NORWAY- INTRODUCTION

Officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Scandinavian unitary constitutional monarchy whose territory comprises the western portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula, Jan Mayen, the Arctic archipelago of Svalbard, and the subantarctic Bouvet Island. Norway has a total area of 385,252 square kilometers (148,747 sq mi) and a population of about 5 million. It is the second least densely populated country in Europe. The country shares a long border with Sweden (1,619 km or 1,006 mi long), which is the longest uninterrupted border within both Europe and the Schengen Area. Norway is also bordered by Finland and Russia to the north-east and the Skagerrak Strait across from Denmark to the south. It shares maritime borders with Russia by the Barents Sea; Greenland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland by the Norwegian Sea; and Sweden, Denmark, and the United Kingdom by the North Sea. Norway's extensive coastline, facing the North Atlantic Ocean and the Barents Sea, is home to its famous fjords. The capital city and the largest with the highest population at almost 1 million is Oslo. Two centuries of Viking raids tapered off following the adoption of Christianity by King Olav Tryggvason in AD 994. A period of civil war ended in the 13th century when Norway expanded its control overseas to parts of Britain, Ireland, Iceland, and Greenland. Norwegian territorial power peaked in 1265, but competition from the Hanseatic League and the spread of the Black Death weakened the country. In 1380, Norway was absorbed into a union with Denmark that lasted more than four centuries. In 1814, Norwegians resisted the cession of their country to Sweden and adopted a new constitution. Sweden went to war with Norway but agreed to let Norway keep its constitution in return for accepting the union under a Swedish king. Rising nationalism throughout the 19th century led to a referendum in 1905 granting Norway independence. Although Norway remained neutral in World War I, it suffered heavy losses to its shipping. Norway proclaimed its neutrality at the outset of World War II but was nonetheless occupied for five years by the Third Reich. In 1949, neutrality was abandoned, and Norway became a founding member of NATO. Discovery of oil and gas in adjacent waters in the late 1960s boosted Norway's economic fortunes. In referenda held in 1972 and 1994, Norway rejected joining the European Union. Key domestic issues include immigration and integration of ethnic minorities, maintaining the country's extensive social safety net with an ageing population, and preserving economic competitiveness. King Harald V is Norway's head of state and Erna Solberg will be the prime minister from the middle of October 2013, replacing Jens Stoltenberg. It has administrative subdivisions on two levels known as counties (fylke) and municipalities (kommuner). The Smi people have a certain amount of self-determination and influence over traditional territories through the Smi Parliament and the Finnmark Act. Although having rejected European Union membership in two referenda, Norway maintains close ties with the union and its member countries, as well as with the United States. Norway participates with United Nations forces in international missions,

notably in Afghanistan, Kosovo, Sudan, and Libya. Norway is a founding member of the United Nations, NATO, the Council of Europe, and the Nordic Council; a member of the European Economic Area, the WTO and the OECD; and is also a part of the Schengen Area. Norway has extensive reserves of petroleum, natural gas, minerals, lumber, seafood, fresh water, and hydropower. The country has the fourth-highest per capita income in the world. On a percapita basis, it is the world's largest producer of oil and natural gas outside the Middle East, and the petroleum industry accounts for around a quarter of the country's gross domestic product. The country maintains a welfare model with universal health care, subsidised higher education, and a comprehensive social security system. From 2001 to 2006, and then again from 2009 to 2012, Norway had the highest Human Development Index ranking in the world. From 2010 to 2012, Norway also topped the Legatum Prosperity Index. Also from 2010 to 2012, Norway had the highest ranking on the Democracy Index. The OECD ranks Norway third in social mobility and fourth on the 2013 Better Life Index Forbes rank Norway fourth in their list The World's richest countries, which compares countries by GDP. Norway was the first independent country to introduce women's suffrage in 1913.

GEOGRAPHY

Main articles: Geography of Norway and Geology of Norway A satellite image of continental Norway in winter Norway comprises the western part of Scandinavia in Northern Europe. The rugged coastline, broken by huge fjords and thousands of islands, stretches 25,000 kilometers (16,000 mi) and 83,000 kilometers (52,000 mi) and include fjords and islands. Norway shares a 1,619-kilometre (1,006 mi) land border with Sweden, 727 kilometers (452 mi) with Finland, and 196 kilometers

(122 mi) with Russia to the east. To the north, west and south, Norway is bordered by the Barents Sea, the Norwegian Sea, the North Sea, and Skagerrak.

Norwegian lowland landscape near the Gaulosen branch of Trondheimfjord

Reine in Lofoten, Northern Norway At 385,252 square kilometers (148,747 sq mi) (including Svalbard and Jan Mayen) (and 323,802 square kilometers (125,021 sq mi) without), much of the country is dominated by mountainous or high terrain, with a great variety of natural features caused by prehistoric glaciers and varied topography. The most noticeable of these are the fjords: deep grooves cut into the land flooded by the sea following the end of the Ice Age. The longest is Sognefjordenat 204 kilometers (127 mi). Sognefjordenat is the world's second deepest fjord, and the world's longest. Hornindalsvatnet is the deepest lake in all Europe. Frozen ground can be found all year in the higher mountain areas and in the interior of Finnmark county. Numerous glaciers are found in Norway.

Norway lies between latitudes 57 and 81 N, and longitudes 4 and 32 E. The land is mostly made of hard granite and gneiss rock, but slate, sandstone, and limestone are also common, and the lowest elevations contain marine deposits. Because of the Gulf Stream and prevailing westerlies, Norway experiences higher temperatures and more precipitation than expected at such northern latitudes, especially along the coast. The mainland experiences four distinct seasons, with colder winters and less precipitation inland. The northernmost part has a mostly maritime subarctic climate, while Svalbard has an Arctic tundra climate. Because of the large latitudinal range of the country and the varied topography and climate, Norway has a larger number of different habitats than almost any other European country. There are approximately 60,000 species in Norway and adjacent waters (excluding bacteria and virus). The Norwegian Shelf large marine ecosystem is considered highly productive.

CLIMATE

The southern and western parts of Norway experience more precipitation and have milder winters than the south-eastern part. The lowlands around Oslo have the warmest and sunniest summers but also cold weather and snow in wintertime (especially inland). Because of Norway's high latitude, there are large seasonal variations in daylight. From late May to late July, the sun never completely descends beneath the horizon in areas north of the Arctic Circle (hence Norway's description as the "Land of the Midnight Sun"), and the rest of the country experiences up to 20 hours of daylight per day. Conversely, from late November to late January, the sun never rises above the horizon in the north, and daylight hours are very short in the rest of the country.

BIODIVERSITY

Lake Bondhus. The total number of species include 16,000 species of insects (probably 4,000 more species yet to be described), 20,000 species of algae, 1,800 species of lichen, 1,050 species of mosses, 2,800 species of vascular plants, up to 7,000 species of fungi, 450 species of birds (250 species nesting in Norway), 90 species of mammals, 45 fresh-water species of fish, 150 salt-water species of fish, 1,000 species of fresh-water invertebrates, and 3,500 species of salt-water invertebrates. About 40,000 of these species have been described by science. The red list of 2010 encompasses 4,599 species. Seventeen species are listed mainly because they are endangered on a global scale, such as the European beaver, even if the population in Norway is not seen as endangered. The number of threatened and near-threatened species equals to 3,682; it includes 418 fungi species, many of which are closely associated with the small remaining areas of old-growth forests, 36 bird species, and 16 species of mammals. In 2010, 2,398 species were listed as endangered or vulnerable; of these were 1250 listed as vulnerable (VU), 871 as endangered (EN), and 276 species as critically endangered (CR), among which were the grey wolf, the Arctic fox (healthy population on Svalbard) and the pool frog. The largest predator in Norwegian waters is the sperm whale, and the largest fish is the basking shark. The largest predator on land is the polar bear, while the brown bear is the largest predator on the Norwegian mainland, where the common moose (also known as the "European Elk") is the largest animal.

ENVIRONMENT Stunning and dramatic scenery and landscape is found throughout Norway. The west coast of southern Norway and the coast of northern Norway present some of the most visually impressive coastal sceneries in the world. National Geographic has listed the Norwegian fjords as the world's top tourist attraction. The 2012 Environmental Performance Index put Norway in third place, based on the environmental performance of the country's policies.

