Unit 8 - IT

DMA Controller 8257

The Direct Memory Access or DMA mode of data transfer is the fastest amongst all the modes of data transfer. In this mode, the device may transfer data directly to/from memory without any interference from the CPU. The device requests the CPU (through a DMA controller) to hold its data, address and control bus, so that the device may transfer data directly to/from memory. The DMA data transfer is initiated only after receiving HLDA signal from the CPU. Intels 8257 is a four channel DMA controller designed to be interfaced with their family of microprocessors. The 8257, on behalf of the devices, requests the CPU for bus access using local bus request input i.e. HOLD in minimum mode. In maximum mode of the microprocessor RQ/GT pin is used as bus request input. On receiving the HLDA signal (in minimum mode) or RQ/GT signal (in maximum mode) from the CPU, the requesting devices gets the access of the bus, and it completes the required number of DMA cycles for the data transfer and then hands over the control of the bus back to the CPU.

Internal Architecture of 8257 The internal architecture of 8257 is shown in figure. The chip support four DMA channels, i.e. four peripheral devices can independently request for DMA data transfer through these channels at a time. The DMA controller has 8-bit internal data buffer, a read/write unit, a control unit, a priority resolving unit along with a set of registers. Register Organization of 8257

The 8257 performs the DMA operation over four independent DMA channels. Each of four channels of 8257 has a pair of two 16-bit registers, viz. DMA address register and terminal count register.

There are two common registers for all the channels, namely, mode set register and status register. Thus there are a total of ten registers. The CPU selects one of these ten registers using address lines Ao-A3. Table shows how the Ao-A3 bits may be used for selecting one of these registers. DMA Address Register Each DMA channel has one DMA address register. The function of this register is to store the address of the starting memory location, which will be accessed by the DMA channel. Thus the starting address of the memory block which will be accessed by the device is first loaded in the DMA address register of the channel. The device that wants to transfer data over a DMA channel, will access the block of the memory with the starting address stored in the DMA Address Register.

Terminal Count Register Each of the four DMA channels of 8257 has one terminal count register (TC). This 16-bit register isused for ascertaining that the data transfer through a DMA channel ceases or stops after the required number of DMA cycles. The low order 14-bits of the terminal count register are initialised with the binary equivalent of the number of required DMA cycles minus one. After each DMA cycle, the terminal count register content will be decremented by one and finally it becomes zero after the required number of DMA cycles are over. The bits 14 and 15 of this register indicate the type of the DMA operation (transfer). If the device wants to write data into the memory, the DMA operation is called DMA write operation. Bit 14 of the register in this case will be set to one and bit 15 will be set to zero. Table gives detail of DMA operation selection and corresponding bit configuration of bits 14 and 15 of the TC register.

Mode Set Register The mode set register is used for programming the 8257 as per the requirements of the system. The function of the mode set register is to enable the DMA channels individually and also to set the various modes of operation. The DMA channel should not be enabled till the DMA address register and the terminal count register contain valid information, otherwise, an unwanted DMA request may initiate a DMA cycle, probably destroying the valid memory data. The bits Do-D3 enable one of the four DMA channels of 8257. for example, if Do is 1, channel 0 is enabled. If

bit 4 is set, rotating priority is enabled, otherwise, the normal, i.e. fixed priority is enabled.

If the TC STOP bit is set, the selected channel is disabled after the terminal count condition is reached, and it further prevents any DMA cycle on the channel. To enable the channel again, this bit must be reprogrammed. If the TC STOP bit is programmed to be zero, the channel is not disabled, even after the count reaches zero and further request are allowed on the same channel. The auto load bit, if set, enables channel 2 for the repeat block chaining operations, without immediate software intervention between the two successive blocks. The channel 2 registers are used as usual, while the channel 3 registers are used to store the block reinitialisation parameters, i.e. the DMA starting address and terminal count. After the first block is transferred using DMA, the channel 2 registers are reloaded with the corresponding channel 3 registers for the next block transfer, if the update flag is set. The extended write bit, if set to 1, extends the duration of MEMW and IOW signals by activating them earlier, this is useful in interfacing the peripherals with different access times. If the peripheral is not accessed within the stipulated time, it is expected to give the NOT READY indication to 8257, to request it to add one or more wait states in the DMA CYCLE. The mode set register can only be written into. Status Register The status register of 8257 is shown in figure. The lower order 4-bits of this register contain the terminal count status for the four individual channels. If any of these bits is set, it indicates that the specific channel has reached the terminal count condition.

