K.L.N.

COLLEGE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

Pottapalayam – 630 611, Sivagangai District.

Year : 2008 -2009, Semester : 6

Branch : III B.E. EEE Subject : EE 1352 Power System Analysis

Name of the Writer (Collaborator) : R. Ramesh, Professor (EEE), IT Dept.

Unit : III Date of Submission : 16.12.2008

Syllabus : IIIrd Unit

FAULT ANALYSIS – BALANCED FAULT

Introduction – Balanced three phase fau1t – short circuit capacity –
systematic fault analysis using bus impedance matrix – algorithm for
formation of the bus impedance matrix.

EE 1352 - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

VI semester EEE Branch (2006-2010 Batch)
Unit – III – Fault Analysis – Balanced Fault

1
Syllabus :
Introduction – Balanced three phase fau1t – short circuit capacity – systematic fault
analysis using bus impedance matrix – algorithm for formation of the bus impedance
matrix.

Introduction :
Causes of fault :
1. Insulation failure – cable, insulator, insulation failure
2. Falling of a tree on a line.
3. Wind and ice loading on transmission line.
4. Vehicles colliding with supporting structures.
5. Overloading of underground cables.
6. Birds shorting the lines etc.

Need for short-circuit study :

1. To determine the magnitude of currents flowing in the system during fault.
2. To select the ratings of fuses, circuit breakers, switchgear and relay setting.
3. To make cable joints.
4. To check the MVA ratings of existing CB.
5. To design the grounding system properly.

Classification of faults :
1. Symmetrical faults.
2. Unsymmetrical faults.

I Symmetrical faults :
All 3 phases are shorted to each other and to ground also.
a) Occurrence is rare.
b) Severest of all the types of faults.
c) Fault current is maximum.

II. Unsymmetrical faults :

2
Only one phase or two phases are involved.
1. Line to Ground fault (LG fault)
2. Line to Line fault (LL fault)
3. Line to Line to Ground fault (LLG fault)

The computation of fault currents for unsymmetrical faults requires the knowledge of
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS.

Frequency of occurrence of various faults :

3-phase faults . . . . 5%
LLG faults . . . . 10%
LL faults . . . . 15%
LG faults . . . . 70%
Approximations in Modelling :
1. Synchronous machine :

Xd” – Immediately after fault subtransient reactance and subtransient voltage

Xd’ – After about 3 cycles, transient reactance and transient voltage.
Xd – Steaedy state reactance.
Eg – Generated emf of alternator.
3. Transformer :
Shunt elements of magnetizing current and core loss components are neglected.

3
 4. Transmission line :
Shunt capacitances are neglected.

5. All series resistances in generators, transmission lines and transformers are

neglected.
6. Flat profile is assumed in the initial stage. Initial prefault voltage is 1+ j0.
7. Load impedances are neglected – Prefault system is unloaded system.
8. Prefault currents are neglected. If it is to be considered, the prefault current is
superimposed on post-fault currents.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Transients due to short circuit in 3 phase alternator

Consider a 3 phase alternator running on no-load. If a 3 phase fault occurs at the

terminals of the alternator then a heavy short circuit flows on the armature circuit. The
oscillogram of the short circuit current after removing the DC off set current is shown
below :

Fig. 1 Symmetrical three phase faults on synchronous machines

The symmetrical short circuit current shown above, can be divided into three
regions called subtransient, transient and steady state region.
Under steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a syn.
generator produces the demagnetizing flux. This effect is represented as a reactance
called armature reaction reactance Xa. The sum of leakage reactance, Xl and Xa is called
synchronous reactance and denoted by Xd. On neglecting the armature resistance the
steady state short circuit model of an alternator will be as shown in 2(a). At the instant of
short circuit the DC off set current appears in all the 3 phases of stator. This dc offset
current can induce currents in rotor field winding and damper winding by transformer
action. The increase in field current and damper winding current will set up flux in a
direction to augument the main flux. This effect can be represented by two reactances in
parallel with Xa as shown in fig. 2.(b). Here Xf represents the flux created by induced
current in the field winding and Xdw represents the flux created by induced currents in the
damper winding. The combined effect of all the three reactances is to reduce the total
reactance of the machine and so the short circuit current is very high in this state which is

4
called as sub-transient state. The total reactance under this condition is called sub-
transient reactance and denoted by Xd”.

