Research in Preservice Teacher

Educational Researcher
http://er.aera.net Themes in the Research on Preservice Teachers' Views of Cultural Diversity: Implications for Researching Millennial Preservice Teachers
Antonio J. Castro EDUCATIONAL RESEARCHER 2010 39: 198 DO : 10.3102/0013189!103"3819
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Themes in the Research on Preservice Teachers Views of Cultural Diversity: Implications for Researching Millennial Preservice Teachers
Antonio J. Castro
This article traces themes found in the research on preservice teachers views of cultural diversity pu lished in peer-reviewed !ournals from 198" to #$$%. The article see&s to draw insi'hts that inform education researchers interested in interro'atin' and unpac&in' views a out diversity e(pressed y todays millennial colle'e students. )indin's su''est that althou'h recent studies report a shift toward more positive attitudes a out teachin' culturally diverse students* teachers persistent issues of pla'ue cultural preservice diversity. understandin'
preservice teachers held deficit views about and lower e&pectations for students of color. 9hird, these preservice teachers adopted a colorblind approach to teaching, denying the very significance of race in
+mplications for future research are discussed. eywor!s: diversity, social !ustice, multicultural education,
teacher education-development
s todays public schools become more culturally and economically diverse, the demographic divide between teachers and students deepens. Preservice teachers generally come from middle-class, Anglo-American backgrounds (Zumwalt !raig, "##$% and prefer to teach in suburban and more affluent school conte&ts ('arling-(ammond !obb, )**+%, perpetuating e&isting ine,uities in access to ,ualified teachers for urban and high-needs schoolchildren ('arling(ammond, "##-. /adson-0illings 0rown, "##1%. 2urthermore, teachers in diverse schools may hold lower e&pectations, resulting in a pedagogy of poverty that undermines the potential inherent to a public school education ((aberman, )**), )**+%. Preparing culturally responsive teachers with the willingness and abilities to teach in these more diverse school conte&ts represents, perhaps, the most daunting task facing teacher educators today (3ay, "##". 4illegas, "##1%. 5uch of the research on promoting culturally responsive teaching addresses gaps and deficits in preservice teachers e&periences, attitudes, and perceptions. 2or e&ample, 6leeter ("##1% outlined four interrelated issues affecting many 7hite 19 educational preservice teachers. 2irst, 7hite preservice teachers failed to 8 ReseaRcheR recogni8e the pervasiveness of racial ine,uity. 6econd, 7hite
their practices. 2inally, 7hite preservice teachers lacked a sense of themselves as cultural beings, resulting in their assumptions that their own cultural lenses represent the norm for all other students. (owever, despite the persistence of these findings, recent reports about todays millennial-generation college students: those born in or since )*1$:highlight their greater acceptance of cultural diversity, increased civic participation, and advocacy for social ;ustice issues (0roido, "##<. (owe 6trauss, "###. =iesa et al., "##-. >usley, "##+%. 6cholars investigating the millennial generation suggest that the ?historical location@ of millennial college students is dramatically different from that of previous generations, stressing the influence of factors such as the rise of the Anternet and interconnectivity, globali8ation, and demographic diversity (!oomes, "##<. (owe 6trauss, "###. 5arker, "##+%. 9hese factors may contribute to greater acceptance of and appreciation for cultural diversity (0roido, "##<. >usley, "##+%. 9his article investigates the contradiction between the promise of college students of the millennial generation and persistent findings about preservice teachers views on cultural diversity by presenting a change-over-time analysis of the research literature on preservice teachers views of cultural
diversity, multicultural education, and social ;ustice since )*1$. Although teacher education researchers have already conducted syntheses of preservice teachers and cultural diversity (!ochran-6mith, 'avis, 2ries, "##B. 3rant 6ecada, )**#. (ollins 3u8man, "##$. 6leeter, "##1. Zeichner (oeft, )**+%, this article investigates not only the continuities, the themes that permeate the literature, but also the discontinuities. An analysis of the changes over time in the reported findings in the research literature may provide insights about todays millennial-generation preservice teachers that do not emerge from a traditional synthesis. 5y central purpose is to discern whether research findings suggest a trend among preservice teachers toward greater acceptance of and appreciation for multicultural education and teaching in culturally diverse conte&ts. 5ore specifically, A aim to address the following ,uestionsC D 7hat themes in the research on preservice teachers views of cultural diversity, social ;ustice, and multicultural education have remained stable or constant since )*1$E D 7hat themes in this research have shifted or changed since )*1$E
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As this in,uiry reveals, the research over time offers both problems and possibilities that make more comple& our further e&aminations of millennial preservice teachers and their beliefs about cultural diversity. Critical Multiculturalism an! Preservice Teachers Views on Cultural Diversity As A began this synthesis, A relied on aspects of critical multiculturalism to inform my interpretation of these studies. !ritical multiculturalism draws inspiration from critical theory, sharing ?essentially the same ethics, spirit, values, principles, and actions@ (3ay, )**$, p. )1#%. !ritical multiculturalism strives to bring about the transformation of society to accomplish the goals of social ;ustice by confronting and disrupting institutions and the structures of power that maintain disparities across race, class, and gender (5ay, )**1. 6leeter 3rant, "##-. 6leeter 5c/aren, )**$. 6teinberg, )**$. 6teinberg =incheloe, "##)%. !ritical multiculturalism also challenges the essentiali8ing of cultural groups and ?romantici8ing the curriculum@ with images of ?brown heroes@ or mystical pasts (5c!arthy, )**B. 5c/aren, )**$. Fieto, )**$%. Applying ideas of critical multiculturalism to preservice teachers views on cultural diversity, multicultural education, and social ;ustice led me to e&plore two specific concepts. 2irst, A bor- rowed from 2reires ()***% descriptions of conscientizo. 2reire argued that the first stage in promoting an antioppressive, humanist pedagogy re,uired both the oppressor and oppressed to ?take into account their behavior, their view of the world, and their ethics@ (p. B-%. 9his idea of conscious reflection on ones self and situation mirrors the concept of sociocultural consciousness espoused by 4illegas and /ucas ("##"%, which they define as ?awareness that ones worldview is not universal but is profoundly shaped by ones life e&periences, as mediated by a variety of factors, chief among them raceGethnicity, social class, and gender@ (p. "-%. 9his awareness, according to 4illegas and /ucas, can assist preservice teachers in becoming culturally responsive in the classroom. 6econd, critical multiculturalism asserts that ine,uities occur at the level of institutional practices and structures and are often masked by common sets of ideologies and beliefs:what 2reire referred to as the ?myths which deform us@ (6hor 2reire, )*1+G"##B, p. <1)%. 0artolomH ()**<% lamented that beginning teachers often believe in these myths, assuming that their teaching practices are ?fine@ and need no further interrogation and that schools as institutions are ?fair and democratic sites where all students are provided with similar, if not e,ual, treatment and learning conditions@ (p. )-<%. 9herefore, critical multiculturalism fosters the types of knowledge that ?help us understand how social relationships are distorted and manipulated by relations of power and privilege@ (5c/aren, "##B, p. )*-%. 9eachers who achieve a sense of critical consciousness (2reire, )***% or sociocultural consciousness (4illegas /ucas, "##"% recogni8e that teaching is always a political act, and they develop political clar- ity, which is essential for reali8ing the transformative aims of critical multiculturalism (0artolomH, )**<%. Ising critical multiculturalism as a framework for this change- over-time analysis, A sought to investigate the findings
of preservice teachers views on cultural diversity, multicultural education,
and social ;ustice and whether the research literature suggests greater critical awareness of multicultural issues. Metho ! 0orn in or since )*1$, many of todays undergraduate seniors belong to the first cohort of millennials to earn a college degree. 9his article tracks and synthesi8es the research discourse about preservice teachers views on cultural diversity throughout much of the millennial generations life span. however, it does not con- tain an e&haustive review of the literature. A used the following criteria to choose articles appropriate to this endeavor. 2irst, all the selected articles describe research findings for ,ualitative, ,uantitative, or mi&ed-methods studies that involved traditional undergraduate students, usually ranging from )* to "B years of age, who were enrolled in teacher education programs. 9he scope of this synthesis includes possible generational trends in the research findings over time and e&cludes studies focused on alter- native certification or postbaccalaureate programs, which attract older teacher education students (Zumwalt !raig, "##$%. 6econd, all articles included in the synthesis present findings related to views on cultural diversity, social ;ustice, or multicultural education that the preservice teacher possessed prior to any intervention or educational e&perience. 9hese findings offer a measure by which to draw comparisons across the literature over time. 'escriptions of programs or courses that did not utili8e a specific research methodology andGor failed to report on students incoming views were not included. A began first by identifying key research articles published from )*1$ to )***. A defined a ?key@ study as one that either was
cited in a review of literature on preservice teachers views on cultural diversity, social ;ustice, andGor multicultural education or appeared as a chapter in a handbook of research on teacher education andG or multicultural education or in !ochran6mith and Zeichners Studying Teacher Education: The Report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education ("##$. also see !ochran-6mith et al., "##B. 3rant 6ecada, )**#. (ollins 3u8man, "##$. 6leeter, "##1. Zeichner (oeft, )**+%. 9hese review chapters synthesi8e the research literature usually over a span of )# or more years and serve as a guide for future research in the field. An addition, A located research articles that were cited by one or more of the articles included in this synthesis. A wanted to ensure that A included as many peer-reviewed studies as possible that had been identified as contributing to the field of research in this area. Fe&t, because most of the syntheses already published do not review recently published research, A conducted a hand search of peer-reviewed ;ournals that address issues in teacher education, diversity, and urban education. A looked for research studies published from "### to "##- that fit my selection criteria, discussed above. 9hese ;ournals included Action in Teacher Education; Education and r!an Society; E"uity and E#cellence; $ournal of Teacher Education; Teacher Education %uarterly; Teaching and Teacher Education; r!an Education; and r!an Re&ie'. Ising my selection process, A identified B+ articles published from )*1+ to )*** and )* articles published from "### to "##-, a total of $$ research studies. 9o facilitate a change-over-time analysis of the research, A distributed the articles into three time periods based on specific trends that A identified within the lit- eratureC )*1+J)**< ()B articles%, )**$J)*** ("B articles%, and
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Table 1 Themes Across the Research on Preservice Teachers Beliefs on Diversity in Each Time Period
Time Period 1 (19861994) A lack of comple&ity in understanding multicultural issues. A lack of tolerance for different cultural groups 3aps in learning how to teach in multicultural conte&ts. Time Period 2 (19951999) A lack of comple&ity in understanding multicultural issues. 'eficit viewsGpre;udice regarding students of color. Amportance of personal background on attitudes, beliefs, and multicultural concepts. Time Period 3 (20002007) A lack of comple&ity in understanding multicultural issues. !ontradictory attitudesGperceptions concerning diverse populations and social ;ustice. Amportance of personal background on attitudes, beliefs, and multicultural concepts. Anstructional practices that foster changes in preservice teachers beliefs about diversity, social ;ustice, or multicultural education.
"###J"##- ()* articles%. As A read each article, A took e&tensive notes on the influences and challenges associated with preparing teachers for culturally diverse student populations. A organi8ed these notes into a grid and categori8ed them into themes for each specific time period, a process known as open coding (5iles (uberman, )**<%. 2inally, A compared themes across the three time periods to determine which themes had remained constant and which had shifted over time. An this synthesis, A focus on general trends across the research literature concerning preservice teachers views about cultural diversity, social ;ustice, andGor multicultural education. therefore, this synthesis does not present a metaanalysis of ,uantitative or ,ualitative data. 2urthermore, as 5ontecinos ("##<% pointed out, several of these articles failed to disaggregate data specifically for their culturally diverse participants. As a result, the findings of this synthesis represent research on mostly middle-class, Anglo-American preservice teachers. Changes in Teachers Views A"out Diversity Preservice
focused on documenting problems associated with preservice teachers conceptions of multicultural issues, general intolerance among
A separated the research on preservice teachers perspectives on cultural diversity into three general time periods. 9he first time period ()*1+J)**<% consisted of )B articles mostly published after )**#. 9he second time period ()**$J)***% represented an e&pansion phase of research on preservice teachers views on cultural diversity. 2inally, articles written since "### indicate a movement of research toward uncovering not only the ways in which preservice teachers view cultural diversity but also the methods with which teacher education programs can promote multicultural education and social ;ustice agendas. 9he themes across each of these three time periods illuminate the continuing tensions in the research findings on preservice teachers orientations to diversity (see 9able )%. 9hese findings offer both enduring problems and new possibilities for preparing preservice teachers to work in culturally diverse conte&ts.
Time Period (: The )nitial Phase of Research *(+,-. (++/0

