a conventional crawler tractor. 0he boom and cab can be rotated %+1 1 on turn table, which helps the crane to place any convenient place. 0he "erric3 crane can be used as a toe cranes for the purpose of erection of high industrial and residential building of !11 meter or above they are available upto '1 tons with #) mtr boom length and !) mtr wor3 radius. ,$ Ru--er ( T.re mounte) or "o-i'e Cr%nes

<ig. shows truc3 crane in its simplest form. =t consists of a lifting boom and wire rope with its associated winding mechanism. 0hese are mounted on a truc3. 2heel mounted mobile cranes are generally truc3 mounted and have high mobility and can travel upto -1 3mDhr on good roads. 0hese are designed for long distance travel with high road speed. 0his crane can operated on firm grounds to increase stability. "uring operation triggers are used this cranes are widely used in building, constructional areas, industries, loading and unloading of cargoes. 0he wor3ing principle of truc3 cranes is similar to that conventional truc3 e6cept a crane boom and related mechanism is fitted at rear of cabin. 0hese cranes may operate on wire rope or by hydraulic cylinders. Bow9a9days hydraulic cylinder type cranes have gained popular. !O/ERS "ozers are machines designed principally for cutting and pushing the materials over relatively short distance. "ozers are nothing but crawler tractors or trac3 type tractor with suitable hydraulically assisted blades, arms which is principle difference between a crawler tractor and "ozers. "ozers consist of trac3 type tractors with front mounted blades controlled by hydraulic cylinder to vary the depth of cut and rate of leveling. "epending on the material and application rear mounted hydraulic blades and rippers can be fitted to loosen hard material. *lades of dozers are curved and e6tending in front of the tractor, since in the application of pushing, cutting etc. needs high traction which is fulfilled by suitable trac3s and rigid construction. (ain areas of application of dozers generally includes in dam construction, road construction in mines, to e6cavate the soil etc. 0ypes of "ozers 0he following are the five types of "ozers. a) *ull9dozers b) @ngle dozers c) 0ilt dozers d) &ush dozers e) 0ree dozers. <ollowing are the different types of dozers. a) *ull dozers *ull9dozer is basically pushing unit but is widely used as multi9purpose equipment and can perform large no. of operation with minor change under different

names li3e @ngle dozer, tilt dozer, tree dozer and push dozer. *ull9dozer scrapes soil and granular materials, pushes it in front of blades also leveling the e6cavated material. b) @ngle dozers: @ngle dozers are used to push its load at an angle nearly #)E to the direction of travel of the dozer. 0his 3ind of dozers are helpful where the material is pushed down li3e on hill wor3 or where the material to be collected in a long row on one side of the line of travel of the dozer. c) 0ilt dozers: 0ilt type dozers are used where *lade is required to be tilted by raising one end upto (#) cm) alone the other so as to start e6cavating in hard ground. d) &ush dozers: =t is used to push the scraper unit during digging or loading operation by means of rectangular plate called the pusher plate. e) 0ree dozers: =t is used to remove the trees and for uprooting the stems. Construction:

"ozer *lades : @ heavy blade of slightly concave profile in the front of the tractor, connected to frame of tractor through two arms and a yo3e. 0he blade has replacable cutting edges which wear out with the use of *lade. 0he motion of blades is controlled by means of a suitable hydraulic cylinder arrangement. <ollowing are the few types of blades which generally used in dozers.
a) U - blade b) Straight Blade c) Land Fill Blade

d) @ngle *lade e) Clearing *lade f) 9 blade. (ethod of controlling the blades of dozers: *lades of dozers can be controlled by two ways. a) Cable control b) ;ydraulic control a) Cable control: Cable controlled blades in dozers utilize a hoist unit for raising or lowering blades. ;oist unit is mounted on the front end on the radiator guard. 0he push arms are tightened to the brac3et outside of the trac3 or under the cage unit. Cable with

suitable ultimate strength is used for tilting the blade at required angle. 0he transmission unit, engine unit etc. being similar to as hydraulic controlled type dozers.