1
∴ X d" = X l +
1 1 1 . . . . (1)
+ +
X a X f X dw

Fig. 2 : Equivalent circuit of an alternator under subtransient, transient and steady

state conditions

The induced currents in the damper winding disappears after few cycles from the
instant of fault. Because the time constant of the damper winding is smaller than the field
winding. This effect is equivalent to open circuited Xdw and this state is called transient
state. The transient state of the alternator is shown in fig. 2(c). The total reactance in
transient state is called transient reactance and is denoted by Xd’.

1
∴ X d' = X l +
1 1 . . . . (2)
+
Xa X f

The transient state will exist for few cycles and then steady state conditions are
achieved. Because, the effect of field winding current will also die out in a short time
depending on its time constant. This effect is equivalent to open circuited Xl and this
state is referred as steady state. In steady state the total reactance is given by sum of X l
and Xa.

∴ X d = X l + X a . . . . (3)

From equations (1), (2) and (3) we can say that the subtransient reactance of the
machine is smallest and steady state reactance of the machine is highest among the
reactances. Therefore Xd”<Xd’<Xd.

Let |I| = RMS value of steady state current.

5
 |I’| = RMS value of transient current excluding dc component

|I”| = RMS value of subtransient current excluding dc component

Eg Eg
∴ X d" = =
I" oa / 2

Eg Eg
X d' = '
=
I ob / 2

Eg Eg
Xd = =
I oc / 2

The interrupting capacity of the circuit breaker is determined using subtransient

reactance for generators and transient reactance for motors.

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

INTERNAL VOLTAGES OF LOADED SYNCHRONOUS MACHINES

UNDER TRANSIENT CONDITIONS

Consider a generator connected to a bus with voltage Vt. Let IL be the current
delivered by the generator. The circuit model of
a syn. generator operator operating under steady
state conditions supplying a load current IL is
shown in fig. 3.5. Here Eg is the induced emf
under loaded condition and Xd is the direct axis
synchronous reactance of the machine.

Now, E g = Vt + jI L X d

Let a short circuit occur at the terminals of the generator while delivering the load
current IL. Now in order to study the subtransient state the Eg and Xd should be replaced
by Eg” and Xd” a shown in fig. 3.6. In order to study the transient state the E g and Xd of
Fig. 3.5 should be replaced by Eg’ and Xd’ as shown in fig. 3.6.

6
 Here, Eg” = Subtransient internal voltage.

Eg’ = Transient internal voltage.

In fig. (3.6) and (3.7) the prefault current is I L when the switch is not closed. The
fault condition can be represented by closing the switch. In fig. (3.6) when switch is
closed subtransient fault current will in the fault path. In fig. (3.7) when the switch is
closed, transient fault current will flow in the fault path.

With reference to fig. (3.6) and (3.7) if prefault load current is IL then we can
write,

E g" = Vt + jI L X d"

E g' = Vt + jI L X d'

It is important to note that the value of Eg” and Eg’ are functions of prefault load
current. Therefore Eg” and Eg’ have to be estimated for each value of load current.

The syn. motors have internal emfs and reactances similar to that of a generator
except that the current direction is reversed. Hence for short circuit studies the circuit
models similar to that of fig. (3.5) to (3.7) can be used for syn. motor with reversed
direction of current. Therefore for syn. Motor,

E g" = Vt − jI L X d"

E g' = Vt − jI L X d'

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

Symmetrical (Balanced) 3 phase faults

When a fault occurs in a power system network, the currents flowing is

determined by its internal emf of the machines in the system, by their internal
impedances and by impedances in the network between the machines and the fault.
When the fault current is equal in all the phases the fault is called symmetrical fault. The
fault current will be symmetrical only in three phase faults in which all the three phases
are shunted to ground.