Rondeslottet in Rondane National Park, Eastern Norway

Feigefossen, Sogn og Fjordane

Muskox in the low alpine tundra at Dovrefjell

Some of the larger islandsalong the coastline of northern Norway

Norway is mountainous, but there are also some flat areas like Jren,Toten, and rlandet

Loen, a small village on the Western coast of Norway

POLITICS Main articles: Politics of Norway and Law of Norway

Harald V, the King of Norway since 1991 According to the Constitution of Norway, which was adopted on 16 May 1814 and inspired by the United States Declaration of Independence and French Revolution of 1776 and 1789, respectively, Norway is a unitary constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of government, wherein the King of Norway is the head of state and the Prime Minister is the head of government. Power is separated between the legislative, executive and judicial branches of government, as defined by the Constitution, which serves as the country's supreme legal document. The Monarch officially retains executive power. However, following the introduction of a parliamentary system of government, the duties of the Monarch have since become strictly representative and ceremonial, such as the formal appointment and dismissal of the Prime Minister and other ministers in the executive government. Accordingly, the Monarch is commander-in-chief of the Norwegian armed forces, and serves as chief diplomatic official abroad and a as symbol of unity. In practice, it is the Prime Minister who is responsible for the exercise of executive powers. Since his accession in 1991, Harald V of the House of Schleswig-Holstein-SonderburgGlcksburg has been King of Norway, the first since the 14th century who has actually been born in the country.[64]Haakon, Crown Prince of Norway, is the legal and rightful heir to the throne and the Kingdom.

The Storting is the Parliament of Norway. Constitutionally, legislative power is vested with both the government and the Parliament of Norway, but the latter is the supreme legislature and a unicameral body. A proposition can become a law or an act by simple majority among the 169 representatives, who are elected on the basis of proportional representation from 19 constituencies for four-year terms. 150 are elected directly from the 19 constituencies and an additional 19 seats ("levelling seats") are allocated on a nationwide basis to make the representation in parliament correspond better with the popular vote. As a result, there are currently 169 Members of Parliament altogether. There is also a 4% election threshold to gain levelling seats in Parliament. As such, Norway is fundamentally structured as a representative democracy. The Parliament of Norway, called the Stortinget (meaning Grand Assembly), is where Members ratify treaties and can impeach members of the government if their acts are declared unconstitutional, and as such have the power to remove them from office in case of an impeachment trial.

Jens Stoltenberg, the Prime Minister of Norway 2005-2013

The position of Prime Minister, Norway's head of government, is allocated to the Member of Parliament who can obtain the confidence of a majority in Parliament, usually the current leader of the largest political party or more effectively through a coalition of parties, as a single party normally does not have the support to form a government on its own. However, Norway has often been ruled by minority governments. The Prime Minister nominates the Cabinet, traditionally drawn from members of the same political party in the Storting, to which they are responsible, and as such forms the executive government and exercises power vested to them by the Constitution. To form a government, however, more than half the membership of the Cabinet is required to belong to the Church of Norway. Currently, this means at least ten out of the 19 ministries. This has caused controversy regarding the continuing debate of separation of church and state in Norway. The current Prime Minister is Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Norwegian Labour Party (AP).

Royal Palace of Norway in Oslo Through the Council of State, a privy council presided over by the Monarch, the Prime Minister and the Cabinet meet at the Royal Palace and formally consults the Monarch. Besides enacting parliamentary bills, all government bills need the formal approval by the Monarch before and after introduction to Parliament. Approval is also given by the Council to all of the Monarch's actions as head of state. Although all government and parliamentary acts are decided beforehand, the Privy Council is an example of another symbolic gesture the King obtains. Members of the Storting are directly elected from party-lists proportional representation in nineteen plural-member constituencies in a national multi-party system. Historically, both the Norwegian Labour Party and Conservative Party have played leading political roles, while the former has remained in power since the 2005 election, in a Red-Green Coalition with the Socialist Left Party and the Centre Party. Since then, both the Conservative Party and the Progress Party have won a great number of seats in the Parliament, but, since the 2009 general election, not sufficient enough to overthrow the

coalition. This has been the result of poor co-operation between the opposition parties, including the Liberal Party and the Christian Democratic Party. As such, Jens Stoltenberg, the leader of the Labour Party, remains Prime Minister of Norway with the necessary majority attributed to the alliance with the Socialist Left and Centre parties. In national elections in September 2013, voters ended eight years of Labor rule. A coalition of the Conservative Party and the populist anti-immigration Progress Party was elected on promises of tax cuts, more spending on infrastructure and education, better services and stricter rules on immigration. The transition comes as Norway's economy is in good condition with low unemployment. Center-right leader Erna Solberg will form a new government after Labor Prime Minister Jens Stoltenberg admitted defeat. Solberg said her win was "a historic election victory for the right-wing parties".

ADMINISTRATIVE DIVISIONS Norway, a unitary state, is divided into nineteen first-level administrative counties (fylker). The counties are administrated through directly elected county assemblies who elect the County Governor. Additionally, the King and government are represented in every county by a fylkesmann, who effectively acts as a Governor. As such, the Government is directly represented at a local level through the County Governors' offices. The counties are then sub-divided into 430 second-level municipalities (kommuner), which in turn are administrated by directly elected municipal council, headed by a mayor and a small executive cabinet. The capital of Oslo is considered both a county and a municipality. Norway also has two integral overseas territories, Jan Mayen and Svalbard. There are three Antarctic and Subantarctic dependencies: Bouvet Island, Peter I Island and Queen Maud Land. In addition, there are 96 settlements with city status in Norway. In most cases, the city borders are coterminous with the borders of their respective municipalities. Often, Norwegian city municipalities include large areas that are not built up; for example, Oslo municipality contains large forests, located north and south-east of the city, and over half of Bergen municipality consists of mountainous areas.

A geopolitical map of Norway, showing the 19 fylker, the Svalbard (Spitsbergen) and Jan Mayen islands, which are part of the Norwegian kingdom The counties of Norway are:

County (fylke)

Administrative centre

Most populous municipality

stfold

Sarpsborg

Fredrikstad

Akershus

Oslo

Brum

Oslo

City of Oslo

Oslo

County (fylke)

Administrative centre

Most populous municipality

Hedmark

Hamar

Ringsaker

Oppland

Lillehammer

Gjvik

Buskerud

Drammen

Drammen

Vestfold

Tnsberg

Sandefjord

Telemark

Skien

Skien

Aust-Agder

Arendal

Arendal

Vest-Agder

Kristiansand

Kristiansand

Rogaland

Stavanger

Stavanger

Hordaland

Bergen

Bergen

Sogn og Fjordane Leikanger

Frde

Mre og Romsdal Molde

lesund

Sr-Trndelag

Trondheim

Trondheim

County (fylke)

Administrative centre

Most populous municipality

Nord-Trndelag

Steinkjer

Stjrdal

Nordland

Bod

Bod

Troms

Troms

Troms

Finnmark

Vads

Alta

ECONOMY

Graphical depiction of Norway's product exports in 28 colour-coded categories.

GDP and GDP growth Norwegians enjoy the second highest GDP per-capita (after Luxembourg) and fourth highest GDP (PPP) per-capita in the world. Today, Norway ranks as the second wealthiest country in the world in monetary value, with the largest capital reserve per capita of any nation. According to the CIA World Factbook, Norway is a net external creditor of debt. Norway maintained first place in the world in the UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) for six consecutive years (20012006), and then reclaimed this position in 2009 and 2010. The standard of living in Norway is among the highest in the world. Foreign Policy Magazine ranks Norway last in its Failed States Index for 2009, judging Norway to be the world's most well-functioning and stable country. Continued oil and gas exports coupled with a healthy economy and substantial accumulated wealth lead to a conclusion that Norway will remain among the richest countries in the world in the foreseeable future. The Norwegian economy is an example of a mixed economy, a prosperous capitalist welfare state featuring a combination of free market activity and large state ownership in certain key sectors. The Norwegian welfare state makes public health care free (above a certain level), and parents have 46 weeks paid parental leave. The income that the state receives from natural resources includes a significant contribution from petroleum production and the substantial and carefully managed income related to this sector. Norway has a very low unemployment rate, currently 2.6%. 30% of the labour force are employed by the government, the highest in the OECD. The hourly productivity levels, as well as average hourly wages in Norway are among the highest in the world. The egalitarian values of the Norwegian society ensure that the wage difference between the lowest paid worker and the CEO of most companies is much smaller than in comparable western economies. This is also evident in Norway's low Gini coefficient. The state has large ownership positions in key industrial sectors, such as the strategic petroleum sector (Statoil and Aker Solutions), hydroelectric energy production (Statkraft), aluminum production (Norsk Hydro), the largest Norwegian bank (DnB NOR), and telecommunication provider (Telenor). Through these big companies, the government controls approximately 30% of the stock values at the Oslo Stock Exchange. When non-listed companies are included, the

state has even higher share in ownership (mainly from direct oil license ownership). Norway is a major shipping nation and has the world's 6th largest merchant fleet, with 1,412 Norwegianowned merchant vessels.