b) ;ydraulic control of blades ;ydraulic control of blades utilizes a incompressible hydraulic fluid, which under high pressure in the hydraulic cylinder operates the blades to required height and direction. 0he important components of system include a control (direction) valve, a hydraulic pump, oil filters and suitable hose connections etc. 0he direction control valve regulates the direction of flow of oil to suitable cylinder so that control of blade at required angle can be achieved. 0he oil pump may be gear type or vane type which is capable of building high pressure in cylinders. Fenerally oil pumps are driven by &.0.4. shaft or other suitable gear drive. $uitable cooling of hydraulic oil is required so as to maintain the properties arrangement (li3e viscosity, flash and five point etc.) of oil constant though operation. 0he arrangement is shown in figure. "%in Components o0 % !o1er =n general all "ozers should be equipped with following basic parts which names the construction as dozers, viz. Components in H.)r%u'ic S.stem o0 % )o1er !) Engine unit Gpower sourceH #) Clutch %) 0ransmission system. ') Control $ystem a) *ra3e $ystem b) $teering $ystem )) ;ydraulic $ystem. +) 0rac3 mechanism or under carriage. !) Engine unit: =t is the power source for propulsion and desired operation. >sually +9 cylinder diesel engine is equipped in dozer as a power source. 0he engine unit being similar to heavy duty operated tractors. #) Clutch: $imilar to all vehicles, dozers are also equipped with clutch unit for connecting and disconnecting the power from engine to transmission unit. Clutch for dozers can be multiplate or single plate. *ut it should be wet type. Fenerally multiplate clutch is preferable because sufficient area for friction is available for same space and hence more power can be transmitted. 0o maintain properties of clutch lining

and to reduce heat developed clutch should be wet type. 0herefore cooling oil is circulated continuously in clutch housing at a pressure. 0he operation of clutch being similar to conventional method i.e. clutch is disengaged by overcoming spring force. ;ydraulic assisted clutch pedal may also used to reduce the power required by driver for operation of clutch. %) 0ransmission system: 0he main function of transmission unit in dozer is to transmit the power from engine to wheels Gthrough differential, such that resistance of dozer is fulfilled i.e. it varies torque, speed and direction of motion as per requirement. 0ransmission unit in dozer may be !) $elective type gear bo6 a) $liding mesh b) Constant mesh gear bo6 c) $ynchromesh type gear bo6. Each gear bo6 comprises mainly i) main shaft ii) counter shaft, on which suitable gears are arranged and output power is obtained at the end of main shaft. #) &lanetary gear bo6 and %) ;ydraulic transmission. @part from conventional gear bo6 in some special cases Gor in new versionsH planetary gear bo6. ;ydraulic transmissions are used to overcome the drawbac3s from conventional gear bo6. a) Fear ratio can be varied as per requirement constantly i.e. there is no fi6ed gear ratio. b) 2ear, noise of gear bo6 is reduced to minimum. c) ;ence, less or no lubricant is desired for systems. d) ;ence, systems are smooth in operation and fle6ible. ') Control $ystem. Control $ystem in dozer comprises mainly a) $teering $ystem and b) *ra3e $ystem a) $teering $ystem: $teering $ystem in dozers differs from conventional steering because, here steering gears and related systems are absent. $teering of vehicle GdozerH can be achieved by slowing or bra3ing to required trac3 and while other trac3 remains in motion and hence desired steering is achieved. <ollowing are the % important steering mechanisms used in "ozers. a) Clutch D *ra3e $teering $ystem b) "ifferential $teering $ystem c) &lanetary Fear $teering $ystem b) *ra3ing $ystem: 0he desirable function from bra3ing system is to slow down the motion GspeedH or to stop the GvehicleH dozer within shortest possible distance and time. 0he distance travelled after bra3ing and time required for complete rest depends mainly speed of vehicle and mass of vehicle. ;ence, as mass of "ozer (vehicle) increased or is high, the bra3e system should be robust to absorb 3inetic energy into heat energy. ;ere due to heat developed in bra3ing is more, sufficient ventilation for bra3e is necessary. Fenerally, e6ternal contacting band bra3es are used in dozers. )) 0rac3 mechanism or under carriage unit: 0rac3 mechanism for "ozers is very similar to trac3 type tractors. Becessity of trac3 for "ozer or for crawler tractor is as the driving

