PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND DUAL NATURE OF MATTER AND RADIATIONS

PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT: The phenomenon of emission of electrons from mainly metal surfaces exposed to light energy (X rays, rays, UV rays, Visible light and even Infra Red rays) of suitable frequency is known as photoelectric effect. The electrons emitted by this photo (light)-generated effects are called photoelectrons. The current constituted by photoelectrons is known as photoelectric current. The minimum amount light energy required by an electron to escape (or for emission) from the metal surface is called the work function of the metal. It is generally denoted by 0 and measured in eV (electron volt). One electron volt is the energy gained by an electron when it has been accelerated by a potential difference of 1 volt, so that 1 eV = 1.602 1019 J. For emission of electrons from the photo-sensitive metals, a certain minimum value of frequency of incident light is require below which no electrons are found to emit from the metal surface is called the threshold frequency.

It was found that certain metals like zinc, cadmium, magnesium, etc., responded only to ultraviolet light, having short wavelength, to cause electron emission from the surface. However, some alkali metals such as lithium, sodium, potassium, caesium and rubidium were sensitive even to visible light. Non metals also show photoelectric effect. Liquids and gases also show this effect but to limited extent.

Variation of Photo-electric Current w.r.t. frequency, intensity of incident light & Kinetic Energy of the Photo-Electrons: (Hallwachs and Lenard Experimental Observations)

To know the nature of Photo-electric Current, an experimental observation had been carried out by the scientist

Hallwachs and Lenard. It consists of an evacuated glass tube having a photosensitive plate C and another metal plate A. Monochromatic light from the source S of sufficiently short wavelength passes through the window W and falls on the photosensitive plate C (emitter). The electrons are emitted by the plate C and are collected by the plate A (collector), by the electric field created by the battery. The battery maintains the potential difference between the plates C and A, that can be varied. The polarity of the plates C and A can be reversed by a commutator. Thus, the plate A can be maintained at a desired positive or negative potential with respect to emitter C. When the collector plate A is positive with respect to the emitter plate C, the electrons are attracted to it. The emission of electrons causes flow of electric current in the circuit. The potential difference between the emitter and collector plates is measured by a voltmeter (V) whereas the resulting photo current flowing in the circuit is measured by a microammeter (A). The photoelectric current can be increased or decreased by varying the potential of collector plate A with respect to the emitter plate C. The intensity and frequency of the incident light can be varied, as can the potential difference V between the emitter C and the collector A.

The experimental set up has been used to study the variation of photocurrent with (a) Intensity of radiation, (b) frequency of incident radiation, (c) the potential difference between the plates A and C, and (d) the nature of the material of plate C. Experimental features and observations are summarised below:

i.

For

given

photosensitive

material

and

frequency of incident radiation (above the threshold frequency), the photoelectric current is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light.

ii.

For a given photosensitive material and frequency of incident radiation, saturation current is found to be proportional to the intensity of incident radiation whereas the stopping potential is independent of its intensity. Saturation Current is the maximum value of Photo-electric Current for a certain positive potential of the collector plate when all the photo-electrons emitted by emitter plate reaches the collector plate. For a particular frequency of incident radiation, Stopping Potential is the minimum negative (retarding) potential (V0) applied to the collector plate for which the Photo-Electric Current stops or become zero. (For a given frequency, higher the intensity of radiation higher is the saturation current but same stopping potential)

iii.

For a given photosensitive material, there exists a certain minimum cut-off frequency of the incident

radiation, called the threshold frequency, below which no

emission of photoelectrons takes place, no matter how intense the incident light is. Above the

threshold frequency, the stopping potential or equivalently the maximum kinetic energy of the emitted

photoelectrons increases linearly with the frequency of the incident radiation, but is independent of its intensity.

For incident radiation of different frequencies,

there are different values of stopping potential but the same value of the saturation current. This mean that greater the frequency of incident light, greater is the maximum kinetic energy of the photo electrons. Consequently, we need greater retarding potential to stop them completely. iv. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process without any apparent time lag (~10 9s or less), even when the incident radiation is made exceedingly dim.

Laws of Photo-electric Emission: (From the above experimental observation, the nature of the photo electric emission has been established & is state below)

i.

For a given photosensitive material, there is a minimum value of frequency of incident light called threshold frequency below which no photoelectric emission is possible, howsoever, the intensity of incident light may be.

ii.

The number of photoelectrons emitted per second (i.e. photoelectric current) is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency.

iii.

The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light provided the frequency is above the threshold frequency & is independent of the intensity of the incident light.

iv.

The process of photoelectric emission is instantaneous. i.e. as soon as the photon of suitable frequency falls on the substance, it emits photoelectrons.