Bryggen in Bergen is on the list of UNESCO World Heritage Sites Referendums in 1972 and 1994 indicated that the Norwegian people wished to remain outside the European Union (EU). However, Norway, together with Iceland and Liechtenstein, participates in the European Union's single market through the European Economic Area (EEA) agreement. The EEA Treaty between the European Union countries and the EFTA countries transposed into Norwegian law via "ES-loven" describes the procedures for implementing European Union rules in Norway and the other EFTA countries. This makes Norway a highly integrated member of most sectors of the EU internal market. However, some sectors, such as agriculture, oil and fish, are not wholly covered by the EEA Treaty. Norway has also acceded to the Schengen Agreement and several other intergovernmental agreements between the EU member states.

Agriculture is a significant sector, in spite of the mountainous landscape (Flakstad) The country is richly endowed with natural resources including petroleum, hydropower, fish, forests, andminerals. Large reserves of petroleum and natural gas were discovered in the 1960s, which led to a boom in the economy. Norway has obtained one of the highest standards of living

in the world in part by having a large amount of natural resources compared to the size of the population. In 2011, 28% of state revenues were generated from the petroleum industry.

RESOURCES Export revenues from oil and gas have risen to almost 50% of total exports and constitute more than 20% of the GDP. Norway is the fifth largest oil exporter and third largest gas exporter in the world, but it is not a member of OPEC. To reduce overheating in the economy from oil revenues and minimize uncertainty from volatility in oil price, and to provide a cushion for the effect of ageing of the population, the Norwegian government in 1995 established the sovereign wealth fund ("Government Pension Fund Global"), which would be funded with oil revenues, including taxes, dividends, sales revenues and licensing fees.

Oil production has been central to the Norwegian economy since the 1970s, with a dominating state ownership (Statfjord oil field) The government controls its petroleum resources through a combination of state ownership in major operators in the oil fields (with approximately 62% ownership in Statoil in 2007) and the fully state-owned Petoro, which has a market value of about twice Statoil, and SDFI. Finally, the government controls licensing of exploration and production of fields. The fund invests in developed financial markets outside Norway. The budgetary rule ("Handlingsregelen") is to spend no more than 4% of the fund each year (assumed to be the normal yield from the fund). In March 2011, the Government Pension Fund controlled assets were valued at approximately US$570 billion (equal to US$114,000 per capita) which is about 140% of Norway's current GDP. It is the second-largest state-owned sovereign wealth fund, second only to the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority; Conservative estimates tell that the fund may reach US$800 900 billion by 2017. Projections indicate that the Norwegian pension fund may become the largest capital fund in the world.[citation needed] The fund controls approximately 1.25% of all listed shares in Europe and more than 1% of all the publicly traded shares in the world.[citation needed] The Norwegian Central Bank operates investment offices in London, New York and Shanghai. Guidelines implemented in 2007 allow the fund to invest up to 60% of the capital in shares

(maximum of 40% prior), while the rest may be placed in bonds and real-estate. As the stock markets tumbled in September 2008, the fund was able to buy more shares at low prices. In this way, the losses incurred by the market turmoil were recuperated by November 2009.

Stockfish has been exported from Lofoten in Norway for at least 1,000 years Other natural resource-based economies, such as Russia, are trying to learn from Norway by establishing similar funds. The investment choices of the Norwegian fund are directed by ethical guidelines; for example, the fund is not allowed to invest in companies that produce parts for nuclear weapons. The highly transparent investment scheme is lauded by the international community. The future size of the fund is of course closely linked to the price of oil and to developments in international financial markets. The Norwegian trade surplus for 2008 reached approximately US$80 billion. With an enormous amount of cash invested in international financial markets, Norway has financial muscles to avert many of the worst effects of the financial crisis that hit most countries in the fall of 2008. As most western countries struggle with burgeoning foreign debt, Norway remains a nation of stowed-away wealth, financial stability and economic power to meet the challenges of the worldwide economic crisis. In spite of the crisis, Norway still runs a 9% state budget surplus, being the only western country to run a surplus in July 2009. In 2000, the government sold one-third of the state-owned oil company Statoil in an IPO. The next year, the main telecom supplier, Telenor, was listed on Oslo Stock Exchange. The state also owns significant shares of Norway's largest bank, DnB NOR and the airline SAS. Since 2000, economic growth has been rapid, pushing unemployment down to levels not seen since the early 1980s (unemployment in 2007: 1.3%). The international financial crisis has primarily affected the industrial sector, but unemployment has remained low and is at 3.3% (86 000 people) in August 2011. Norway is among the least affected countries of the international economic downturn. Neighboring Sweden is experiencing substantially higher actual and projected unemployment numbers as a result of the ongoing recession, and in the 1st quarter of 2009 the GNP of Norway surpassed Sweden's for the first time in history, despite a population numbering about half of Sweden's.

Norway is also the world's second largest exporter of fish (in value, after China) and the 6th largest arms exporter in the world. Hydroelectric plants generate roughly 9899% of Norway's electric power, more than any other country in the world.

OIL FIELDS Since 1966, 5085 oil wells have been drilled (as of 2013)mostly in the North Sea. 3672 are utviklingsbrnner (regular production). 1413 are letebrnner (drilling and surveillance), and 1405 of these have been terminated (avsluttet). Oil fields not in production phase Oil fields that have been discovered, without being put in a production phase include: Wisting Centralcalculated size in 2013, 65-156 million barrels oil and 10-40 billion cubicft, utvinnbar gas. And the Castberg Oil Field (Castberg-feltet)calculated size 540 millioner barrels oil, and 2-7 billion cubic meters utvinnbar gas. Both oil fields are located in the Barents Sea.

TRANSPORT Main articles: Transport in Norway, Rail transport in Norway, and List of airports in Norway Due to the low population density, narrow shape and long coastlines, public transport in Norway is less developed than in many European countries, especially outside the cities. As such, Norway has old water transport traditions, but the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications has in recent years implemented rail, road and air transport through numerous subsidiaries to develop the country's infrastructure. Most recently there has been discussion of the possibility of creating a new high-speed rail system between the nation's largest cities.

NSB type 73 at Oslo Central Station, the largest railway station in the country

Norway's main railway network consists of 4,114 kilometres (2,556 mi) of standard gauge lines, of which 242 kilometres (150 mi) is double track and 64 kilometres (40 mi) high-speed rail (210 km/h) while 62% is electrified at 15 kV 16 Hz AC. The railways transported 56,827,000 passengers 2,956 million passenger kilometres and 24,783,000 tonnes of cargo 3,414 million tonne kilometres. The entire network is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration, while all domestic passenger trains except the Airport Express Train are operated by Norges Statsbaner (NSB). Several companies operate freight trains. Investment in new infrastructure and maintenance is financed through the state budget, and subsidies are provided for passenger train operations. NSB operates long-haul trains, including night trains, regional services and four commuter train systems, around Oslo, Trondheim, Bergen and Stavanger. There are approximately 92,946 kilometres (57,754 mi) of road network in Norway, of which 72,033 kilometres (44,759 mi) are paved and 664 kilometres (413 mi) are motorway. There are four tiers of road routes; national, county, municipal and private, with only the national roads numbered en route. The most important national routes are part of the European route scheme, and the two most prominent are the E6 going north-south through the entire country, while E39 follows the West Coast. National and county roads are managed by the Norwegian Public Roads Administration. Of the 97 airports in Norway, 52 are public, and 46 are operated by the state-owned avinor. Seven airports have more than one million passengers annually. 41,089,675 passengers passed through Norwegian airports in 2007, of which 13,397,458 were international. The central gateway by air to Norway is Oslo Airport, Gardermoen, located about 50 kilometres (31 mi) north of Oslo with departures to most European countries and some intercontinental destinations. It is hub for the two major Norwegian airlines Scandinavian Airlines System and Norwegian Air Shuttle, and for regional aircraft from Western Norway.
Historical population
Year 1500 1665 1735 1801 Pop. 140,000 440,000 616,109 883,603 % +214.3% +40.0% +43.4%

1855 1900 1950 2000 2010 2013 2060?