0etween )*1+ and )**<, teacher education researchers
the mostly Anglo-American preservice teachers toward ethnic minorities, and gaps in course work in multicultural education and teaching strategies. A lac1 of comple#ity in understanding multicultural issues. 9he studies during this time period revealed that preservice teachers held uncritical, shallow, and inaccurate perspectives on important societal issues, akin to what =ing ()**)% termed ?dyscon- sciousness,@ or the ?uncritical habit of mind (including perceptions, attitudes, assumptions, and beliefs% that ;ustifies ine,uity and e&ploitation by accepting the e&isting order of things as given@ (p. )B$%. Kesearchers discovered that many preservice teachers failed to look critically at systems of ine,uity, 7hite privilege, teaching in diverse conte&ts, and the goals of multicultural education. 9wo research studies demonstrated that preservice teachers held shallow and vague notions of socioeconomic and educational disparities for minority populations. 2irst, =ing ()**)% asked the $- students enrolled in her 2oundations of Lducation course to offer e&planations for the high infant mortality rate among African Americans. she discovered that her students held a
#$ $ educational ReseaRcheR
?blame the victim@ mentality, finding fault within the African American community or with poverty in general. An a similar study, Avery and 7alker ()**B% surveyed )$" preservice teachers about the achievement gap between 7hites, (ispanics, and African Africans. 9hey found the ?simplicity of responses@ given by participants to be ?surprising@ (p. B$%, indicating that participants had ?only vague understandings of the relationship between social structures and schooling and of the e&tent to which ine,uality is perpetuated through schools@ (p. B$%. 9hese studies point to the lack of critical consciousness necessary to engage in critical multiculturalism. Andeed, participants tended to hold individuals and communities personally responsible for these disparities. Additional studies in this time period reported that participants held narrow, individualistic, or distorted notions of multicultural education. 0oth 3rant and =oskela ()*1+% and 3oodwin ()**<% found that their participants associated multicultural education with teaching only those who are culturally different from the dominant group. 3rant and =oskela reported that many of the "B preservice teachers they interviewed subscribed to an ?e&emption syndrome,@ a belief that multicultural education
did not apply to teaching in 7hite schools. /ikewise, the ma;ority of respondents to 3oodwins ,uestionnaire felt that multicultural education should only promote tolerance of culturally diverse others. An their case study of two 7hite teacher education students, Koss and 6mith ()**"% concluded that these students associated multicultural education with individuali8ed instruction, ignoring race and culture as significant factors in learning. 9hese studies revealed that participants failed to grasp important aspects of critical multiculturalism, seeing multicultural education as boosting the self-esteem of culturally diverse students, ensuring toleration of minority students, and practicing individuali8ed instruction. Participants failed to be aware of institutional racism and the impact of privilege on the potential life outcomes of students from marginali8ed groups. A lac1 of tolerance for different cultural groups. An this time period, preservice teachers e&pressed distaste for interacting with different racial and ethnic groups. 6everal studies utili8ed some version of the 0ogardus 6ocial 'istance 6cale to determine the degree of acceptance participants had for culturally different others (0ennett, Figgle, 6tage, )**#. /aw /ane, )*1-. 5artin 7illiams-'i&on, )**<. Keed, )**B%. 9his scale ?measures a persons willingness to recogni8e, live near, or be associated with people from different groups@ (/aw /ane, )*1-, p. <%. >verall, these findings demonstrated that preservice teachers during this time period were intolerant of minority groups. 6everal studies revealed that participants held negative views about interacting with minority cultural groups. 2irst, /aw and /ane ()*1-% compared their survey results for )<) preservice teachers on the 0ogardus 6ocial 'istance 6cale with archival test data, and they concluded that their participants were ?no more accepting of various ethnic groups than the national samples spanning si& decades@ (p. $%. An a second study, 0ennett et al. ()**#% administered a modified version of the 0ogardus 6ocial 'istance 6cale and a test for intellectual development to )-1 students enrolled in a multicultural education class, finding that those who were unwilling to interact with culturally different others also e&hibited simplistic and dualistic thinking. /ater, 5artin and 7illiams-'i&on ()**<% presented a version of the 0ogardus 6ocial 'istance 6cale to ""+ preservice teachers in the spring of )**). 2indings showed that respondents were less willing to interact in school settings with culturally diverse families than with 7hite families. 2inally, Keed ()**B% gave )B preservice teachers an open-ended survey based on the 0ogardus 6ocial 'istance 6cale and reported that respondents attributed emotional and aggressive behaviors to African American children and still felt uncomfortable interacting socially with culturally different others. 9wo studies by /arke and colleagues (/arke, )**#. /arke, 7iseman, 0radley, )**#% confirmed the negative views of culturally diverse others held by preservice teachers. 2irst, /arke ()**#% administered the !ultural 'iversity Awareness Anventory to $) preservice elementary teachers, discovering that +1.+M of the participants reported feeling uncomfortable associating with people who had different cultural values than they did. 6econd, /arke et al. ()**#% administered the Personality !haracteristics Anventory to preservice teachers, who were each to mentor a child in a diverse
school, to ascertain their preconceptions about their
mentees prior to meeting them. 9he researchers reali8ed that ?the ma;ority of the mentors had negative perceptions andGor poor attitudes about the personalities of their AfricanAmerican or 5e&ican American mentees@ (p. -%. 9hese findings reflect the kinds of discomfort and stereotypical thinking measured by the 0ogardus 6cale in the studies discussed previously. >nly one study by (lebowitsh and 9elle8 ()**B%, reported positively about preservice teachers views on diverse student populations. 9he researchers provided "B$ participants with character sketches (leader, athlete, bully, slow learner%. Although the character sketches were the same, the race and gender of the student described varied on different instruments. >verall, students marked higher indications of respect for diverse students. 9he researchers cautioned that participants, who generally hold minority populations in lower esteem, might report greater levels of respect when presented with sketches of them as leaders or athletes. 7hen given a negative description of a minority student (as a bully or slow learner%, participants might see this as natural and thus report more positive values for these scenarios. 9he researchers suggested that more in-depth, ,ualitative research be conducted to e&plore the reasoning made by preservice teachers about diverse student types. 3enerally, these studies reveal deep stereotypes and miscon- ceptions held by 7hite preservice teachers about different cultural groups, reinforcing racial superiority and intolerance. Kacial distance and discrimination make impossible the reali8ation of critical multiculturalism. >nly when 7hite preservice teachers confront their misguided assumptions about culturally different others and interrogate
their own sense of cultural privilege can progress truly be made. 2aps in learning to teach in multicultural conte#ts. 9wo studies in this time period documented gaps in learning how to teach in culturally diverse conte&ts. (adaway and 2lore8 ()*1-% discovered that more than half of the )"$ teacher education students responding to their survey on multicultural education had not taken courses in multicultural education, felt unprepared to teach in a culturally diverse conte&t, and stated that if offered they would attend a multicultural training institute. /ikewise, 3rant and =oskela ()*1+% found that most of the "B participants in their study (discussed earlier% indicated that they were taught some ideas of multicultural education but were not given guid- ance on how to incorporate these ideas during their student teaching semester. 9he findings of (adaway and 2lore8 and of 3rant and =oskela suggest that a coherent approach to teaching multicultural education can best promote critical multicultural awareness. An the first time period, findings about the lack of understanding of multicultural issues, the general intolerance held by preservice teachers for cultural diversity, and gaps in multicultural education ;ustify the need for e&panding multicultural education in teacher education programs. 5ost of these studies uncovered the attitudes of preservice teachers toward culturally diverse students but did not account for the root of these attitudes and perceptions. =ing ()**)% pinpointed ?culturally sanctioned assumptions, beliefs, and myths@ (p. )B$% and Koss and 6mith ()**"% discussed how an individualistic orientation to diversity enabled two participants to hold deficit views on minority and
apRil #$1$ #$ 1
low-income students. Net these studies did not e&plore these issues at length. Promoting the aims of critical multiculturalism will re,uire teacher educators to help preservice teachers to interrogate their prior e&periences, cultural assumptions, and racial ideologies.
becomes nothing more than implementing a set of teaching technologies in the classroom.
Time Period 3: E#pansion of Research on Preser&ice Teachers4 5ie's *(++6.(+++0