The symmetrical fault can be analysed on per phase basis using reactance diagram
or by using per unit reactance diagram. The symmetrical fault analysis has to be
performed separately for subtransient, transient and steady state conditions of the fault,
because the reactances and internal emfs of the synchronous machines will be different in
each state.

7
The fault currents and voltages in the various parts of the system can be determined by
any one of the following methods :
1. Using Kirchhoff’s voltage and current law
2. Using Thevenin’s Theorem
3. By forming Bus impedance matrix.

Thevenin equivalent circuit.

VT
If =
ZT + Z f
Where Zf = fault impedance
VT = Thevenin voltage
ZT = Thevenin impedance
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-

SYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS USING BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX

The bus impedance matrix can be used to estimate the fault at any point of the
system. Usually this method is useful for large system.

Consider the following matrix equation matrix equation relating the bus voltages,
currents injected to the buses and bus impedance matrix for a n-bus system.
Zbus I = V
 Z 11 Z 12 . Z 1k . Z 1n   I 1  V1 
Z Z 2 n   I 2  V2 
 21 Z 22 . Z 2k .
 . . . . . .  .   . 
   =  
 Z k1 Z k 2 . Z kk . Z kn   I k  Vk 
 . . . . . .  .   . 
    
 Z n1 Z n 2 . Z nk . Z nn   I n  Vn 
Where I1, I2,. . . . In are currents injected to buses 1,2,. . . . n respectively.
and V1, V2,. . . . . Vn are voltages at buses 1,2,. . . . n respectively.
Let a three phase fault occur in bus k.
The prefault voltage at bus k be Vpf. Let the prefault condition be represented by
a source of value Vpf as shown in fig. (a). The fault condition can be represented by a
source of Vpf in series with prefault voltage source as shown in fig. (b), so that the total

8
bus voltage in bus k is zero. Due to this fault all other bus voltages will change. Let the
change in bus voltage be ∆V1, ∆V2, . . . . . ∆Vn.

(a) Prefault condition (b) Fault condition

Let us assume that the prefault current is zero. Therefore the prefault voltages of
all the buses including bus-k will be 1 p.u. When a three phase fault occurs in bus-k the
fault current If will flow away from the bus-k and so the current injected to bus-k is –I f.
Now if we replace all other sources by zero value sources then the current injected to all
other buses will be zero. Under this condition the only source in the network is –Vpf and
current injected to bus-k is –If.

Also the voltages in all other buses are only the change in voltages. This
condition can be represented by the following matrix equation.

 Z 11 Z 12 . Z 1k . Z 1n   0   ∆V1 
Z Z 22 . Z 2k . Z 2 n   0   ∆V2 
 21
 . . . . . .  .   . 
  = 
 Z k1 Zk2 . Z kk . Z kn  − If  ∆Vk 
 . . . . . .  .   . 
    
 Z n1 Z n2 . Z nk . Z nn   0   ∆Vn 

From the above matrix equation, we get,

∆V1 = − I f Z 1k

∆V2 = − I f Z 2 k

− V pf = − I f Z kk

∆Vn = − I f Z kn

V pf
The fault current in bus–k, I f =
Z kk

9
 In general the change in bus-q voltage due to a three phase fault in bus-k is given
by ∆Vq = − I f Z qk

The voltage at a bus during a fault in bus-k is given by sum of prefault bus
voltage and change in bus voltage. Since the system is unloaded system the prefault
voltage at all buses be Vpf = 1.0 p.u. (i.e. same as bus –k voltage).