wheel e6erts thrust on the ground while rolling over it, there will be tendency to sliding motion or slip between the tyre and the ground. Bow if we increases the tyre contacting area with the ground, the slip will be reduced, but it is undesirable affects by increasing tyre size also tyre cannot wor3 in rough terrains. =n operations li3e reclaiming barren land, road construction etc. "ozer requires high tractive effort with minimum possible size. ;ence trac3 even though it is complicated and costlier, it is sometimes or should be used under such circumstances. (ain components of the ;ydraulic $ystem in dozers (or in crawler type tractor). !) ,eservoir or hydraulic oil tan3. #) ;ydraulic pump 8 a) ariable displacement pump b) &ositive displacement pump a) Fear type b) ane type c) ,adial &iston &ump etc. %) ;ydraulic valves a) &ressure relief valve b) "irection flow control valve c) olume control valve ') ;ydraulic cylinders a) $ingle acting cylinder b) "ouble acting )) ;ydraulic pipes GhoseH a) ;igh &ressure ;ose b) ery high pressure ;ose I. !1. 2ith neat s3etch, describe the wor3ing of e6cavators. @ns : E6cavators are basically digging or e6cavating machine used for this purpose only. 0hese are preferred for quarries, dam pro:ects, road construction and other related wor3s. E6cavators can be mainly two types, namely !) Crawler mounted type #) 0ruc3 mounted type. Bow we shall discuss about the crawler mounted type which is becoming more popular, because, J <or heavy e6cavating wor3s of course, it is necessary to have more traction power. *y having crawler the contact area bit ground and chain (0rac3) is more and hence these are having high tractive force. J Cabin can be easily and conveniently by rotated around %+1E, without affecting the trac3 movement. J ;ydraulic assisted system, which enables the wor3 fast and convenient etc.

0he constructional line diagram shows, a crawler mounted e6cavator. =t mainly consists of three units, namely. !) @ under carriage to give mobility, this is similar to crawler tractor. #) @ super structure with operation cabin mounted on a sleeve ring to travel through %+1E around. %) ;ydraulically articulated boom and dipper arm with buc3et. 0eeth at buc3ets can be replaceable, which may get wear or bro3en with use. 4peration 0he machine is brought to the land or place to be e6cavated them boom and arm are lowered. 0hen *uc3et is brought near the wor3 is to be e6cavated. @fterwards, the buc3et is pushed towards the machine to ma3e and cut and fill with the help of hydraulic cylinder. 0hen the dipper arm is moved towards the machine and the boom is raised till it clears from the cutting area and now cabin is rotated to required dumping position. 0his cycle repeats for completion of wor3. "OTOR GRA!ERS

(otor grader is generally used for leveling spreading and finishing the wor3 li3e in road pro:ects. =t consists of a blade supported on the frame as shown in fig. 0his blade used for e6cavating the ground. @nother blade is called scarifier is fitted ahead of the grader blade. 0his blade first brea3s the hard roc3 before the ground is e6cavated by grader blade. 0he grader is either self propelled or drawn by a tractor. 0o wor3 with grader, place the grader where leveling is to be done. 0he grader blade is lower and is set to move right and left as the driving unit moves forward. 0he scarifier blade ribs the hard ground, if any and then grader blade does the leveling and finishing of the uneven ground. 0he main application area of grader is in road construction and for leveling, spreading and finishing other similar 3ind of wor3s. RO ERS ,ollers are the specially constructed self propelled or pulled type machine used to compact the earth or asphalt layer. ,oller is considered as an essentially for road ma3ing machinery, it usually consists of heavy steel or pneumatic wheels for rolling and compacting the good construction material. Fenerally these are self propelled with the help of diesel engines while some 3ind of rollers are pulled by tractors. 0here are many types of rollers available, which can be used according to requirement. !) %9wheel smooth rollers. #) $heep foot rollers. %) &neumatic rollers. ') #9wheel smooth roller. )) ibrating rollers. +) 0amping rollers etc. Pneum%tic Ro''ers2 0hese are surface rollers which apply the principle of 3neading action to effect compaction below the surface. 0hey may be self propelled or towed. &neumatic rollers employs Bo. of pneumatic wheels, mounted on two or more a6les instead of using heavy steel wheels for compaction. 0hey may be small or large9tyred units. 0he small9tired units usually have two tandem a6les with four to nine tires on each a6le. 0he rear wheels are spaced to travel over the surfaces between the front wheels, which

produces a complete coverage of surface. >sually the weight of a unit may be varied by adding ballast to suit the material being compacted.