1,490,047 2,240,032 3,278,546 4,478,497 4,858,199 5,063,709 7,032,687

+68.6% +50.3% +46.4% +36.6% +8.5% +4.2% +38.9%

Source: Statistics Norway.[115][116]

EDUCATION The main building of the Norwegian University of Science and Technology inTrondheim Higher education in Norway is offered by a range of seven universities, five specialised colleges, 25 university colleges as well as a range of private colleges. Education follows the Bologna Process involving Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years) and PhD (3 years) degrees. Acceptance is offered after finishing upper secondary school with general study competence. Public education is virtually free, regardless of nationality, with an academic year with two semesters, from August to December and from January to June. The ultimate responsibility for the education lies with the Norwegian Ministry of Education and Research. LANGUAGES Distribution of Norwegian dialect groups: North Norwegian (yellow), Trndelag Norwegian (navy blue), West Norwegian (orange) and East Norwegian (pale blue). The North Germanic Norwegian language has two official written forms, Bokml and Nynorsk. Both of them are recognized as official languages, in that they are both used in public administration, in schools, churches, and media, and Bokml is the written language used by the vast majority of about 8085%. Around 95% of the population speaks Norwegian as their native language, although many speak dialects that may differ significantly from the written language. All Norwegian dialects are inter-intelligible, although listeners with very limited exposure to

dialects other than their own may struggle to understand certain phrases and pronunciations in some other dialects. Several Uralic Sami languages are spoken and written throughout the country, especially in the north, by some members of the Sami people (estimates suggest about one third of Norwegian Sami speak a Sami language). Speakers have a right to get education in Sami language no matter where they are living and to receive communication from the government in various Sami languages. The Kven minority historically spoke the Uralic Kven language (considered a separate language in Norway, but generally perceived as a Finnish dialect in Finland), but the majority of Kvens today have little or no knowledge of the language. According to the Kainun institutti "The typical modern Kven is a Norwegian-speaking Norwegian who knows his genealogy".[153] There is advocacy for making Norwegian Sign Language an official Norwegian language. In the 19th and 20th century, Norwegian language was subject to strong political and cultural controversy, which led to the creation of Nynorsk in the 19th century and to the formation of alternative spelling standards in the 20th century, notably the Riksml standard, which is more conservative (that is, more similar to Danish) than Bokml. Norwegian is similar to the other languages in Scandinavia, Swedish and Danish. All three languages are mutually intelligible and can be, and commonly are, employed in communication between inhabitants of the Scandinavian countries. As a result of the co-operation within the Nordic Council, inhabitants of all Nordic countries, including Iceland and Finland, have the right to communicate with the Norwegian authorities in their own language. Any Norwegian student who is a child of immigrant parents is encouraged to learn the Norwegian language. The Norwegian government offers language instructional courses for immigrants wishing to obtain Norwegian citizenship. From 1 September 2008, an applicant for Norwegian citizenship must also give evidence of proficiency in either the Norwegian or Sami language or give proof of having attended classes in Norwegian for 300 hours, or meet the language requirements for university studies in Norway (which is met by being proficient in one of the Scandinavian languages). The main foreign language taught in Norwegian elementary school is English. The majority of the population are fluent in English, especially those born after World War II. German, French and Spanish are also commonly taught as a second or, more often, third language. Russian, Japanese, Italian,Latin, and rarely Chinese (Mandarin) are available in some schools, mostly in the cities. Traditionally, English, German and French were considered the main foreign languages in Norway. These languages, for instance, had been used on Norwegian passports until the 1990s, and university students have a general right to use these languages when submitting their theses.

CULTURE Traditional Norwegian farmer's costumes, known as folkedrakt, and modern costumes inspired by those costumes, known as bunad, are widely used on special occasions. The Norwegian farm culture continues to play a role in contemporary Norwegian culture. In the 18th century, it brought about a strong romantic nationalistic movement, which is still visible in the Norwegian language and media. In the 19th century, Norwegian culture blossomed as efforts continued to achieve an independent identity in the areas of literature, art and music. This continues today in the performing arts and as a result of government support for exhibitions, cultural projects and artwork. Norway has been, in many regards, an early adopter of women's rights, minority rights, and LGBT rights. As early as 1884, 171 of the leading personalities of the day, among them five Prime Ministers for the Liberal Party and the Conservative Party, co-founded the Norwegian Association for Women's Rights, and they successfully campaigned for women's right to education, women's suffrage, the right to work and other gender equality policies. From the 1970s, gender equality also came high on the state agenda with the establishment of a public body to promote gender equality. In 1990 Norway was the first country to recognize the ILO-convention 169 on indigenous people. In regard to LGBT rights, Norway was the first country in the world to enact an antidiscrimination law protecting the rights of gays and lesbians. In 1993 Norway became the second country to legalize civil union partnerships for same-sex couples, and on 1 January 2009 Norway became the sixth country to grant full marriage equality to same-sex couples. Only in 1990 was the Norwegian constitution altered to grant absolute primogeniture to the Norwegian throne, meaning that the eldest child, regardless of gender, takes precedence in the line of succession. This was not done retroactively, meaning that even now the current successor to the throne is not the eldest child to the King, but the eldest son. The Norwegian constitution Article 6 states that "For those born before the year 1990 it shall...be the case that a male shall take precedence over a female." An ardent promoter of human rights, Norway is home to the annual Oslo Freedom Forum conference, a gathering described by The Economist as "on its way to becoming a human-rights equivalent of the Davos economic forum." Separation of church and state happened significantly later in Norway than in most of Europe and is not yet complete. It was recently furthered in 2012 when the Norwegian parliament voted to grant the Church of Norway greater autonomy, a decision which was confirmed in a constitutional amendment on 21 May 2012. Until 2012 parliamentary officials were required to be members of the Lutheran Church and at least half of all ministers had to be a member of the Christian State Church. Nevertheless, the Church of Norway remains the state's church and even

after the changes all clergy remain state employees and the central and regional church administrations remain a part of the state administration. The members of the Royal family also must remain members of the Lutheran church.

PEST ANALYSIS OF USA

INTRODUCTION The American Revolution and the war for independence from Britain began with a small fight between British troops and colonists on April 19,1775. The British troops left Boston, Massachusetts, planning to take weapons and ammunition from revolutionary colonists. At Lexington, they met armed colonists who were called Minutemen because they could be ready to fight in a minute. The Minutemen planned to protest silently and not shoot unless the British shot first .The British ordered the Minutemen to leave. The colonists obeyed, but as they left, someone fired a shot. The British troops attacked the Minutemen with guns and bayonets. The Declaration of Independence told the world of a new nation and its beliefs about human freedom. It argued that political rights are basic human rights and are universal. The Second Continental Congress accepted this document on July 4, 1776. The Fourth of July became Independence Day in the United States

Flag History
On January 1, 1776, the Continental Army was reorganized in accordance with a Congressional resolution which placed American forces under George Washington's control. On that New Year's Day the Continental Army was laying siege to Boston which had been taken over by the British Army. Washington ordered the Grand Union flag hoisted above his base at Prospect Hill. It had 13 alternate red and white stripes and the British Union Jack in the upper left-hand corner (the canton). Today the flag consists of thirteen horizontal stripes, seven red alternating with 6 white. The stripes represent the original 13 colonies, the stars represent the 50 states of the Union. The colours of the flag are symbolic as well: Red symbolizes Hardiness and Valour, White symbolizes Purity and Innocence and Blue represents Vigilance, Perseverance and Justice

Political
1. The United States is a federal constitutional republic, in which the President of the United States is the head of state and head of the government, Congress and judiciary share powers reserved to the national government, and the federal government shares sovereignty with the state government.

2. There are major differences between the political system of the United States and that of most other developed democracies. These include greater power in the upper house of the legislature, a wider scope of power held by the Supreme Court ,the separation of powers between the legislature and the executive, and the dominance of only two main parties. Third parties have less political influence in the United States than in other developed country democracies 1 .Democratic Party 2. Republican Party 3. Constitution Party 4. Green Party 5. Libertarian Party 6.Independent party 7.Socialist party

Campaign finance Fundraising plays a large role in getting a candidate elected to public office. Without large sums money, a candidate has no chance of achieving his goal.

 Democrats depended on donations from organized labour while the Republicans relied on business donations

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS GDP (purchasing power parity): $15.04 trillion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 2 $14.82 trillion (2010 est.)

$14.38 trillion (2009 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 1.5% (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 171 3% (2010 est.)

-3.5% (2009 est.) GDP - per capita (PPP): $48,100 (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 11 $47,800 (2010 est.) $46,800 (2009 est.) note: data are in 2011 US dollars GDP - composition by sector : agriculture: 1.2% industry: 22.1% services: 76.7% (2011 est.) Labour force :

 153.4 million country comparison to the world: 4 note: includes unemployed (2011 est. Labour force by occupation: farming, forestry, and fishing: 0.7% manufacturing, extraction, transportation, and crafts: 20.3% managerial, professional, and technical: 37.3% sales and office: 24.2% other services: 17.6% Unemployment rate: 9.1% (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 104 9.6% (2010 est.) current account balance : -$599.9 billion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 198 $470.9 billion (2010 est.) Exports: $1.511 trillion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 4 $1.289 trillion (2010 est.) Unemployment rate: 9.1% (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 104 9.6% (2010 est.) current account balance :

 -$599.9 billion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 198 $470.9 billion (2010 est.) Exports: $1.511 trillion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 4 $1.289 trillion (2010 est.)