∴V1 = V pf − I f Z 1k = 1∠0° − I f Z 1k

V2 = V pf − I f Z 2 k = 1∠0° − I f Z 2 k

Vk = V pf − V pf = 0

Vn = V pf − I f Z nk = 1∠0° − I f Z nk

The postfault voltages at the buses can be determined as shown above. Then the
fault current flowing through the lines can be estimated from the knowledge of line
impedances. A sample calculation for fault current in the line-qr is shown below.

Vq − Vr
I qr = = (Vq − Vr ) y qr
Z qr

--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The circuit breakers are protective devices which are used in power system
to automatically open the faulty part of the system in the event of a fault. Since the
power system is predominantly inductive in nature, the interruption of heavy current
when the CB open its contacts is associated with large voltage induced across its contacts
which inturn results in sparking at the contacts. Hence in CB the amount of current it has
to interrupt is an important criteria.
The CB for a particular application (or load) is selected based on the
following ratings :
1. Normal working power level specified as rated interrupting current or rated
interrupting kVA.
2. The fault level specified as either the rated short circuit interrupting current or
rated short circuit interrupting MVA.
3. Momentary current rating.
4. Normal working voltage.

10
 5. Speed of circuit breaker.
The speed of CB is the time between the occurrence of the fault to the
extinction of the arc. It is normally specified in cycles of power frequency. The standard
speed of CBs are 8, 5, 3 or 1½ cycles.
Short circuit interrupting MVA= 3 V pfL I fL

where V pfL = Magnitude of prefault voltage at fault point in kV.

I fL = Magnitude of line value of short circuit interrupting current at the fault in kA.
or Short circuit interrupting MVA= V pfL , pu x I fL , pu xMVAb

where V pfL , pu = Magnitude of prefault voltage at fault point in pu.

I fL , pu = Magnitude of line value of short circuit interrupting current at the fault in pu.
Note : Here, the short circuit interrupting MVA is a 3 phase power rating.
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
SHORT CIRCUIT CAPACITY (SCC)
The short circuit capacity (SCC) of a bus of
a network is defined as the product of the magnitudes of the prefault voltage and the post
fault current. The SCC is also known as the fault level.

|SCC| = |V0| x |IF| VA

where V0 = prefault voltage in volts and
IF = post fault current in amps.
S b , 3Φ
SCC 3Φ = MVA
Z f , pu
The fault current (short circuit current) can be found as follows:
SCC 3Φ x10 6
If =
3 xVL ,b x10 3
where Sb = base volt ampere in VA
Vb = base voltage in volts
SCC3Φ = 3 phase Short circuit capacity in VA
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Algorithm for short circuit studies :
Short circuit studies for larger systems need systematic algorithm so that a digital
computer can be used.

Consider an n-bus system shown in fig. 3.6 which is having a steady load. The following
steps are to be followed.

11
 Fig. 3.6 Sample n-bus system

Step 1 :
Obtain prefault voltages at all buses and currents in all transmission lines by conducting
load flow study. Let the prefault bus voltage vector be

V10 
 0
V2 
0
VBus =  .  . . .. . (1)
 
 . 
V 0 
 n

Let us assume that a fault occurs at rth bus through a fault impedance Zf. The postfault
bus voltage vector is given by,
f
VBus = V Bus
0
+ ∆V . . . . . .(2)
where ∆V is the vector of changes in bus voltages caused by the fault.

Step 2 :
The next step is to draw the passive Thevenin’s network for the system with generators
replaced by transient or subtransient reactances with their emfs shorted as shown in fig.
3.7.

12
Step 3 :
Next we excite the Thevenin’s network with –Vr0 in series with Zf as shown in fig. The
vector ∆V comprises the bus voltages of this network.
∆V = Z J . . . . (3)
bus f
where ZBUS is the bus impedance matrix of Thevenin’s network and is given by,

 Z 11 . . Z 1n 
 . . . . 
Z Bus = . . . . . (4)
 . . . . 
 