9he research published from )**$ to )*** elaborated on the lack of comple&ity of preservice teachers engagement with multicultural ideas. An addition, these studies e&plored dimensions of students pre;udices and stereotypes. 2inally, the notion that a persons prior e&periences influenced her or his interactions in culturally diverse settings emerged across several research studies. A lac1 of comple#ity in understanding multicultural issues. 9he findings of this time period pointed to three dominant trends in preservice teachers views. 2irst, preservice teachers adopted highly individualistic approaches to diversity. 2or e&ample, 5ontecinos and Kios ()***% asked -* preservice teachers to provide arguments for or against different approaches to multicultural education. According to 5ontecinos and Kios, students adopted a ?logic of individual differences@ that saw cultural differences as individualistic, ignoring aspects of racism and institutional ine,uity. /ikewise, Koss and Neager ()***% found participants to hold individualistic views concerning democracy. 9hey determined that )1 of the "* elementary preservice teachers who submitted papers on their definitions of democracy e&pressed ?a narrow conception of democracy@ (p. "+$%, emphasi8ing democracy as individualistic actions, such as voting, and failing to acknowledge important aspects of pluralism and cultural diversity. 9hese participants saw diversity merely as a product of individual differences, without regard to systems of ine,uity that pervade institutions such as schools that often favor Anglo- American and middle-class cultural norms. 6econd, preservice teachers e,uated multicultural teaching with individuali8ed instruction. 2or e&ample, from a survey of -B preservice teachers, 0arry and /echner ()**$% determined that preservice teachers relegated teaching of multicultural education to specific classroom teaching techni,ues meant to help the child accommodate to the classroom rather than to address underlying assumptions about diverse students or to acknowledge the uni,ue cultural contributions these students brought to the classroom. /ikewise, in a case study of how one African American student teacher taught culturally diverse populations, Kodrigue8 and 6;ostrom ()**$% discovered that the student teacher concen- trated primarily on selecting materials and organi8ing instructional content around different learning styles to meet the needs of the students, rather than on including cultural knowledge in the curriculum. 2inally, Laster 6hult8, Feyhart, and Keck ()***% reported that respondents to a survey about attitudes and beliefs on teaching diverse students viewed multicultural teaching as implementing instructional techni,ues and listed being a ?good communicator, good listener, and good classroom manager@ (p. ")"% as ,ualities necessary for the multicultural teacher. (ence the enactment of multicultural teaching mirrored a technical approach to teaching in which multicultural education
9hird, this individualistic orientation to multicultural education allowed preservice teachers to maintain a myth of meritocracy from which they could blame minorities and underachieving students for their lack of success in the public schools. An a case study of B) student teachers in 6askatchewan, !anada, 2inney and >rr ()**$% concluded that participants held students ?as responsible for their fates in a morally neutral and open, unstrat- ified society@ (p. B"*%. /ikewise, 'avis ()**$% discovered a similar trend in her "year ethnographic study of B# preservice teachers. she reported that participants suggested that individual factors, such as ability or genetics, and a lack of familial values were root causes for the low academic performance of minority children, seeing schools as ?meritocratic systems@ and assuming that all students ?have an e,ual opportunity to succeed in school@ (p. $$1%. 9his myth of meritocracy blinded preservice teachers to their own 7hite andGor socioeconomic privileges. A ?logic of individual difference@ (5ontecinos Kios, )***, p. ")%, which reigned dominant across these studies, represents one of the ?culturally sanctioned assumptions@ that maintains a system of ine,uity, assumptions identified by =ing ()**)% in the previous time period. As an ideology, the belief that individuals determine their own e&periences, successes, and failures disre- gards the influence of racial and structural ine,uity. Adopting ideologies of individualism and meritocracy, participants viewed multicultural education as a problem of meeting the psychologi- cal learning needs of each student rather than addressing aspects of in;ustice in society (Apple, "##<%. 7eficit &ie's and stereotypes. Kesearchers also wrote about ways in
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which preservice teachers communicated stereotypes about culturally diverse students and about teaching in urban settings. 2irst, stereotypes and pre;udice affected the ;udgments made by preservice teachers about culturally diverse students. An a study by Kichman, 0ovelsky, =roovand, 4acca, and 7est ()**-%, "# Luropean American preservice teachers estimated the AO and grade point average for two elementary students (one boy, one girl% based solely on one photograph of each student. 9he group that received photographs of African American students marked these students as ?less ambitious, less self-confident, and to have little initiative when compared with LuropeanAmerican students@ (p. B1)%. 9hus stereotypical beliefs influenced initial ;udgments about the abilities of students of color. After administering the >klahoma Kacial Attitude 6cale and the 9eachable Pupil 6urvey, 9ettegah ()**+% found that participants thought of /atino and African American students as less capable and teach- able than their 7hite peers, while rating Asian-American students as more capable. 9hese findings acknowledge both traditional stereotypes and notions of the ?model@ minority. 9hese two studies demonstrate how stereotypes affect the ;udgments made by these future teachers about their students academic abilities. 6econd, studies depicted stereotypes held by preservice teachers about students in urban schools. Aaronsohn, !arter, and (owell ()**$% reported that most of 1# students in their study described urban students as disruptive, inattentive, rude, and delin,uent. 6hult8, Feyhart, and Kecks ()**+% B## participants provided these descriptorsC ?Plackadaisical, Punmotivated, Pscrew- you attitude, Prougher, Pviolent, Pmore streetwise, Pemotionally
unstable, and Pconcerned with survival@ (p. <%. 6uch findings stress the deficit and negative views that preservice teachers associated with students in the urban schools. 9hird, preservice teachers viewed teaching in urban and culturally diverse schools as more challenging and difficult. After administering the 5ulticultural 9eaching !oncerns 6urvey to )#B preservice teachers, 5arshall ()**+% concluded that respondents felt that teaching culturally diverse students in urban schools would add an&iety and stress, which would be an ?imped- iment@ to their growth as first-year teachers (p. B-+%. An fact, one participant in 9ie88i and !rosss ()**-% case study of <1 prospective teachers attitudes about teaching in urban schools declared, ?A wanted to teach 7hite children because it is rumored that they are the smartest and easiest to teach@ (p. )"#%. 9ie88i and !ross reported that most of their participants e&pressed unfounded fears about teaching urban students. As a result of these fears and stereotypes, preservice teachers lacked interest in teaching in an urban school. 5any of the B<$ respondents to an open-ended survey about teaching in urban schools likened urban teachers to ?heroines and heroes in a war against a dangerous urban environment@ (3ilbert, )**-, p. *"% and shunned the idea of teaching in an urban school. 2ry and 5c=inney ()**-% found that + of )# 7hite female preservice teachers who completed an urban-based field e&perience stated they would teach in an urban school only if they could not find another ;ob elsewhere. /ikewise, 3ilbert ()**$% found that most of )*B prospective teachers in a rural university who completed a demographic survey with openended items about urban schools would teach in an urban school only if they had to find a ;ob. 9he pervasiveness of deficit views and stereotypes greatly affects the willingness of teacher candidates to teach in culturally diverse and urban conte&ts. 'eficit views and stereotypes about minority groups influence the initial ;udgments made by teachers about students. 6uch views run counter to the critical awareness necessary for critical multiculturalism and must be interrogated before real change can occur. The importance of !ac1ground e#periences. Anvestigating background e&periences became a new category during this time period. 2irst, two ,uantitative studies connected prior e&periences with attitudes about cultural diversity. Ising measurements on beliefs about diversity with <*" preservice teachers, Pohan ()**+% established that personal and professional beliefs were positively correlated with participants multicultural knowledge, especially cross-cultural e&periences or course work in multicultural education. /ikewise, 7iggins and 2ollo ()***% determined from a ,uestionnaire on multicultural knowledge that only BBM of the )"B respondents had any prior e&periences in culturally diverse settings and that the most e&perienced felt more comfort- able teaching in culturally diverse conte&ts. 6econd, researchers determined that prior e&periences interacting with culturally diverse others influenced how preservice teachers responded to notions of multicultural education. 5c!all ()**$b% conducted a case study of B participants in her social studies methods class and determined that preservice teachers prior e&periences influenced their
acceptance of multicultural ideas. 2or e&ample, the student who had the ?least awareness and