Exports partners: Canada 19.4%, Mexico 12.8%, China 7.2%, Japan 4.7% (2010) Imports: $2.314 trillion (2011 est.) country comparison to the world: 1 $1.935 trillion (2010 est.) Imports - partners China 19.5%, Canada 14.2%, Mexico 11.8%, Japan 6.3%, Germany 4.3% (2010) Debt external : $14.71 trillion (30 June 2011) country comparison to the world: 2 $13.98 trillion (30 June 2010) MAIN SECTORS OF THE ECONOMY 1.REATLING 2.ENERGY 3.AGRICULTURE 4.MANUFACTURING

 5.FINANCE RETAIL SECTOR The retail industry is the second largest industry in the U.S. (responsible for approximately 12% of all US employment) with over $3.8 trillion in sales annually ($4.2 trillion if food sales are included). Although the vast majority of all retail stores in the U.S. (approximately 90%) are single-store businesses, however these single-store businesses account for substantially less than half of all retail sales. Thus the majority of the revenue in the retail industry is generated by companies that run retail "chains". The biggest retailer in the world is Wal-Mart which generated over $344 billion in revenue in its last fiscal year.

FINANCE SECTOR The New York Stock Exchange is more than three times larger than any other stock exchange in the world. As of October 2008, the combined capitalization of all domestic NYSE listed companies was US$10.1 trillion. New York City is the financial capital of the world alongside London. NASDAQ is another American stock exchange and the world's 3rd largest exchange after the New York Stock Exchange and Japan's Tokyo Stock Exchange. However NASDAQ's trade value is larger than Japan's TSE. NASDAQ is the largest electronic screen-based equity securities trading market in the USA. With approximately 3,800 companies corporations, it has more trading volume per hour than any other stock exchange CHALLENGES IN FINANCE SECTOR It's hard to know just how big the financial sector is because financial companies have created many trillions dollars worth of various securities and derivatives of securities. Morgan Stanley Investment Bank for example has $77 trillion in derivatives. Which is more than five times the official US GDP And Morgan Stanley is just one investment bank. Other banks also have many trillions of dollars worth of derivatives. The financial sector cannot be more than 100% of the US economy. But apparently their

losses can be many times more than the US GDP. They have created an almost unlimited amount of debt and financial obligations. Which must be honoured and repaid. Or else the whole financial sector will go bankrupt. SOCIAL ANALYSIS Demographics of the United States Includes Race/Ethnicity (2011) White 72.4% Black/African American 12.6% Asian 4.8% American Indian and Alaska Native 0.9% Pacific Islander 0.2% Other 6.2% Two or more races2.9% Hispanic/Latino (of any race) 16.3% 80% of the population aged five years and older spoke only English at home. Spanish, spoken by 12% of the population at home, is the second most common language and the most widely taught second language RELIGION 1.CHRISTIAN-78.2% 2.MUSLIM-0.6% 3.HINDU-0.4% 4.BUDDHISM-0.7% 5.JUDASIM-2% 6.NO RELIGION-16.2%

TECHNOLOGY ANALYSIS
AGRICULTURE

 R &D BROADBAND INTERNET ACCESS TEXTILE NUCLEAR WEAPONS IFRASTRUCTURE SPACE & RESEARCH TECHNOLOGY

PESTEL ANALYSIS OF GERMANY

INTRODUCTION Its very important that an organization considers its environment before beginning its production, financial or marketing process. In fact, PESTAL analysis could be and needs to be continuous function and feed all aspects of planning. The environment is made up from: The internal environment e.g. staff (or internal customers), office technology, wages and finance, etc. The micro-environment e.g. our external customers, agents and distributors, suppliers, our competitors, etc. The macro-environment e.g. Political (and legal) forces, Economic forces, Socio cultural forces, and Technological forces. These are known as PESTEL factors. Germany, officially is the Federal Republic of Germany. The country consists of 16 states while the capital and largest city is Berlin. Germany covers an area of 357,021 sq km and has a largely seasonal climate. With 81.8 million inhabitants, it is the most populous member state and the largest economy in the European Union. It is one of the major political powers of the European continent and a technological leader in many fields. Germany was a founding member of the European Community in 1957, which became the EU in 1993. It is part of the Schengen Area and since 1999 a member of the euro zone. Germany is a member of the United Nations, NATO, the G8, the G20, the OECD and the Council of Europe, and took a non-permanent seat on the UN Security Council for the 20112012 term. It has the worlds fourth largest economy by nominal GDP and the fifth largest by purchasing power parity. It is the second largest exporter and third largest importer of goods. The country has developed a very high standard of living and a comprehensive system of social security. Germany has been the home of many influential scientists and inventors, and is known for its cultural and political history.

POLITICAL FACTORS Germany is a democratic republic. The German political system operates under a framework laid out in the 1949 constitutional document known as the Grundgesetz. Since 1949, the party system has been dominated by the Christian Democratic Union and the Social Democratic Party of Germany with all chancellors hitherto being member of either party The Government of Germany consists of three significant wings, the legislature, the executive and the judiciary represented by the Federal Parliament, the Federal Government and the Federal Constitutional Court, respectively. The President is the formal executive head of the State elected for a term of five years. He appoints the Federal Chancellor (Prime Minister) and his Cabinet. The Chancellor is the real head of the Government elected by a majority vote of the Bundestag. He is responsible for the implementation of the government policy. He can be removed from office only by an absolute majority of the Bundestag coupled with an assured majority for the election of another

candidate

to

the

post.

The Constitution of The Federal Republic of Germany is derived from the Basic Law which came into effect on May 23, 1949 after the consent of the USA, the UK and France to establish the Federal Republic . It lays down the fundamental structure of the government and the value system it should follow. It clearly defines the principles according to which the government is expected to function. Apart from other important details, it describes the process and pattern of election to the supreme legislative organ, the Bundestag. It is the source of authority and the basic guiding philosophy to all those who take upon the reigns of government. It is also a stamp of justification of the freedom and rights of the German citizens.

ECONOMIC FACTORS Germany is relatively poor in raw materials. Only lignite and potash salt are available in economically significant quantities. Power plants burning lignite are one of the main sources of electricity in Germany. Oil, natural gas and other resources are, for the most part, imported from other countries. Germany imports about two thirds of its energy. The service sector contributes around 70% of the total GDP, industry 29.1%, and agriculture 0.9%. Most of the countrys products are in engineering, especially in automobiles, machinery, metals, and chemical goods. Germany is the leading producer of wind turbines and solar power technology in the world. The

largest annual international trade fairs and congresses are held in several German cities such as Hanover, Frankfurt, and Berlin.

Of the worlds 500 largest stock market listed companies measured by revenue, the Fortune Global 500, 37 are headquartered in Germany. In 2010 the ten largest were Volkswagen, Allianz, E.ON, Daimler, Siemens, Metro, Deutsche Telekom, Munich Re, BASF, and BMW. Other large German companies include: Robert Bosch, ThyssenKrupp, and MAN (diversified industrials); Bayer and Merck (pharmaceuticals); Adidas and Puma (clothing and footwear); Commerz bank and Deutsche Bank (banking and finance); Aldi, Lidl and Edeka (retail); SAP (computer software); Infineon (semiconductors); Henkel (household and personal consumer products); Deutsche Post (logistics); and Hugo Boss (luxury goods). Well known global brands are Mercedes Benz, BMW, Adidas, Audi, Porsche, Volkswagen, DHL, T-Mobile, Lufthansa, SAP, and Nivea. Between 1991 and 2010, 40 mergers & 301 acquisitions with an involvement of German firms with a total known value of 2,422 bil. EUR have been announced. The largest transactions since 1991 are: the acquisition of Mannesmann by Vodafone for 204.8 bil. EUR in 1999, the merger of Daimler-Benz with Chrysler to form DaimlerChrysler in 1998 valued at 36.3 bil. EUR, Deutsche Telekom acquired Voice Stream Wireless Corp for 30.8 bil. EUR in 2000, the sale of T- Mobile USA Inc by Deutsche Telekom to AT&T Inc for 27.6 bil. EUR in 2011.

SOCIO CULTURAL FACTORS Germany has about 82 million inhabitants. It is by far the largest country in the EU in terms of population. Germany is a modern, cosmopolitan country. Its society is shaped by a plurality of life styles and truly different ethno- cultural diversity. Forms of coexistence have become more varied. Traditional gender roles have been dispensed with. Despite the social changes, the family remains the most important social reference unit and young people have very close bonds with their parents

Architecture: The varied styles, the precursors of Romanesque contributed to thearchitectural styles of Germany. The diverse architectural styles of the country is aresult of fragmentation of the country during centuries. Abbey Church of St. Michaels, Speyer Cathedral and the Cologne

Cathedral are the major architectural sites that are the prototype of German architecture.