 Z n1 . . Z nn 
and Jf is the bus current injection vector.
Since the network is injected with current –Jf only at the rth bus,
 0 
 0 
 
 . 
Jf =  . . . . . (5)
I r = −I f 
 . 
 
 0 
Substituting in equation (5) in equation (3), we get the changes in voltage in rth bus
∆Vr = − Z rr I f . . . . (6)
Step 4 :
The voltage at the rth bus under fault is,
∆Vr = Vr0 + ∆Vr0 = Vr0 − Z rr I f . . . . (7)
Also, Vr = Z f I f
0

We have from equation (6) and (7)

Solved Problems :

13
1. A 3 phase transmission line operating at 33 kV and having a resistance and reactance of
5 ohm and 20 ohm respectively is connected to a generating station bus bar through a 15
MVA step up transformer which has a reactance of 0.06 pu. Two generators one 10 MVA
having 0.1 pu reactance and another 5 MVA having 0.075 pu reactance are connected to
the bus bars. Calculate the short circuit MVA and the fault current when a 3 phase short
circuit occurs at (i) the high voltage terminals of the transformer (ii) at the load end of the
transmission line.

Solution :
The single line diagram is drawn as

Selecting 10 MVA as base MVA and 33kV as base kV in transmission line

X g1 = 0.1
10
X g 2 = 0.075 x = 0.15
5
10
X T 1 = 0.06 x = 0.04
15
2
33
Z base = = 108.9Ω
10
5 + j 20
Z T .L = = 0.046 + j 0.18366
108.9

From the single line diagram, the reactance diagram is drawn as

When a 3 phase fault occurs at point A,

We get the value of p.u. impedance as

14
 j 0.1xj 0.15
Z Tp .u . = j 0.04 + = j 0.04 + j 0.06 = j 0.1 p.u.
j 0.25
Short circuit MVA fed into the fault is,
S 10
SCC = b = = 100 MVA
Z Tp .u . 0.1
100 x10 6
∴ Faultcurrent = = 1749.5 Amps.
3 x33x10 3

When a 3 phase fault occurs at the point B

We get the value of p.u. impedance as
ZTp.u. = 0.046+j0.28366 = 0.2874<80.79°
Sb 10
= = 34.79 MVA
Z Tp.u . 0.2874
=
34.79 x10 6
Faultcurrent = = 608.8 Amps.
3 x33 x10 3
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 2 :
For the radial network shown, a 3 phase fault occurs at F. Determine the fault current and
the line voltage at 11 kV bus under fault conditions.

Solution :
Base MVA = 100
Base kV on Generator side = 11
Base kV on Overhead Transmission Line = 33 kV.
Base kV on Cable = 6.6 kV
2
100  11 
Reactance of Generator 1 = j 0.15 x x  = j1.5 p.u.
10  11 

15
 2
100  11 
Reactance of Generator 2 = j 0.125 x x  = j1.25 p.u.
10  11 
2
100  11 
Reactance of Transformer 1 = j 0.1x x  = j1.0 p.u.
10  11 
2
100  33 
Reactance of Transformer 2 = j 0.0.08 x x  = j1.6 p.u.
5  33 
33 2
Zbus in overhead transmission line = = 10.89Ω
100
6.6 2
Zbus in cable = = 0.4356Ω
100

30 x(0.135 + j 0.08)
p.u. impedance of overhead transmission line = = 0.744 + j 0.99 p.u.
10.89
3 x(0.135 + j 0.08)
p.u. impedance of cable = = 0.93 + j 0.55
0.4356
The p.u. reactance diagram is shown below :