e&perience with discrimination@ was the one to re;ect ideas of multiculturalism. /awrence and 0unche ()**+% also reported that ) of the $ participants in their case study refused to abandon her racist views. this participant clung to beliefs of individualism and had the least e&periences interacting with culturally diverse others. !ockrell, Placier, !ockrell, and 5iddleton ()***%, in their analysis of "$ preservice teachers, noted that participants with limited e&periences interacting with individuals from diverse cultural backgrounds believed that schools should either assimi- late diverse groups or teach tolerance, rather than infuse multicultural education into the curriculum. >n the other hand, students who either had e&perienced oppression or discrimination or had cross-cultural interactions embraced concepts of multiculturalism (5c!all, )**$a%. 6mith, 5oallem, and 6herrill ()**-% identified the kinds of e&periences that were associated with their students greater openness to cultural diversity, which included having multicultural friendships. multicultural education. travel, as in moving or vacationing. and personal e&periences with discrimination as a child or an adult. >verall, the research in this category suggests that preservice teachers with greater e&posure to culturally diverse others and personal e&periences with discrimination are more open to multicultural ideas. Andeed, 6mith et al. proposed that those who resist multiculturalism may simply lack cross-cultural e&periences. Kesearch published from )**$ to )*** points to the continued racist and uncritical demeanor of mostly Anglo-American preservice teachers. >nly in a few studies did participants e&hibit a general acceptance of and appreciation for cultural diversity. however, these studies also revealed that preservice teachers held ?generic@ (5ontecinos Kios, )***% views of
cultural diversity, relegating multiculturalism to a set of mere teaching strategies and techni,ues. 9he underlying cultural assumptions of individualism and meritocracy continued to limit the ways preservice teachers thought about student achievement ('avis, )**$. 2inney >rr, )**$% and even the nature of democracy (Koss Neager, )***%. 'espite a few studies highlighting the positive effects of prior e&periences with cultural diversity, the lack of comple&ity and deficit notions held by preservice teachers inhibits their critical consciousness. An particular, participants failed to recogni8e institutional ine,uity and did not see how their own biases and stereotypes as future teachers perpetuated these ine,uities.
Time Period 8: 9ontemporary 3::;0
Research *3:::.
6ince the millennium, the research on preservice teachers perspectives on cultural diversity, social ;ustice, and multicultural education has taken two pathways. 2irst, studies document the ongoing struggle with the lack of comple&ity in preservice teachers conceptions of multicultural issues and perceptions on diverse populations. 6econd, researchers now ,uestion which kinds of personal e&periences and what types of instructional techni,ues best foster openness to diversity. A lac1 of comple#ity in understanding multicultural issues. Preservice teachers continued to demonstrate a lack of understanding of multicultural education and the processes of institutionali8ed racism and oppression. After analy8ing the results from a mi&ed- method study of 1+ students enrolled in diversity courses, 5iddleton ("##"% concluded that although participants ?identified
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a willingness to teach from a multicultural perspective,@ they also e&hibited ?misunderstanding and misinterpretation of multicultural education, diversity, and the attitudes and skills needed for successful cross-cultural teaching@ (p. B<1%. 9hus these teachers held a very generic view of multicultural education, one without a sense of critical consciousness surrounding privilege and ine,uity. >ther researchers also documented this lack of critical consciousness. 2or e&ample, after administering to )<) students enrolled in multicultural education classes a ,uestionnaire about whether students saw themselves as privileged or oppressed, !hi8hik and !hi8hik ("##$% concluded that students could not identify multiple forms of oppression, especially institutionali8ed oppression. An a second study, !hi8hik and !hi8hik added $$ more participants to the first sample. (ere, participants read four scenarios about individuals and were asked to determine whether each individual was privileged or oppressed. >verall, those with less comple& views of oppression (mostly 7hite males% favored individualistic orientations on each scenario, whereas those with more comple& views (mostly African American females% recog- ni8ed structural and institutional barriers inherent in the scenarios. 9hese studies documented how preservice teachers failed to see structural or institutional barriers that affect marginali8ed groups. 0eliefs in individualism and meritocracy are associated with a lack of critical consciousness. 7eisman and 3ar8a ("##"% observed that most of the )$1 respondents to a multicultural education survey were completely unaware of the ?ine,uities embedded in the structures of society and schooling@ (p. B"%. Lven after completing a multicultural education course, participants still ?attributeQdR educational problems Qthe achievement gapR to the individual rather than oppressive factors@ (p. B"%, clinging to an ideology of individualism. 5ueller and > !onnor ("##-% discovered that beliefs in meritocracy can be deeply entrenched. 2ifteen students who were enrolled in their class on race, class, and gender each interviewed a person from a different cultural or socioeconomic background and wrote that persons educational biography, emphasi8ing ?hard work@ and meritocracy. An comparing the biographies against interview transcripts, 5ueller and >!onnor reali8ed that participants ?silenced and muted interview data that contradicted their assumptions@ that schools represent meritocracies with e,ual opportunities for all students (p. 1$"%. 9hese findings suggest that cultural assumptions of individualism and meritocracy are strongly embedded in preservice teachers. 9he studies from this and previous time periods provide evidence that these ?culturally sanctioned assumptions, myths, and beliefs@ (=ing, )**), p. )B$% are indeed a ma;or root of ?dysconscious@ racism. 9ontradictory perceptions concerning di&erse populations and social <ustice. Kesearch studies in this time period revealed contradictions in the reports on preservice teachers views of cultural diversity. 2irst, three studies depicted continued stereotypical and deficit thinking among preservice teachers, consistent with findings from the previous time periods. 9errill and 5ark ("###% distributed a ,uestionnaire to *respondents about their e&pectations for students in three imaginary school settings (a 7hite suburban school, a Fative
American rural school, and an African
American urban school%. Participants held lower e&pectations for Fative American and African American students and only wanted to teach in the 7hite suburban school. /ikewise, 0aldwin, 0uchanan, and Kudisill ("##-% found that most of their <) students participating in an urban-based service learning pro;- ect held ?stereotypical beliefs that children of color are difficult Qto teachR or unmotivated toward school@ (p. B"$%. 2inally, 0akari ("##B% distributed the 7illingness to 9each African American 6tudents and the !ultural 6ensitivity to African American 6tudents scales to <)$ students coming from three different university settings:public university students (1-M 7hite%, his- torically 0lack colleges (*#M African American%, and private universities (11M 7hite%. 2indings indicated that 7hite preservice teachers were less willing to teach African American students. 9hese studies suggest that preservice teachers still hold stereotypes and deficit thinking about culturally diverse students. >n the other hand, two studies reported that preservice teachers felt positive about teaching in diverse settings. 2irst, 6iwatu ("##-% administered the !ulturally Kesponsive 9eaching Lfficacy 6cale (a measure of how effective culturally responsive teaching is for student outcomes% and the !ulturally Kesponsive 9eaching >utcome L&pectancy 6cale (a measure of beliefs in the ability to enact culturally responsive teaching% to "-$ respondents. 6iwatus findings suggest that preservice teachers hold more positive attitudes about culturally diverse populations and accept general notions of culturally responsive teaching. 6econd, 'ee and (enkin ("##"% also reported positive findings about cultural diversity from the )$# students who completed the Pluralism and 'iversity
#$ 9 educational ReseaRcheR
Attitude Assessment. Ising a factor analysis of the data, 'ee and (enkin identified multicultural teaching practices favored by these preservice teachersC implementing diversity into the curriculum, giving e,ual opportunity in education, interacting with culturally different others, and recogni8ing the positive effects of diversity for society. 9hese studies indicate more positive orientations to cultural diversity among preservice teachers. 9wo studies reported contradictory findings concerning social ;ustice and teaching in culturally diverse settings. 2irst, !hi8hik and !hi8hik ("##"% distributed a ,uestionnaire about who was responsible for the offset of social ine,uality (the privileged or the oppressed% to )+# education students. >ne group of respondents saw the privileged classes as being more able to stop ine,uity in society but placed the burden for ending in;ustice on the oppressed classes. 9he second group placed the burden for ending in;ustice on the privileged classes, but also felt that the members of the privileged classes had less power to change society. 0oth groups demonstrated internal contradictions about who has the power to change society versus who has the responsibility to enact that change. 6econd, 6ong ("##+% also noted contradictions in her findings concerning the ability of urban students to learn intellectual skills and perform cognitively challenging tasks. 6he administered a variation of the 9eacher L&pectation and 'eficit Assumption 6urvey to "1 preservice teachers. Participants felt that the school could help students achieve and perform difficult academic tasks, but at the same time participants suggested that a childs intellectual abilities were learned only at home. (ence these teachers e&hibited contradictory views about learning and achievement.