Music: One of the leading music markets in the world, Germany is home to some of the most well-known classical music composers, including Ludwig van Beethoven, Johann Sebastian Bach, Johannes Brahms, and Richard Wagner. Literature: German literature is world-famous and dates back to the Middle Ages. Johann Wolfgang von Goetheand Friedrich Schiller, Thomas Mann, Bertolt Brecht, and Hermann Hesse are some of the most renowned German authors. Germany hosts the Frankfurt Book Fair annually; it is the biggest book fair in the world.Sports: Germany has been represented in various international sporting events including Formula One, FIFA World Cup, Summer Olympics, ice hockey, and tennis tournaments. One of the leading motor sports countries in the world, Germany is known for the manufacture of motor brands such as BMW and Mercedes. German Art: Germany has produced some of the best pieces of art work and has a long tradition in visual arts. Hans Holbein the Younger, and Matthias Grunewald were the major Renaissance artists. Print making, wooden gravings and Gothic art of the sixteenth century are some of the major German innovations.

TECHNOLOGICAL FACTORS Germany supports national science and technology at many levels. There are independent laboratories, comprised of both the national laboratories and private research. In addition, German industry supports many important types of research and development, and the German states, provide still more resources for scientific research. The Ministry for Science and Technology, an organization coordinates and sets priorities for the entire national science and technology program for Germany. Finally, Germanys participation in the European Union also has a significant science and technology componentGermany provides funding, scientists, and laboratories for broad European research and development. Germany has numerous universities and colleges offering courses in basic and applied sciences. The Natural History Museum in Berlin has geological,, mineralogical, zoological, and botanical components. The country has numerous specialized learned societies concerned with agriculture and veterinary science, medicine, the natural sciences, and technology. Germanys greatest strength is its automobile industry. In the years to come, many emerging technologies, from optical communication links to nanotech mate-rials, will find their way into cars. Technological innovation will be critical to creating the opportunities that will lead German carmakers and their suppliers out of their current trouble. In particular, German carmakers are betting on computer-based assistance systems that could make driving safer and more comfortable. Example: BMW is working on wireless networks for cars that will automatically set up connections among vehicles in order to exchange critical sensor information; a car that detects a slippery stretch of pavement, for instance, could relay that information to other cars on the same road. The goal is to create networks of intercommunicating cars that could someday form a sort of automotive Internet. Researchers at the University of Stuttgart, in collaboration with other German carmakers, are also designing and testing systems to assist drivers at intersections. Such systems might combine information from traffic lights or signs with onboard-sensor data about other vehicles and their speed or distance in order to get the drivers safely across. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS Changes in the atmosphere and climate system are among the greatest environmental and political challenges of the21st century. Climate change, which has largely been caused by human activity, is the global challenge. In the international arena, Germany is a forerunner in climate and energy policies and seeks to achieve ambitious mission-reduction goals. With the 2011 decision to optout of nuclear energy and to decommission the last nuclear power station by 2022 at the latest, Germany is sending out a signal that has been respected throughout the world. As a well-developed industrialized nation with a high population density, Germany finds itself particularly dependent on natural resources. Understanding these resources are limited and the impact the continual drain extracting those resources has on the environment, Germany continues to take steps to ensure that not only are those resources available for meeting their everyday needs, but that the countrys needs are met without leaving any long-term negative impact on the environment. Today, Germany has reached a high level of environmental protection. According to an Environmental Performance Review Programme of Germany performed a few years ago, Germany held a top position in environmental protection worldwide.

PEST ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA

POLITICAL ANAYSIS OF AUSTRALIA Australias liberal democracy is built around a constitutional monarchy and the British Westminster system, but with the American federal structure grafted onto it. Australia is a federal system, one in which the Constitution divides power between the national, or federal, government and the States. As a result, the political and financial relationship between the States and the Federal Government is an ongoing concern.

POLITICAL PARTIES A political party is generally recognised as an organisation of like-minded people which aims to develop policies and endorse candidates to contest elections with a view to forming government. Australias party system is dominated by two major groups, the Australian Labor Party and the coalition parties, the Libera Party of australia and The Nationals. Since 1922, Australian Federal Governments have been formed either by Labor or the Coalition.

ECONOMICAL ANAYSIS OF AUSTRALIA AGRICULTURAL ASPECT:

Australian agricultural production helps provide food and clothing for a nation of over 20 million people. In addition, Australia exports around 65% of its agricultural production. Australian agriculture contributes around 3% to GDP and accounts for about 65% of water use and almost 60% of Australias land area. Industry structure and performance Australias GDP in 200506 reached $922 billion, an increase of 2.8% on the previous year. The GDP per person was more than $44,000. A total of 10 million Australians are employed in industry. The greatest number worked in the retail industry (1.5 million), followed by property and business services (1.2 million) and manufacturing (1.1 million). Mining activity accounts for around 8% of Australia's gross domestic product and has contributed over $500b directly to Australia's wealth during the past 20 years. There are around 320,000 Australians employed in the industry, either directly or indirectly in support industries.

ECONOMICAL ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA Tourism International visitors consumed $21 billion in goods and services produced by the Australian economy in 200506. This represents 11% of Australias exports of goods and services. The top destinations for Australians travelling overseas for short periods during 2006 were New Zealand, the United States of America, the UK, Thailand and China. Between 2005 and 2006, short-term departures to Thailand increased 42%, while departures for Indonesia fell by 39%. National accounts Australias net worth continues to grow strongly, up 9.2% to more than $5,330 billion at 30 June 2006. International accounts and trade Import wasmore goods than we export in 200607, producing a $12.6 billion deficit. However, the value of exports grew faster than that of imports, so the deficit was lower than in the previous year ($15 billion). (Page 718) Imports of cars increased by 10% or $1.2 billion in 200607, and goods vehicles by 21% ($900 million). SOCIAL ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA Location: Oceania, continent between the Indian Ocean and the South Pacific Ocean Capital: Canberra Climate: generally arid to semiarid; temperate in south and east; tropical in north Population: 19,913,144 Religions: Anglican 26.1%, Roman Catholic 26%, other Christian 24.3%, non-Christian 11%, other 12.6% Languages in Australia:English is the primary language used in Australia.

Social analysis of Australia

A Multi-Cultural Society :

The initial population of Australia was made up of Aborigines and people of British and Irish descent. After World War II there was heavy migration from Europe, especially from Greece, Italy, Germany, the Netherlands, Yugoslavia, Lebanon, and Turkey. This was in response to the Australian policy of proactively trying to attract immigrants to boost the population and work force. In the last thirty years, Australia has liberalised its immigration policy and opened its borders to South East Asia. This has caused a real shift in self-perception as Aussies begin to re-define themselves as a multi-cultural and multi-faith society rather then the old homogenous,

TECHNOLOGICAL ANALYSIS OF AUSTRALIA Information and communication technology Household access to the Internet has grown from 1.1 million households in 1998 to 4.7 million in 2005 06. There were 6.7 million active Internet subscribers in Australia in September 2006, with more than 1.1 million using connections with speeds of 1.5 megabits per second (Mbps) or greater. Research and innovation Expenditure on research and development (R&D) in Australia reached more than $15.7 billion in 2004 05, up more than 19% on the figure two years previously. Australian business accounted for the highest expenditure on R&D (54%), followed by higher education (27%).

PEST ANALYSIS OF CANADA

CANADA SUBCONTINENT: POLITICAL: In Canada, there are 3 levels of government. Each level of government has different responsibilities. Federal government (the Government of Canada) - Responsible for things that affect the whole country, such as citizenship and immigration, national defence and trade with other countries. Provincial and territorial governments (for example, the Province of Ontario) Responsible for such things as education, health care and highways. Municipal (local) governments (cities, towns, and villages in Ontario) - Responsible for firefighting, city streets and other local matters. If there is no local government, the province provides services. Federal Government At the federal level, there are 3 parts of government: Elizabeth II, Queen of Canada, is Canada's formal head of state. The Governor General represents the Queen in Canada and carries out the duties of head of state. The House of Commons makes Canada's laws. Canadians elect representatives to the House of Commons. These representatives are called Members of Parliament (MPs) and usually belong to a political party. The political party that has the largest number of MPs forms the government, and its leader becomes prime minister. The prime minister is the head of government in Canada. The Prime Minister chooses MPs to serve as ministers in the cabinet. There are ministers for citizenship and immigration, justice and other subjects. The cabinet makes important decisions about government policy. The Senate reviews laws that are proposed by the House of Commons. Senators come from across Canada. The prime minister chooses the senators. You can read the Guide to the Canadian House of Commons for more information. Provincial Government At the provincial level:

The Lieutenant Governor represents the Queen.