0he large9tired rollers are available in sizes varying from !) to #11 tons gross weight. 0hey utilize two or more big earth9moving tyres on a single a6le. 0he air pressure in the tyres may vary from .1 to !)1 &$=. *ecause of the heavy and high tyre pressures, they are capable of compacting all types of soils to greater depths.

0he compacting ability of pneumatic rollers can be 3nown by7 !) 0he gross weight of the unit. #) 0he gross weight per wheel. %) 0he weight per inch of tyre width. ') 0he air pressure in the tyres. =n recent designs for better compaction pneumatic tire rollers with variable inflation pressure are available. @pplication 0his type of rollers are considered to be most suitable for compacting non9plastic sands, fine sands, @sphalt rolling etc. li3e in dam, road constructional wor3s. Smoot3 W3ee'e) Ro''er $mooth wheeled rollers can be two types, they are7 !) %9wheel smooth roller. #) #9wheel smooth roller or 0andem roller. !) %9wheel smooth roller:

<ig. shows %9wheeled smooth rollers. =t mainly consists of %9heavy constructed wheels, power plant GengineH and transmission system etc. @t front side the wheel is usually smaller than gear wheels. 0he front wheel is considered as steerable wheel while rear wheels are being driving wheels. 0o have a good compaction the rear wheels are constructed at bigger size and heavy. 0he compacting efficiency of roller depends upon the weight e6erted, width of wheel, dia. of wheel and the type of compacting materials. 0he hollow drums GwheelsH which may be ballasted with water or sand to increase the weight. $ometimes additional weights are also added to achieve the same. =f a machine is designated as .9!' tons, it means that the minimum weight of the machine only is . tons and it can be ballasted to give a ma6imum weight of !' tons.

0he main difference between #9wheels and % wheels rollers are7 !) Bo. of wheels 8 # in case of tandem roller. #) 2idth 8 2idth of rollers is more in tandem type. %) Capacity 8 +9. tons capacity. ') $ize 8 0andem type rollers are smaller compared to % 9wheeled rollers. ,emaining systems are being almost similar in operation or in wor3ing. @pplications 0hese rollers are effective in compacting granular soils, such as sand, gravel and crushed stone and they are also effective in smoothing surface of soil that have been compacted by sheep foot type rollers. Vi-r%tor. Comp%ct Ro''ers Certain types of soils such as sand, gravel and relatively large stones respond quite well to compaction produced by a combination of pressure and vibration. 2hen these materials are vibrated, the particles shift their positrons and nestle more closely with ad:acent particles to increase the density of the mass. 0here are several types of vibratory compacting rollers they include. !) ibrating sheepKs foot rollers #) ibrating steel drum rollers %) ibrating pneumatic9tyred rollers. ') ibrating plates or shoes. ibrating sheepKs9foot, steel9drum, pad9type and pneumatic tyred rollers are actuated by separate engines mounted on the rollers or in some cases by hydraulic drives which rotate horizontal shafts. 4n which one or more eccentric weights are mounted. ibrations may vary from !111 to )111 per mm. =n addition to compacting the soil, the drum and pad9 type rollers tend to shutter the roc3 particles near the surface and thus leave a relatively smooth surface. =n general, better compaction efficiencies and economy are attained by moving vibrating compactors at relatively slow speeds. !.) to #.) mph. $low speeds permit a greater flow of vibratory energy into the soil. <ollowing fig. shows vibrating steel drum roller.

<ollowing fig. illustrates 0owed (pulled)8type vibrating sheepKs foot roller.

$heepKs foot rollers may be towed by tractors or self9 propelled, consists of a hollow steel drum on whose outer surface there are welded a no. of pro:ected steel feet, which on different pieces may be of varying lengths and cross sections or all of them may have

same dimensions. @ unit may consist of one or several drums mounted on one or more horizontal a6les. 0he weight of a drum may be varied by adding water or sand to produce unit pressure under the feet upto -)1 &$= or more. @s the roller moves over the surface, the feet penetrate the soil to produce a 3neading action and a pressure to mi6 and compact the soil from the bottom to the top of the layer. $heepKs foot rollers are quite effective in compacting clays and mi6tures of sand and clay. ;owever, they canKt compact granular soils such as sand and gravel. @lso, the depth of a layer of soil to be compacted is limited to appro6imately the length of the feet.