Einsteins Photoelectric Equation: A. Particle Nature of light: The Wave nature of light (i.e., Light being an Electro-magnetic waves consisting of electric & magnetic fields with continuous distribution of energy over the region of space over which the wave extends) could not explain the main features of photoelectric effect. Its picture of continuous absorption of energy from radiation could not explain the independence of Kmax on intensity, the existence of o and the instantaneous nature of the process. In order to explain the features of Photoelectric Effect, In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed a radically new picture of electromagnetic radiation to explain photoelectric effect-the particle nature of light. According to which, light is composed of discrete packets of energy called quanta or photon particles. Photon picture of electromagnetic radiation i.e., Particle nature of light is as follows: 1. Light consists of packets of energy called Photons. 2. Each photon has energy E (=h) and momentum p (=h /c), and speed c, the speed of light.

3. All photons of light of a particular frequency , or wavelength , have the same energy E (=h = hc / ) and momentum p (= h /c = h/ ), whatever the intensity of radiation may be. 4. Photons are electrically neutral and are not deflected by electric and magnetic fields. 5. In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-electron collision), the total energy and total momentum are conserved. However, the number of photons may not be conserved in a collision. The photon may be absorbed or a new photon may be created. When a photon of energy h falls on a metal surface, the energy of the photon is absorbed by the electron. If the energy of the Photon absorbed exceeds the minimum energy needed for an electron to escape from the metal surface (work function 0), the electron emits with maximum kinetic energy given by

Kmax = h 0
or,

mv2max = h ( 0) (A)
0 the

where h is Plancks constant and the frequency of light,

threshold frequency. m, v the mass & velocity of the photo-electron respectively. The above equation (A) is known as Einsteins Photo-electric Equation. Verification of Laws of Photoelectric Emission based on Einsteins Photoelectric Equation: mv2max = h ( 0) i. If < 0, then mv2max is negative, which is not possible. Therefore, for photoelectric emission to take place > 0.

ii.

Since one photon emits one electron, so the number photoelectrons emitted per second is directly proportional to the intensity of incident light. It is clear that mv2max as h and 0 are constant. This shows that K.E. of the photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency of the incident light.

iii.

iv.

Photoelectric emission is due to collision between a photon and an electron. As such there can not be any significant time lag between the incidence of photon and emission of photoelectron. i.e. the process is instantaneous. It is found that delay is only 10-8 seconds.

Wave theory of electromagnetic radiations explained the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarization. On the other hand, quantum theory of e.m. radiations successfully explained the photoelectric effect, Compton effect, black body radiations, X- ray spectra, etc. Thus, radiations have dual nature. i.e. wave and particle nature.

WAVE NATURE OF MATTER- de Broglie Relation

(A natural question arises: If radiation has a dual (wave-particle) nature, might not the particles of nature the electrons, protons, etc. also exhibit wave-like character?)

Louis de Broglie suggested that the moving particles of matter (like electrons, protons, neutrons, etc) should display dual nature. i.e. they should also exhibit particle as well as wave nature under suitable condition like radiation. He reasoned that nature loves symmetry and that the two basic physical entities of Universe matter and radiations, must have symmetrical character. If radiation shows dual aspects, so should matter. De Broglie proposed that the wave length associated with a particle of momentum p is given as . (B)

where m is the mass of the particle and v its speed. Equation (B) is known as the de Broglie relation and the wavelength of the matter wave is called de Broglie wavelength. (Note that the dual aspect of matter is evident in the de Broglie relation. On the left hand side of Eq. (B), is the attribute of a wave while on the right hand side the momentum p is a typical attribute of a particle. Plancks constant h relates the two attributes.) de Broglie wavelength for a Photon: For a Photon, we know, the momentum p= h /c, So, de Broglie relation from equation (B) for a Photon can be written as, . (C) Where c is the speed of light & frequency of the Photon. That is, the de Broglie wavelength of a photon given by Eq. (C) equals the wavelength of electromagnetic radiation of which the photon is a quantum of energy and momentum. de Broglie wavelength for an Electron: Consider an electron (mass m, charge e) accelerated from rest through a potential V. The kinetic energy K of the electron equals the work done (eV) on it by the electric field: K=eV

Now,

so that

The de Broglie wavelength of the electron is then,

Substituting the numerical values of h, m, e, we get the magnitude of accelerating potential in volts.

where

is

Some observation on de Broglie relation

1. de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the velocity of the particle. If the particle moves faster, then the wavelength will be smaller and vice versa. 2. If the particle is at rest, then the de Broglie wavelength is infinite. Such a wave can not be visualized. 3. de Broglie wavelength is inversely proportional to the mass of the particle. The wavelength associated with a heavier particle is smaller than that with a lighter particle. 4. de Broglie wavelength is independent of the charge of the particle. Matter waves, like electromagnetic waves, can travel in vacuum and hence they are not mechanical waves. Matter waves are not electromagnetic waves because they are not produced by accelerated charges. Matter waves are probability waves, amplitude of which gives the probability of existence of the particle at the point.