The Legislative Assembly makes law. In Ontario, elected representatives are called Members of Provincial Parliament (MPPs). The political party that has the largest number of MPPs forms the government, and its leader becomes premier. The premier is the head of government in Ontario. The premier leads the government and chooses MPPs to serve as ministers in the cabinet. The cabinet sets government policy and introduces laws for the Legislative Assembly to consider. Visit Civics 101 for more information about how the provincial government works. Watch videos and interviews with politicians, ask an MPP your questions, use a budget simulator and more. Municipal (Local) Government At the municipal level: The Province of Ontario defines the structure, finances, and management of the local governments of cities, towns and villages. Residents of the municipality elect the mayor and council members to lead the local government. Committees of councillors discuss budget, service and administrative issues that are then passed on to the council for debate. Citizens, business owners and community groups can present their concerns to councillors at committee meetings. Municipalities may also be part of a larger county or regional government (for example, York Region). For More Information Service Ontario Centres - Provides a wide range of general government information and application forms about all provincial ministries at one location. The website contains an alphabetical contact list of all Service Ontario Centres in the province. Statutes and Regulations of Ontario - This site provides a basic level of public access to Ontario legislation. Municipalities of Ontario - A list of links to official Web sites of Ontario municipalities.

Service Canada Provides a wide range of Government of Canada programs and services through their service locations, by telephone and online. ECONOMY:

The foundations of economic freedom in Canada remain strong and well-supported by solid protection of property rights and an independent judiciary that enforces anti-corruption measures effectively. While many large advanced economies have been struggling with the heavy burden of government and fiscal constraints that result from years of unrestrained public spending, Canadas public finance management has been comparatively prudent, with efforts to downsize government made on a continuing basis. Canadas economy has been resilient, benefiting from a strong commitment to open-market policies that facilitate global trade and investment flows. Efficient regulations are applied evenly in most cases, encouraging dynamic entrepreneurial activity in the private sector. Steady reduction of the standard corporate tax rate has also contributed to global competitiveness. Prime Minister Stephen Harper won a second term in the 2011 parliamentary elections, and his Conservative Party secured a solid majority. The opposition New Democratic Party also picked up seats, particularly in the province of Quebec. Canadas federal democratic system provides substantial autonomy to its 13 provinces and territories. Tensions between Anglo and French Canadians have softened in recent years, but cultural protectionism in international and domestic trade is an ongoing threat. Canada is a party to the North American Free Trade Agreement and a major exporter of oil, minerals, automobiles, manufactured goods, and forest products. The proposed expansion of the TransCanada Keystone pipeline system to increase oil exports from Alberta to the United States has been delayed by the Obama Administration. Canadas foundations of economic freedom are solid. Private property is well protected, with an independent and transparent judicial system firmly in place. Enforcement of contracts is very secure, and expropriation is highly unusual. Protection of intellectual property rights is consistent with world standards. Effective anti-corruption measures discourage bribery of public officials and uphold the governments reputation for integrity. The top federal income tax rate remains 29 percent, and the top corporate tax rate has been cut to 15 percent. Other taxes include a value-added tax (VAT) and a property tax. The overall tax burden amounts to 31 percent of total domestic income. Government spending is equivalent to 42.9 percent of total domestic output, with deficits recorded in recent years. Public debt has risen gradually to almost 90 percent of GDP. The trade regime is very competitive, with a low 0.9 percent average tariff and few non-tariff barriers. The countrys openness and flexibility strongly sustain the efficient and dynamic investment environment. The prudent banking sector remains stable, weathering the ongoing global financial turmoil with no need for bailouts or large injections of state funds. The big six domestic banks dominate the sector. LEGAL:

The Manitoba Hydro-Electric Board (the Corporation) proposes to borrow or raise money from time to time for temporary purposes under the authority of Section 30 of The Manitoba Hydro Act (the Act) by way of the issue and sale of short term promissory notes guaranteed as to principal and interest, if any (the Guarantee) by the Government of Manitoba (the Notes), the Notes to be issued in principal amounts of not less than $100,000.00 or multiples thereof to a maximum of $500,000,000 and to be issued and sold in Canada for terms not to exceed one year from the respective dates of issue thereof and/or to be issued and sold in the United States for terms not to exceed nine months from the respective dates of issue thereof. Based upon, subject to and relying on the foregoing, we are of the opinion that: 1. The Corporation is a duly constituted and existing Corporation under the laws of the Province of Manitoba and is an agent of the Crown in right of the Province of Manitoba; 2. The Corporation has the legal capacity and authority to issue, from time to time, the Notes, not to exceed, in the aggregate, the principal amount outstanding at any one time of $500,000,000 in Canadian or U.S. funds and/or in any other currency of any country not exceeding, in the aggregate, an amount of principal outstanding at any time equivalent to $500,000,000 in Canadian funds as calculated in the manner prescribed in Section 35 of the Act, and all necessary actions have been duly taken by the Corporation and all necessary authorizations and approvals under the laws of the Province of Manitoba have been duly obtained for the authorization, execution, issuance, sale and delivery of the Notes; 3. Each of the Notes, when issued in either of the two forms set forth in the Corporations Information Memorandum and when signed manually or by facsimile signature by the Chairman and the Secretary of the Corporation, as authorized for that purpose by Resolution of the Board of the Corporation, and when manually countersigned by an officer appointed by the Corporation for that purpose, (the President and Chief Executive Officer, Vice-President, Finance and Chief Financial Officer, Treasurer or Treasury Officer of the Corporation, or any person duly appointed for that purpose by a chartered bank or trust company authorized by the Corporation to act as an agent of the Corporation for the purposes of issuing and paying the Notes, and each of them, being an authorized signing officer for that purpose) and when delivered by or on behalf of the Corporation for value, will constitute a legal, valid and binding obligation of the Corporation, and when bearing the Guarantee by the Government of Manitoba (the Government) of the payment of the principal thereof and the interest thereon, if any, signed by the Minister of Finance of the Province of Manitoba as provided in Order of the Lieutenant Governor in Council No. 815/1992, will constitute a legal, valid and binding obligation of the Government. The giving of the Guarantee endorsed on each of the Notes has been duly authorized under the laws of the Province of Manitoba and the Order of the Lieutenant Governor in Council of the Province applicable thereto; 4. No filing or registration is necessary in order for the Corporation to offer, sell and distribute the Notes to the public in any of the Provinces or Territories of Canada, except that in the Province of Quebec, any disclosure document must be filed without delay with the Quebec Securities Commission; 5. In the Province of British Columbia, if the recipient of the Notes is an individual, the Notes must have, at the date of sale, a credit rating equal to or higher than P-1 from

Moodys Investors Service, Inc., A-1 from Standard & Poors Corporation, A-1 (low) from Canadian Bond Rating Services Inc., or R-1-L from Dominion Bond Rating Services Limited; 6. As at the date hereof, the Notes are eligible investments in which, subject to general investment provisions, conditions and restrictions pertaining generally to purchasers or to a specific purchaser: a. the provisions of the Insurance Companies Act (Canada) and the Regulations thereunder would not, subject to compliance with the prudent investment standards and the investment policies, standards and procedures contemplated by such Act, preclude funds of an insurance company governed by such Act from being invested; b. the provisions of the Trust and Loan Companies Act (Canada) and the Regulations thereunder would not, subject to compliance with the prudent investment standards and the investment standards, policies and procedures contemplated by such Act, preclude funds of a company, as defined in and governed by such Act, from being invested; c. by virtue of Section 9(3)(d) of Schedule III to the Regulations enacted pursuant to the Pension Benefit Standards Act, 1985 (Canada), the funds of a pension plan whose investment powers are determined by Schedule III of the said Regulations may be invested; d. the provisions of the Loan and Trust Corporations Act (Ontario) and the Regulation thereunder would not, subject to compliance with the prudent investment standards of the Act, preclude the funds received as deposits by registered corporations (as defined in that Act) from being invested; e. by virtue of Section 433(1)(a) and Section 434 of the Insurance Act (Ontario), an insurer incorporated or organized under the laws of Ontario may, under such Act, and without resorting to the provisions of Section 433(4) thereof, invest its funds; and f. the provisions of the Pension Benefits Act (Ontario) and the Regulation there under would not preclude the funds of a pension plan regulated there under from being invested, provided that: i. if the plan administrator is investing the assets of the plan in accordance with such Regulation as it read on December 30, 1999, the Notes are within a category or sub-category of investment that is specifically permitted by, and for which guidelines are established in, the statement of investment policies and goals for such plan filed under that Act, and provided further that such investment is in compliance with the prudent investment standards of that Act; or ii. if the plan administrator is investing the assets of the plan in accordance with sections 6, 7, 7.1, and 7.2 and Schedule III to the Regulation under the Pension Benefits Standards Act, 1985 (Canada) as it read on December 31, 1999, as incorporated by reference into the Regulation under the Pension Benefits Act (Ontario), the investment by such plan in the Notes adheres to the investment criteria established there under, and provided further that such investment is in compliance with the prudent investment standards of the Pension Benefits Act (Ontario);

7. There are no withholding taxes payable under the laws of Canada or of the Province of Manitoba in respect of the Notes or the interest thereon, if any, by owners who are nonresidents of Canada; there are not other income taxes or capital gains taxes payable under the laws of Canada or of the Province of Manitoba in respect of the Notes or the interest thereon, if any, by owners who are non-residents of Canada who do not use or hold the Notes in carrying on business in Canada.