Inlike the previous time periods, a consistent theme of stereotypical and deficit thinking does not emerge from these studies. Anstead, these studies appear to offer contradictory findings about how preservice teachers view culturally diverse populations, suggesting the need for further research in this area. The importance of !ac1ground e#periences. 6tudies during this time period demonstrated a link between preservice teachers prior e&periences interacting with culturally diverse others and their support for multicultural education and teaching. 2irst, 'ee and (enkin ("##"% e&plored characteristics of the )$# participants (study described earlier in this article% and reasoned that having e&periences interacting with culturally diverse others ?may be associated with attitudes favoring cultural diversity in education@ (p. B$%. =ey factors included living in culturally diverse neighborhoods and having crosscultural friendships. /ikewise, Adams, 0ondy, and =uhel ("##$% investigated attitudes of )1 participants who participated in a service-learning tutoring pro;ect in an urban school. 6tudents who reported positive feelings about working with minority students had prior knowledge or e&perience working with diverse peers, children, or families. 9hese e&periences included having had friends and social interactions with culturally diverse others, prior community volunteering andGor activism, and positive family attitudes about issues of social ;ustice when growing up. 9hese studies suggest that prior e&periences with cultural diversity may predispose preservice teachers to greater acceptance of and appreciation for cultural diversity. 9wo case studies show the importance of learning to reflect on prior e&periences with culturally diverse others. 6mith ("###% traced the personal biographies of two 7hite student teachers. 9he participant who embraced concepts of multicultural education had grown up in a working-class home and had e&perienced feeling marginali8ed as a 7hite student in a predominantly 0lack middle school and as an American student in a 3uam high school. 9hrough her e&periences, she reflected on cultural diversity and institutional ine,uity, dismissing the myths of meritocracy and individualism. An a similar vein, 3armon ("##<% e&plored the personal biography of a ""-year-old 7hite female preservice teacher who e&hibited openness, readiness to accept that people are different, self-awarenessGselfreflectiveness, and commitment to social ;ustice. 9his student had maintained intercultural friendships, participated in service activities in diverse communities, and reflected deeply on diversity and social ;ustice. 6mith and 3armon each identify the capacity for reflection as significant in developing multicultural awareness, harkening back to the notion of critical consciousness necessary for critical multicultural awareness. )nstructional practices that foster changes in !eliefs a!out di&ersity. Kesearchers e&plored ways in which teacher education programs can foster positive change in beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions about cultural diversity, specifically through fieldbased e&periences and university course work. 2irst, three studies demonstrated that field-based e&periences could foster improvement in how preservice teachers define cultural diversity. !onaway, 0rowning, and Purdum-!assidy ("##-% conducted a <-year longitudinal study of ")1 preservice
teachers, tracking their concerns with teaching
in an urban school from their freshman year to their senior year. Although participants initially held stereotypes and lowered e&pectations for urban students, over time these concerns faded. According to researchers, the decline indicated that participants had become ?accustomed to the ethnic and cultural diversity@ as a result of field e&periences. /ikewise, 0ell, (orn, and Ko&as ("##-% assessed changes in attitudes regarding teaching in a culturally diverse school of B# preservice teachers participating in a tutoring or mentoring pro;ect. 9hey found that by the end of the e&perience, tutors and mentors adopted more advanced views of cultural diversity. 2inally, !ausey, 9homas, and Armento ("###% concluded that participating in a cross-cultural e&perience had a positive impact on the multicultural disposition of the "" preservice teachers involved in an urban-based internship. 9hey stressed the importance of reflection in the multicultural development of participants, claiming that participants ?who display a disposition to thoughtfulness and reflection are most likely candidates for such cognitive restructuring and new learning@ (p. <B%. 9hese studies allude to the potential benefits of fieldwork in fostering greater multicultural awareness. 6econd, three studies focused on the impact of multicultural course work and teaching. 9orok and Aguilar ("###% studied BB undergraduates who significantly improved their scores on the Professional 0eliefs About 'iversity 6cale and the Personal 0eliefs About 'iversity 6cale at the end of a multicultural course. 6tudents reported appreciating the following strategies employed by their instructorC ?creating a safe environment, promoting mutual respect, learning to listen to others, recogni8ing multiple perspectivesGdifferent realities, being
willing to unlearn, and increasing self-awareness@ (p. "*%. /ikewise, 0rown ("##<% concluded that the methods by which a multicultural education course is taught may have a greater affect on preservice teachers attitudes about diversity than the content of the course does. 0rown administered the !ultural 'iversity Awareness Anventory to )#* undergraduate students enrolled in one of si& sections. participants were divided into two groups. An the first group, the instructor modeled notions of cultural respect by creating a safe and reflective environment. An the second group, the instructor presented the information through direct instruction. 3roup ) increased at higher levels across more of the subscales of the pre- and posttests than did 3roup ". 2inally, 5iddleton ("##"% high- lighted the importance of reflection in a multicultural course. 9he instructor:who used a reflective techni,ue in which students described the e&perience, reacted to it on a personal level, compared the e&perience with theory or practice, and applied the learning to their roles as educators:helped preservice teachers to adopt notions of multicultural education. 9hese studies suggest the importance of field-based e&periences and instructional practices that support critical reflection. Infortunately, researchers failed to identify specific components of field-based e&periences that fostered changes in the beliefs and attitudes of preservice teachers. (owever, the research on teaching methodology did stress providing a safe, risk-free environment (0rown, "##<. 5iddleton, "##". 9orok Aguilar, "###%. fostering mutual respect for all students (5iddleton, "##". 9orok Aguilar, "###%. and promoting reflection on self and others (0rown, "##<. 5iddleton, "##". 9orok Aguilar, "###%.
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An the contemporary time period ("###J"##-%, the problem of the lack of comple&ity reached across several research studies. Preservice teachers e&pressed very positive views about cultural diversity but still held minimal understandings of what cultural diversity means and re,uires (5iddleton, "##". 7eisman 3ar8a, "##"%. 9his tendency toward oversimplification can make multicultural ideas less threatening, less political. Preservice teachers may readily advocate and clamor for multicultural education that supports a tolerance approach to diversity (6leeter 3rant, "##-% without achieving the critical consciousness necessary to dismantle structural ine,uity and interrogate dominant cultural assumptions embedded in these structural arrangements. 7hen compared with early research on the lack of tolerance and social interaction with culturally diverse others (0ennett et al., )**#. /aw /ane, )*1-. 5artin 7illiams'i&on, )**<%, studies in the contemporary period suggest that preservice teachers today may be more open to cultural diversity than were their predecessors "" years prior. 9hese studies point to the greater openness to cultural diversity found in preservice teachers at the onset of the study (0rown, "##<. 'ee (enkin, "##". 6iwatu, "##-%, the possibility that preservice teachers may have increased e&periences interacting with culturally diverse others (Adams et al., "##$. 3armon, "##<. 6mith, "###%, and the possibility that preservice teachers are capable of changing their perspectives on cultural diversity as a result of instructional and field e&periences (0ell et al., "##-. 0rown, "##<. !ausey et al., "###. !onaway et al., "##-. 9orok Aguilar, "###. 7eisman 3ar8a, "##"%. 9his can be read as ?progress@ in the realm of preservice teachers reactions to cultural diversity or can be seen as indicative of the kinds of studies that have been conducted and published during this time period. Kesearchers may have been more concerned with e&ploring nuanced reasons for why and how preservice teachers advocate for or resist multicultural education than with getting a pulse on how attitudes on diversity have shifted over time. Discussion an! Implications for Researching Millennial #eneration Preservice Teachers 9he central purpose of this in,uiry was to discern whether research findings from )*1$ to "##- indicate a trend toward greater acceptance of and appreciation for multicultural education and teaching in culturally diverse conte&ts. An analysis of the research fails to render a simple answer to this ,uestion. Anstead, this synthesis of preservice teachers views on diversity points to both possibilities and persistent problems.
generation college students are more demographically diverse and accepting of cultural diversity (0roido, "##<. (owe 6trauss, "###. Sunco 5astrodicasa, "##-. 5arker, "##+. >usley, "##+. 6andfort
The Promise of the =illennial 2eneration