The fault occurs when the generators are at no load. Therefore they are considered at
Vt = 1<0°
j1.5 xj1.25
X eq = = j 0.682
j 2.75
Thevenin’s impedance = j0.682 + j1.0 + 0.744 + j0.99 + j1.6 + 0.93 + j0.55
= 1.674 + j4.822
ZTH = 5.1<70.8° p.u.
Using Thevenin’s theorem,
V 1∠0°
I SC = T = = 0.196∠ − 70.8° Amp.
Z TH 5.1∠70.8°
100 x10 6
I base = = 8750 Amp.
3 x6.6 x10 3
∴ I SCactual = 0.196 x8750 = 1.715kAmp.
Total impedance between F and 11 kV bus = 0.93 + j0.55 + j1.6 + 0.766 + j0.99 + j1.0
= 1.674 + j4.14
= 4.43<67.8° ohms
Voltage at 11 kV bus = 4.43<67.8° x 0.196<-70.8° = 0.88<-3° = 9.68 kV.

16
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Problem 3 :
A syn. Generator and a syn motor each rated 25 MVA, 11 kV having 15% subtransient
reactance are connected through transformers and a line as shown in fig. The
transformers are rated 25 MVA, 11/66 kV and 66/11 kV with leakage reactance of 10 %
each. The line has a reactance of 10% on a base of 25 MVA, 66 kV. The motor is
drawing 15 MW at 0.8 pf lead and a terminal voltage of 10.6 when a symmetrical 3
phase fault occurs at the motor terminals. Find the subtransient current in the generator
motor and fault.

Solution :
Choose a base of 25 MVA, 11 kV.
All reactances are given in proper bases.
Therefore, the p.u. reactance diagram is

Base voltage is 11 kV at fault point.

10.6
Load voltage in p.u., V p.u . = = 0.9636 p.u.
11
15
Load MVA = = 18.75MVA
0.8
18.75
Load MVA in p.u.= = 0.75 p.u.
25
LoadMVAp.u. 0.75
Load current in p.u., I Lp.u . = = = 0.7783
Loadvoltagep.u. 0.9636
Since the pf is 0.8 lead, the pf angle is
Φ = cos-10.8=36.9°
ILp.u. = 0.7783<36.9°
The emf behind subtransient reactance of the generator

17
 E g" = Vt + I L X d"
= 0.9636∠0° + (0.7783∠36.9 xj 0.45)
= 0.7536 + j 0.28 p.u.
The emf behind the subtransient reactance of the motor

E m" = Vt − I L X d"
= 0.9636∠0° − (0.7783∠36.9 xj 0.45)
= 1.0336 − j 0.0933 p.u.
Under faulted condition,
E g" 0.7536 + j 0.28
I =
"
g "
=
X totalfromgeneratortofault j 0.45
= 0.6226 − j1.6746
E m" 1.0336 − j 0.0933
I m" = "
=
X totalfrommotortofault j 0.15
= −0.6226 − j 6.8906 p.u.
∴ I f = I G" + I m" = − j8.5653 p.u.
25 x10 6
Base current = = 1312.2 Amp.
3 x11x10 3
Now Ig” = 1312.2 x (0.6226 - j1.6746) = 816.4 – j2197.4Amps.
Im” = 1312.2 x (-0.6226 - j6.8906) = -816.4 – j9041.8 Amps.
∴ I f = I g" + I m" = −11239 Amps.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-
Problem 4 :
Consider the 3-bus system shown in figure below. The generators are 100 MVA,
with transient reactance 10% each. Both the transformers are 100 MVA with a leakage
reactance of 5 %. The reactance of each of the lines to a base o 100 MVA, 110 kV is 10
%. Obtain the short circuit solution for a three phase solid short circuit on bus 3.
Assume prefault voltages to be 1 p.u. and prefault currents to be zero.

Solution :

18
Step 1:
Addition of element connected between nodes (0) and (1). This is adding an element of
value 0.15 ohms. from the new bus to the reference bus.
(1)
∴ Z bus = (1)[ j 0.15]
Step 2 :
Addition of element connected between nodes (1) and (2). This is adding an element of
value 0.1 ohms from the existing bus to the new bus.

 j1.5 j1.5 
Z bus = (1) 
 j1.5 j 2.5

Step 3 :
Addition of element connected between nodes (0) and node (2). This is adding an
element of value 0.15 ohms from the existing bus to reference bus. Create a factious bus
(l) and generate Zbus.