SOCIAL: At our Community and University Research Alliance (CURA) Team meetings in Winnipeg on January 6 and 7, 2009, questions arose and discussion followed around the meaning of concepts central to our research project. Questions about concepts included the following:

What is poverty? More specifically, what is the problem around poverty for persons with disabilities that this CURA is addressing? What is substantive equality? What does economic independence mean?

Given the fundamental importance of these concepts for our research, and the absence of a single document to offer a shared understanding, the Co-Principal Investigators, Yvonne Peters and Michael J. Prince, agreed to draft a short paper to provide some guidance and to invite further dialogue within and across the four Theme areas of this CURA project.

The CURA Submission: What it Says About Poverty and Disability A central aim of our CURA, we state in the submission, is developing reform options that will substantially improve the material living conditions and life chances of people with disabilities and their families. Elsewhere in the submission, we note that our research will strive to be relevant to improving their material conditions, quality of life, and rights and responsibilities as citizens. On the general issue of poverty, we refer to the basic necessities of life and describe those necessities as including the basics of food, shelter and clothing; we speak of the wrenching

barriers and challenges to decent livelihoods and to barriers to economic and social participation. We say also, that poverty has multiple layers and forms of material and cultural constraints, institutional structures and practices, and choices and struggles. This is a short statement, yet one rich with possible ideas, hypotheses, and lines for research. When we make specific reference to the poverty of Canadians with disabilities, we refer to the pervasive poverty experienced by people with disabilities, as the life long poverty, the disproportionate poverty experience, and poverty that leads to marginalization and isolation of a disproportionate number of Canadians with disabilities. These statements emphasize the relative pervasiveness and something of the social effects of poverty on people with disabilities. Overall, the image of poverty presented in our CURA submission is one that involves barriers and inaccessibility to public and private programs and supports, economic and community exclusions, financial and cultural deprivations, inactions as well as actions with harmful effects on individuals, households and other social relationships. Income is a vital part but only one part of the phenomenon we call poverty and, therefore, is one piece of an agenda for disabling poverty and enabling citizenship. In regards to our research methodology, in the submission, We consciously take up a social model of disability. [Which means] disability is a public issue, not only a personal trouble, and fundamentally concerns human rights and citizenship. Exclusion and poverty are matters of social injustice, politics and policy not only individual misfortunes. So, poverty results, for example, from paternalistic beliefs and discriminatory practices in child care, employment, education, training, housing, income maintenance programs and private life insurance plans. Disability activists push hard against long-standing views of disability as a personal problem and private issue. Alongside individuals, core elements of society are families, local communities, and other groupings. Disability groups often focus on individuals and their needs, but the general emphasis is not individualistic; people are interdependent and interconnected through myriad networks of roles, structures, and relationships, some of which are enabling, and many others, over the life-course, disabling. People realizing their actual capacities rely in large measure on their membership, participation, and sense of belonging in a political society. In addition, a rights-based approach to understanding poverty and disability, examines the role of international and domestic (federal and provincial) equality rights and human rights codes, case law and other legal protections and public policies. Part of this approach is to look at the roles and responsibilities of both the state (federal and provincial/territorial governments and public sectors) and other major social institutions in Canada, including private sector businesses and social enterprises. Disability rights are founded on the principle of substantive equality. Substantive equality goes beyond the idea of ensuring that every one is treated the same. Owing to different life conditions or the effects of historical discrimination, same treatment may not always produce equal results.

For persons with disabilities, substantive equality means that positive steps must be taken to ensure that policies, standards, programs and services are fully accessible and inclusive. Additionally, persons with disabilities contend that substantive equality means that governments are obligated to institute positive measures to redress the barriers and conditions that create social and economic disadvantages and poverty. Rights are for individuals as well as for groups. To advance substantive access and equality, it is necessary at times to treat people identically and at times to treat people differently. The disability movement asserts equality and equity, and individual and group rights as important values of justice. A description of substantive equality is found in S. 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: Every individual is equal before and under the law and has the right to equal protection and equal benefit of the law without discrimination and, in particular, without discrimination based on race, national or ethnic origin, colour, religion, sex, age or mental or physical disability.

When the CURA paper mentions the idea of economic independence, it is used in a positive sense. The term seems to mean the participation of persons with disabilities of working age (15 to 64) in the paid labour force, as self-employed and waged workers (real pay for real work), providing a degree of financial security and reducing dependence on income programs, such as social assistance. This idea of economic independence deserves further discussion and reflection as to how we want to define it, and how it relates to such other terms as: dependency, individual autonomy, human agency or capacity, and social interdependence (reciprocity or mutuality). Poverty means the condition of a human being who is deprived of the resources, means, choices and power necessary to acquire and maintain economic self-sufficiency or to facilitate integration and participation in society.

TECHNOLOGICAL: The International Maritime Organization (IMO), known as the Inter-Governmental Maritime Consultative Organization (IMCO) until 1982, was established in Geneva in 1948, and came into force ten years later, meeting for the first time in 1959.

Headquartered in London, United Kingdom, the IMO is a specialized agency of the United Nations with 170 Member States and three Associate Members.[3] The IMO's primary purpose is to develop and maintain a comprehensive regulatory framework for shipping and its remit today includes safety, environmental concerns, legal matters, technical co-operation, maritime security and the efficiency of shipping. IMO is governed by an Assembly of members and is financially administered by a Council of members selected from the Assembly. The work of IMO is conducted through five committees and these are supported by technical subcommittees. Member organizations of the UN organizational family may observe the proceedings of the IMO. Observer status is granted to qualified nongovernmental organizations. The IMO is supported by a permanent secretariat of employees who are representative of its members. The secretariat is composed of a Secretary-General who is periodically elected by the Assembly, and various divisions such as those for marine safety, environmental protection, and a conference section The technical work of the International Maritime Organisation is carried out by a series of Committees. This includes:[9] 1.The Marine environment Protection Committee (MEPC) 2.The Legal Committee 3.The Technical Cooperation Committee, for capacity building The Facilitation Committee, to simplify the documentation and formalities required in international shipping. ENVIRONMENTAL: Environmental Health Ethics is a field of study that combines environmental health policies and ethical consideration towards a mutually acceptable goal. Given the myriad of environmental issues facing society today a sound ethical background can be applied in an attempt to reach a compromise between conflicting interests, like anthropocentricism, global stewardship, religious values, economic development, and public health. A small sample of the scientific disciplines involved in environmental health ethics include: ecology, toxicology, epidemiology, and exposure biology. Environmental Health embodies a wide range of topics with which there are many ethical issues. Many of these issues can be traced back to a moral obligation towards to life forms and other units of biological organization, like ecosystems, and the nature of that obligation. Humanities place within any given ecosystem must be weighed against the importance of regional, and global health of the environment as a whole. Human and animal rights, property use, and other freedoms can be combined with other factors like to form an ethical dilemma social justice, equality, sustainability, and globalism to form ethical dilemmas. In response to difficulties with using moral theories to resolve ethical dilemmas various

approaches can be used. A case-by-case approach may be too slow when considering the volume of issues at present, so an alternative may be better suited to the task. Taking into account commonly accepted moral virtues can guide conduct and address conflicts between values, rules, and obligations. Most, if not all, of these generally held principles can be found in the ethical approaches listed above, an example of which may be 'respect human rights'. This Principle-Based Method for ethical decision making can be viewed below. State the question or problem., Gather the relevant information., Explore different opinions.., Apply ethical principles to the different options., Resolve any conflicts among ethical principles. Take action:Genetic engineering concerns the application of scientific alteration of plant and animal DNA in order to combat pests, disease, drought, and other factors which can adversely harm the organism. Objections to Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) include theological (playing God) and economic (GMOs can be costly) viewpoints. Genetic engineering of both plants and animals must pass through FDA legislation, which may include public labeling of the product or otherwise marking it as genetically modified.Food and Nutrition also fall under the category of things regulated by the FDA, however, the ethics of this regulation are not always clear. Health consequences of unsafe food, eating in overlarge quantities, are well documented yet in all societies there is no legislation against over-consumption. Ethical properties of utilitarianism and social justice conflict with humanities freedom of choice in the determining of access to healthy, safe food.