A series of websites, blogs, newsletters, and the like focusing on the characteristics of the millennial generation can be accessed easily on any Anternet search engine, attesting to the popularity and public fascination with this new generation. Andeed, several recent books present the promise of millennial youth for both universities and workplaces ((owe 6trauss, "###, "##B. Sunco 5astrodicasa, "##-. Zemke, Kaines, 2ilipc8ack, "##B%. >ne characteristic cited fre,uently is that millennial
(aworth, "##"%. Keferring to data from the (igher Lducation Anstitute at the Iniversity of !alifornia, /os Angeles, Kaines ("##"% reported that ?kids grew up in the *#s and ##s with more daily interaction with other ethnicities and cultures than ever before.@ 0ased on the sentiments of these popular te&ts, the millennial generation promises to embrace concepts of critical multicultural education. 0roido ("##<% cautioned that much is still unclear concerning millennial students and attitudes about diversity. 6he wrote, ?5ost indicators point toward 5illennials having more open attitudes toward issues of diversity and social ;ustice, although there are a number of trends challenging that perspective@ (p. -+%, such as racial segregation in some high schools and neighborhoods. Kesiding in a diverse neighborhood or attending a diverse high school does not always e,uate to increased contact with culturally diverse others. 2indings from this synthesis reveal that preservice teachers often support only minimal levels of multicultural education. 5ontecinos and Kios ()***% found that ?the generic idea that schools need to provide an education that is multicultural is a belief well entrenched among these preservice teachers@ (p. "#%. !ausey et al. ("###% labeled preservice teachers attitudes as naTve egalitarianism in that ?they believe each person is created e,ual, should have access to e,ual resources, and should be treated e,ually@ (p. B<%. 9hese seemingly positive attitudes may in fact mask a lack of real understanding of multicultural issues, 7hite privilege, and structural ine,uities (5ueller >!onnor, "##-%. Lven worse, some researchers might argue that these findings indicate that todays preservice teachers have become more sophisticated in their use of racial eti,uette, especially when per- forming the role of participant
#$ 7 educational ReseaRcheR
in a research study. Af todays college students actually do interact with culturally diverse others through travel, intercultural friendships, and activism and community service:several of the key life e&periences identified as fostering openness to diversity ('ee (enkin, "##". 5c!all, )**$a. 6mith, "###. 6mith et al., )**-%: other issues e&ist. 2irst, researchers warn against e&ceptionalism, whereby ?stereotypes were proven false by a single case but those cases did not support systematic e&amination of the preservice teachers stereotypes@ (0ell et al., "##-, p. )B#%. 6econd, ;ust participating in multicultural communities may have limitations. 3ilbert ()**-% stated, ?6imply Pbeing there, without careful analysis of multicultural and socio-economic issues in the community in relation to the individuals personal constructs and the community at large, may not provide the positive results e&pected from direct e&periences@ (p. *B%. 5ere e&posure to culturally diverse situations may reinforce stereotypical thinking, especially in the absence of critical reflection (0ell et al., "##-. 3armon, "##<%. 'espite these concerns and limitations, the possibility that millennial college students enter institutions of higher learning with e&periences that may predispose them to greater acceptance of and appreciation for cultural diversity cannot be ignored by researchers and teacher educators.
The Pro!lem 9omple#ity
of
the
>ac1
of
9he findings of this synthesis also pose the problem of the lack of comple&ity associated with preservice teachers views on cultural diversity. 9he problem of the lack of comple&ity stems from the
uncritical adoption of cultural assumptions that limit ones critical consciousness of structural and institutional ine,uity and 7hite privilege. 0eliefs in individualism and meritocracy work hand-in-hand to construct a myth of e,uality. 9he concept of individualism assumes that every person controls her or his own destiny, outside of any structural or institutional barriers. A belief in meritocracy supports the view that success in society and schooling depends solely on ones own merit or hard work. 9he cultural myth of pulling oneself up by the bootstraps still thrives in mainstream American popular culture. 9hese beliefs allow individuals to blame oppressed peoples for their ?failure@ in the system of schooling rather than to recogni8e the system of failure embedded in institutional practices that disfavors and disenfranchises minority groups. Preservice teachers may feel that their achieve- ments resulted from their hard work, without being aware that they have been beneficiaries of institutional and social systems and offered more resources from which to participate in schooling ('avis, )**$. 5ueller >!onnor, "##-%. >nly when preservice teachers confront beliefs in individualism and meritocracy can they envision real social change. Iniversal claims that preservice teachers are more open to cultural diversity are challenged by the persistent problem of the lack of comple&ity in their understandings of multiculturalism. At the heart of the issue is whether preservice teachers have the critical consciousness necessary to decipher the cultural logic that rein- forces the systems of ine,uity that e&ist in our public schools. 5illennial generation college students who uphold ?generic@ ide- als of multicultural education and who lack critical awareness may still be as blind to oppression as their less tolerant predecessors "# years ago.
included in this synthesis
)mplications for ?uture Research