19
 (1) (2) (l)
 j 0.15 j 0.15 j 0.15
Z bus = (1)  j 0.15 j 0.25 j 0.25
 j 0.15 j 0.25 j 0.4 
Eliminating the factious node (l)
 j 0.09375 j 0.05625
Z bus =  
 j 0.05625 j 0.09375

Z 11 = j 0.15 −
( 0.15)
2
= j 0.09375
j 0 .4

Z 21 = Z 12 = j 0.15 −
( 0.25) x(0.15) = j 0.05625
j 0 .4
j ( 0.25)
Z 22 = j 0.25 − = j 0.09375
j 0 .4
Step 4 :
Addition of element connected between nodes (1) and (3). This is adding an element of
0.1 ohms between the existing bus (1) and the new bus (3).

20
Review Questions (2 marks)
1. How do short circuits occur on a power system ?
2. Distinguish between symmetrical and unsymmetrical short circuits.
3. What are the applications of short-circuit analysis?
4. Define short circuit capacity of a power system.
5. What are the different types of fault which occur in a power system?
6. Define symmetrical fault.
7. Name any two methods of reducing short circuit current.

Reviw Questions (16 marks)

1. (a) Explain the need for short circuit studies.
(b) Draw the oscillogram when an unloaded alternator is subjected to symmetrical
short circuit and hence explain how to obtain xd, xd’ and xd” from it.
2. With the help of a detailed flow chart, explain how a symmetrical fault can be
analyzed using ZBUS.
3. What are the various types of faults ? Discuss the frequency of occurrence and
severity.

21
4. Explain the difference between direct axis transient reactance and direct axis
sub-transient reactance of alternators.
5. Explain the method of calculation of fault currents in the transmission system
using Thevenin’s theorem.
6. A Generator-transformer unit is connected to a line through a circuit breaker. The
unit ratings are :
Generator : 10 MVA, 6.6 kV, Xd” = 0.1 p.u., Xd’= 0.20 p.u. and Xd = 0.80 p.u.
Transformer : 10 MVA, 6.9/33 kV, reactance = 0.08 p.u.
The system is operating at no load at a line voltage at 30 kV, when a three phse
fault occurs on the line just beyond the circuit breaker. Find
(a) the initial symmetrical rms current in the breaker.
(b) the maximum possible DC off-set current in the breaker
(c) the momentary current rating of the breaker
(d) the current to be interrupted by the breaker and the interrupting kV and
(e) the sustained short circuit current in the breaker.
8. The system shown in figure is delivering 50 MVA at 11 kV, 0.8 lagging power
factor into a bus which may be regarded as infinite. Particulars of various system
components are :
Generator : 60 MVA, 12 kV, Xd’ = 0.35 p.u.
Transformers (each) : 10 MVA, 12/66 kV, reactance 0.08 p.u.
Line : Reactance : 12 ohms, resistance negligible.
Calculate the symmetrical current that the circuit breakers A and B will be called
upon to interrupt in the event of a three phase fault occurring at F near the circuit
breaker B.

9. In the system configuration of figure, the system impedance data is given below :
Transient reactance of each generator = 0.15 p.u.
Leakage reactance of each transformer = 0.05 p.u.,
Z12 = j0.1, Z13 = j0.12, Z23 = j0.08 p.u.
For a solid 3 phase fault on bus 3, find all bus voltages and S C currents in each
component.
Assume prefault voltages to be 1 p.u. and prefault currents to be zero.

22
 10. For a fault (solid) location shown in figure, find the short circuit currents in
line 1-2 and 1-3. Prefault system is on no-load with 1 p.u. voltage and prefault
currents are zero. Use ZBUS method and compute its elements by the current injection
technique.

23
24