2uture research must diligently unpack the nature of millennial generation preservice teachers perspectives on cultural diversity, social ;ustice, and multiculturalism. Kesearch studies will need to address three key areas. 2irst, future studies ought to e&plore the influence of prior e&periences and social interactions with culturally diverse others on preservice teachers openness to diversity. Af millennial college students actually do maintain intercultural relationships and have multicultural e&periences, how do these preservice teachers reflect upon and internali8e these e&periencesE 'o these e&periences create opportunities to challenge stereotypes or only to foster e&ceptionalismE 2uture research ought to begin with the beliefs, attitudes, and prior e&periences that preservice teachers already possess. Kesearch should also focus on the specific teaching practices and curricular components that foster changes in the beliefs and attitudes of preservice teachers. 9hese studies will need to account for the influence of incoming beliefs before tracing the changes and development of the preservice teachers views. An addition, such studies should e&plore ways in which preservice teachers can gain a sense of critical awareness about issues of ine,uity. 9hird, few studies investigated the ways in which preservice teachers of color interacted with notions of critical multiculturalism. Kesearchers have suggested that preservice teachers are alien- ated or silenced in multicultural education classes ('elpit, )**$. 4illegas 'avis, "##1%. 6ome studies
imply that participants of color hold more comple& and advanced views of multicultural education (!hi8hik !hi8hik, "##$. !ockrell et al., )***. 'ee (enkin, "##"%, whereas other studies (0akari, "##B. /awrence 0unche, )**+. Kodrigue8 6;ostrom, )**1. 6ong, "##+% show that students of color may be ?as susceptible to the same resistance or ignorance as 7hite preservice teachers QareR@ (0akari, "##B, p. +$)%. 2uture research must address students of color as sub;ects, actors in critical multicultural education, rather than as the ob;ects of multicultural education (5ontecinos, "##<%. As millennial generation students come of age, we can only hope that they bring new ways of seeing the world and connect- ing with others. 7e hope that as teacher educators we can build upon our students e&periences to create deeper avenues for critical dialogue and reflection in our classrooms ((oward Aleman, "##1% so as to promote their critical and democratic participation in society, to promote a more ;ust world.
$oT e
A would like to thank =effrelyn and Anthony 0rown for helpful com- ments on this article, as well as the Educational Researcher editors and reviewers for their support on this piece.
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monocul- tural teachers for a multicultural worldC Attitudes toward inner-city schools. E"uity and E#cellence in Education, 3,()%, $J*. Avery, P. 3., 7alker, !. ()**B%. Prospective teachers perceptions of ethnic and gender differences in academic achievement. $ournal of Teacher Education, //()%, "-JB-. 0akari, K. ("##B%. Preservice teachers attitudes toward teaching African American students. r!an Education, 8,(+%, +<#J+$<. 0aldwin, 6. !., 0uchanan, A. 5., Kudisill, 5. L. ("##-%. 7hat teacher candidates learned about diversity, social ;ustice, and themselves from service-learning e&periences. $ournal of Teacher Education, 6,(<%, B)$JB"-. 0arry, F. (., /echner, S. 4. ()**$%. Preservice teachers attitudes about the awareness of multicultural teaching and learning. Teaching and Teacher Education, ((("%, )<*J)+-. 0artolomH, /. A. ()**<%. 0eyond the methods fetishC 9owards a human- i8ing pedagogy. @ar&ard Educational Re&ie', -/("%, )-BJ )*<. 0ell, !. A., (orn, 0. K., Ko&as, =. !. ("##-%. 7e know its service, but what are they learningE Preservice teachers understandings of diversity. E"uity and E#cellence in Education, /:("%, )"BJ)BB. 0ennett, !., Figgle, 9., 6tage, 2. ()**#%. Preservice multicultural teacher educationC Predictors of student readiness. Teaching and Teacher Education, -(B%, "<BJ"$<. 0roido, L. 5. ("##<, summer%. Inderstanding diversity in millennial students. Ae' 7irections for Student Ser&ices, Fo.)#+, -BJ1$. 0rown, L. /. ("##<%. 7hat precipitates change in cultural diversity awareness during a multicultural courseC 9he message or the methodE $ournal of Teacher Education, 66(<%, B"$JB<#. !ausey, 4. L., 9homas, !. '., Armento, 0. S. ("###%. !ultural diversity is basically a foreign term to meC 9he challenges of diversity for preservice teacher education. Teaching and Teacher Education, (-()%, BBJ<$.
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(owe, F., 6trauss, 7. ("##B%. =illennials go to college: Strategies for a ne' generation on campusE recruiting and admissionsE campus lifeE and the classroom. 7ashington, '!C American Association of !ollegiate Kegistrars and Admissions >fficers. Sunco, K., 5astrodicasa, S. ("##-%. 9onnecting to the net.generation: Ghat higher education professionals need to 1no' a!out today4s students. 7ashington, '!C Fational Association of 6tudent Personnel Administrators. =iesa, A., >rlowski, A. P., /evine, P., 0oth, '., =irby, L. (., /ope8, 5. (., et al. ("##-%. =illennials tal1 politics: A study of college student political engagement. !ollege Park, 5'C !enter for Anformation and Kesearch on !ivic /earning and Lngagement. =ing, S. L. ()**)%. 'ysconscious racismC Adeology, identity, and the miseducation of teachers. $ournal of Aegro Education, -:("%, )BBJ )<+. /adson-0illings, 3. S., 0rown, =. ("##1%. !urriculum and cultural diversity. An 5. 2. !onnelly (Ld.%, The Sage hand!oo1 of curriculum and instruction (pp. )$BJ)-$%. 9housand >aks, !AC 6age. /arke, P. ()**#%. !ultural diversity awareness inventoryC Assessing the sensitivity of preservice teachers. Action in Teacher Education, (3(B%, "BJ"*. /arke, P., 7iseman, '. /., 0radley, !. ()**#%. 9he 5inority 5entorship Pro;ectC !hanging attitudes of preservice teachers for diverse classrooms. Action in Teacher Education, (3(B%, $J)". /aw, 6. 3., /ane, '. 6. ()*1-%. 5ulticultural acceptance by teacher education studentsC A survey of attitudes toward B" ethnic and national groups and a comparison with +# years of data. $ournal of )nstructional Psychology, (/()%, BJ*. /awrence, 6. 5., 0unche, 9. ()**+%. 2eeling and dealingC 9eaching 7hite students about racial privilege. Teaching and Teacher Education, (3($%, $B)J$<". 5arker, P. 5. ("##+%. 9he future is nowC 6ocial studies in the world of "#$+. An L. 7. Koss (Ld.%, The social studies curriculum: PurposesE
#$ 8
educational ReseaRcheR
pro!lemsE and possi!ilities (Brd ed., pp. --J*+%. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. 5arshall, P. /. ()**+%. 5ulticultural teaching concernsC Few dimensions in the area of teacher concerns researchE $ournal of Educational Research, ,+(+%, B-)JB-*. 5artin, >., 7illiams-'i&on, K. ()**<%. >vercoming social distance barriersC Preservice teachers perceptions of racial ethnic groups. $ournal of )nstructional Psychology, 3(()%, -+J1). 5ay, 6. ()**1%. !ritical multiculturalism and cultural differenceC Avoiding essentialism. An 6. 5ay (Ld.%, 9ritical multiculturalism: Rethin1ing mulB ticultural and antiracist education (pp. ))J<)%. /ondonC 2almer. 5c!all, A. /. ()**$a%. !onstructing conceptions of multicultural teachingC Preservice teachers life e&periences and teacher education. $ournal of Teacher Education, /-($%, B<#JB$#. 5c!all, A. /. ()**$b%. 7e were cheatedU 6tudents responses to a multicultural, social reconstructionist teacher education course. E"uity and E#cellence in Education, 3,()%, )$J"<. 5c!arthy, !. ()**B%. After the canonC =nowledge and ideological representation in the multicultural discourse on curriculum reform. An !. 5c!arthy 7. !richlow (Lds.%, RaceE identityE and representation in education (pp. "1*JB#$%. Few NorkC Koutledge. 5c/aren, P. ()**$%. 7hite terror and oppositional agencyC 9owards a critical multiculturalism An !. L. 6leeter P. 5c/aren (Lds.%, =ulticultural educationE critical pedagogyE and the politics of difference (pp. BBJ-#%. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. 5c/aren, P. ("##B%. >ife in schools: An introduction to critical pedagogy in the foundations of education (<th ed.%. 0ostonC Allyn and 0acon. 5iddleton, 4. A. ("##"%. Ancreasing preservice teachers diversity beliefs and commitment. r!an Re&ie', 8/(<%, B<BJB+). 5iles, 5. 0., (uberman, A. 5. ()**<%. %ualitati&e data analysis: An e#panded source!oo1. 9housand >aks, !AC 6age. 5ontecinos, !. ("##<%. Parado&es in multicultural teacher education researchC 6tudents of color positioned as ob;ects while ignored as sub- ;ects. )nternational $ournal of %ualitati&e Studies in Education, (;("%, )+-J)1). 5ontecinos, !., Kios, 2. A. ()***%. Assessing preservice teachers 8ones of concern and comfort with multicultural education. Teacher Education %uarterly, 3-(B%, -J"<. 5ueller, S., >!onnor, !. ("##-%. 9elling and retelling about self and ?others@C (ow pre-service teachers (re%interpret privilege and disad- vantage in one college classroom. Teaching and Teacher Education, 38(+%, 1<#J1$+. Fieto, 6. ()**$%. 2rom brown heroes and holidays to assimilationist agendasC Keconsidering the criti,ues of multicultural education. An !. L. 6leeter P. 5c/aren (Lds.%, =ulticultural educationE critical pedagogyE and the politics of difference (pp. )*)J""#%. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. >usley, 5. '. ("##+%. Kethinking diversityC 9he 5illennial 6tudent Pro;ect. Pra#isH Spring Edition. Ketrieved Fovember B, "##-, from httpCGGmass.ari8ona.eduGmillennialGpublicationsGpra&is.pdf Pohan, !. A. ()**+%. Preservice teachers beliefs about diversityC Incovering factors leading to multicultural responsiveness. E"uity and E#cellence in Education, 3+(B%, +"J+*. Kaines, !. ("##"%. 2enerations at 'or1: =anaging millennials. Ketrieved Sanuary $, "##*, from httpCGGwww.generationsatwork.comGarticlesG millenials.htm Keed, '. 2. ()**B%. 5ulticultural education for preservice students. Action in Teacher Education, (6(B%, "-JB<. Kichman, !. /., 0ovelsky, 6., =roovand, F., 4acca, S., 7est, 9. ()**-%. Kacism )#"C 9he classroom. $ournal of Clac1 Psychology, 38(<%, B-1JB1-. Kodrigue8, N. L. 3., 6;ostrom, 0. K. ()**$%. !ulturally
responsive teacher preparation evident in classroom approaches to cultural
diversityC A novice and an e&perienced teacher. $ournal of Teacher Education, /-(<%, B#<JB)). Kodrigue8, N. L. 3., 6;ostrom, 0. K. ()**1%. !ritical reflection for professional developmentC A comparative study of nontraditional adults and traditional student teachers. $ournal of Teacher Education, /+(B%, )--J)1-. Koss, '. '., 6mith, 7. ()**"%. Inderstanding preservice teachers perspectives on diversity. $ournal of Teacher Education, /8("%, *<J)#B. Koss, '. '., Neager, L. ()***%. 7hat does democracy mean to prospective elementary teachersE $ournal of Teacher Education, 6:(<%, "$$J"++. 6andfort, 5. (., (aworth, S. 3. ("##"%. 7assupE A glimpse into the attitudes and beliefs of the 5illennial generation. $ournal of 9ollege and 9haracter. Ketrieved August "#, "##-, from httpCGGwww.college values.orgGarticles.cfmEaV) idV+)B 6hor, A., 2reire, P. ("##B%. 7hat are the fears and risks of transforma- tionE An A. 'arder, 5. 0altodano, K. '. 9orres (Lds.%, The critical pedagogy reader (pp. <-*J<*+%. Few NorkC Koutledge. >riginal work published )*1+ 6hult8, L. /., Feyhart, 9. =., Keck, I. 5. ()**+%. 6wimming against the tideC A study of prospective teachers attitudes regarding cultural diversity and urban teaching. Gestern $ournal of Clac1 Studies, 3:()%, )J-. 6iwatu, =. >. ("##-%. Preservice teachers culturally responsive teaching self-efficacy and outcome e&pectancy beliefs. Teaching and Teacher Education, 38, )#1+J))#). 6leeter, !. L. ("##1%. Preparing 7hite teachers for diverse students. An 5. !ochran-6mith, 6. 2eiman-Femser, '. S. 5cAntyre (Lds.%, @and!oo1 of research on teacher education: Enduring "uestions in changB ing conte#ts (Brd ed., pp. $$*J$1"%. Few NorkC Koutledge and Association of 9eacher Lducators.
6leeter, !. L., 3rant, !. A. ("##-%. =a1ing choices for multicultural education: ?i&e approaches to raceE classE and gender ($th ed.%. 6an 2ranciscoC Sossey-0ass. 6leeter, !. L., 5c/aren, P. ()**$%. AntroductionC L&ploring connec- tions to build a multiculturalism. An !. L. 6leeter P. 5c/aren (Lds.%, =ulticultural educationE critical pedagogyE and the politics of difB ference (pp. $JB"%. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. 6mith, K. 7. ("###%. 9he influence of teacher background on the inclu- sion of multicultural educationC A case study of two contrasts. r!an Re&ie', 83("%, )$$J)-+. 6mith, K. 7., 5oallem, 5., 6herrill, '. ()**-%. (ow preservice teachers think about cultural diversityC A closer look at factors which influence their beliefs toward e,uality. Education ?oundations, ((("%, <)J+). 6ong, =. (. ("##+%. Irban teachers beliefs on teaching, learning, and studentsC A pilot study in the Inited 6tates of America. Education and r!an Society, 8,(<%, <1)J<**. 6teinberg, 6. K. ()**$%. !ritical multiculturalism and democratic schoolingC An interview with Peter /. 5c/aren and Soe =incheloe. An !. L. 6leeter P. 5c/aren (Lds.%, =ulticultural educationE critical pedagogyE and the politics of difference (pp. )"*J)$<%. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. 6teinberg, 6. K., =incheloe, S. /. ("##)%. 6etting the conte&t for critical multiGinterculturalismC 9he power blocs of class elitism, white supremacy, and patriarchy. An 6. K. 6teinberg (Ld.%, =ultiIinterculB tural con&ersations (pp. "JB#%. Few NorkC Peter /ang. 9errill, 5. 5., 5ark, '. /. (. ("###%. Preservice teachers e&pectations for schools with children of color and second language learners. $ournal of Teacher Education, 6(("%, )<*J)$$. 9ettegah, 6. ()**+%. 9he racial consciousness attitudes of white prospective teachers and their perceptions of the teachability of students from
apRil #$1$ #$ 9
different racialGethnic backgroundsC 2indings from a !alifornia study. $ournal of Aegro Education, -6("%, )$)J)+B. 9ie88i, /. S., !ross, 0. L. ()**-%. Itili8ing research on prospective teachers beliefs to inform urban field e&periences. r!an Re&ie', 3+("%, ))BJ)"$. 9orok, !. L., Aguilar, 9. L. ("###%. !hanges in preservice teachers knowledge and beliefs about language issues. E"uity and E#cellence in Education, 88("%, "<JB). 4illegas, A. 5. ("##1%. 'iversity and teacher education An 5. !ochran- 6mith, 6. 2eiman-Femser, '. S. 5cAntyre (Lds.%, @and!oo1 of research on teacher education: Enduring "uestions in changing conte#ts (B ed., pp. $$)J$$1%. Few NorkC Koutledge and the Association of 9eacher Lducators. 4illegas, A. 5., 'avis, '. ("##1%. Preparing teachers of color to confront racialGethnic disparities in educational outcomes. An 5. !ochran-6mith, 6. 2eiman-Femser, '. S. 5cAntyre (Lds.%, @and!oo1 of research on teacher education: Enduring "uestions in changB ing conte#ts (Brd ed., pp. $1BJ+#$%. Few NorkC Koutledge and the Association of 9eacher Lducators. 4illegas, A. 5., /ucas, 9. ("##"%. Educating culturally responsi&e teachB ers: A coherent approach. AlbanyC 6tate Iniversity of Few Nork Press. 7eisman, L. 5., 3ar8a, 6. A. ("##"%. Preservice teacher attitudes toward diversityC !an one class make a differenceE E"uity and E#cellence in Education, 86()%, "1JB<. 7iggins, K. A., 2ollo, L. S. ()***%. 'evelopment of knowledge, attitudes, and commitment to teach diverse student populations. $ournal of Teacher Education, 6:("%, *<J)#$.
Zeichner, =., (oeft, =. ()**+%. 9eacher sociali8ation for cultural diversity. An S. 6ikula, 9. S. 0uttery, L. 3uyton (Lds.%, @and!oo1 of research on teacher education ("nd ed., pp. $"$J$<-%. >ld 9appan, FSC 5acmillan. Zemke, K., Kaines, !., 2ilipc8ack, 0. ("##B%. 2enerations at 'or1: =anaging the clash of &eteransE !oomersE JersE and ne#ters in your 'or1B place. Few NorkC A5A!>5. Zumwalt, =., !raig, L. ("##$%. 9eachers characteristicsC Kesearch on the demographic profile. An 5. !ochran-6mith =. Zeichner (Lds.%, Studying teacher education: The report of the AERA Panel on Research and Teacher Education (pp. )))J)$+%. 5ahwah, FSC /awrence Lrlbaum.
A%T&o R
A1T41+4 J. CA:TR4 is an assistant professor in the 'epartment of /earning, 9eaching, and !urriculum, Iniversity of 5issouri, !olumbia, "))2 9ownsend, !olumbia, 5> +$")). castroa<Kmissouri.edu. (is research focuses on the recruitment, preparation, and retention of teachers for culturally diverse conte&ts and urban schools. ;anuscript received Au'ust 1%* #$$8 Revisions received January 10* #$$9* ;ay 9* #$$9* and Au'ust #* #$$9 Accepted Au'ust 11* #$$9
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of preser- vice teachers views on cultural diversity, multicultural education,

Time Period (: The )nitial Phase of Research *(+,-. (++/0

school, to ascertain their preconceptions about their

Time Period 3: E#pansion of Research on Preser&ice Teachers4 5ie's *(++6.(+++0

Time Period 8: 9ontemporary 3::;0

American rural school, and an African

teachers, tracking their concerns with teaching

The Promise of the =illennial 2eneration

The Pro!lem 9omple#ity

included in this synthesis

)mplications for ?uture Research

responsive teacher preparation evident in classroom approaches to cultural

A'RA $ominating Committee (ee)s Recommen!ations for $ominees

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