These bits remain set till either the status is read by the CPU or the 8257 is reset. The update flag is not affected by the read operation. This flag can only be cleared by resetting 8257 or by resetting the auto load bit of the mode set register. If the update flag is set, the contents of the channel 3 registers are reloaded to the corresponding registers of channel 2 whenever the channel 2 reaches a terminal count condition, after transferring one block and the next block is to be transferred using the autoload feature of 8257. The update flag is set every time, the channel 2 registers are loaded with contents of the channel 3 registers. It is cleared by the completion of the first DMA cycle of the new block. This register can only read.

Data Bus Buffer, Read/Write Logic, Control Unit and Priority Resolver The 8-bit. Tristate, bidirectional buffer interfaces the internal bus of 8257 with the external system bus under the control of various control signals. In the slave mode, the read/write logic accepts the I/O Read or I/O Write signals, decodes the Ao-A3 lines and either writes the contents of the data bus to the addressed internal register or reads the contents of the selected register depending upon whether IOW or IOR signal is activated. In master mode, the read/write logic generates the IOR and IOW signals to control the data flow to or from the selected peripheral. The control logic controls the sequences of operations and generates the required control signals like AEN, ADSTB, MEMR, MEMW, TC and MARK along with the address lines A4-A7, in master mode. The priority resolver resolves the priority of the four DMA channels depending upon whether normal priority or rotating priority is programmed.

Signal Description of 8257 DRQo-DRQ3 : These are the four individual channel DMA request inputs, used by the peripheral devices for requesting the DMA services. The DRQo has the highest priority while DRQ3 has the lowest one, if the fixed priority mode is selected. DACKo-DACK3 : These are the active-low DMA acknowledge output lines which inform the requesting peripheral that the request has been honoured and the bus is relinquished by the CPU. These lines may act as strobe lines for the requesting devices.

Pin Diagram of 8257

Do-D7: These are bidirectional, data lines used to interface the system bus with the internal data bus of 8257. These lines carry command words to 8257 and status word from 8257, in slave mode, i.e. under the control of CPU. The data over these lines may be transferred in both the directions. When the 8257 is the bus master (master mode, i.e. not under CPU control), it uses Do-D7 lines to send higher byte of the generated address to the latch. This address is further latched using ADSTB signal. the address is transferred over Do-D7 during the first clock cycle of the DMA cycle. During the rest of the period, data is available on the data bus. IOR: This is an active-low bidirectional tristate input line that acts as an input in the slave mode. In slave mode, this input signal is used by the CPU to read internal registers of 8257.this line acts output in master mode. In master mode, this signal is used to read data from a peripheral during a memory write cycle. IOW : This is an active low bidirection tristate line that acts as input in slave mode to load the contents of the data bus to the 8-bit mode register or upper/lower byte of a 16-bit

DMA address register or terminal count register. In the master mode, it is a control output that loads the data to a peripheral during DMA memory read cycle (write to peripheral). CLK: This is a clock frequency input required to derive basic system timings for the internal operation of 8257. RESET : This active-high asynchronous input disables all the DMA channels by clearing the mode register and tristates all the control lines. Ao-A3: These are the four least significant address lines. In slave mode, they act as input which select one of the registers to be read or written. In the master mode, they are the four least significant memory address output lines generated by 8257. CS: This is an active-low chip select line that enables the read/write operations from/to 8257, in slave mode. In the master mode, it is automatically disabled to prevent the chip from getting selected (by CPU) while performing the DMA operation. A4-A7 : This is the higher nibble of the lower byte address generated by 8257 during the master mode of DMA operation. READY: This is an active-high asynchronous input used to stretch memory read and write cycles of 8257 by inserting wait states. This is used while interfacing slower peripherals.. HRQ: The hold request output requests the access of the system bus. In the noncascaded 8257 systems, this is connected with HOLD pin of CPU. In the cascade mode, this pin of a slave is connected with a DRQ input line of the master 8257, while that of the master is connected with HOLD input of the CPU. HLDA : The CPU drives this input to the DMA controller high, while granting the bus to the device. This pin is connected to the HLDA output of the CPU. This input, if high, indicates to the DMA controller that the bus has been granted to the requesting peripheral by the CPU. MEMR: This active low memory read output is used to read data from the addressed memory locations during DMA read cycles. MEMW :

This active-low three state output is used to write data to the addressed memory location during DMA write operation. ADST : This output from 8257 strobes the higher byte of the memory address generated by the DMA controller into the latches. AEN: This output is used to disable the system data bus and the control the bus driven by the CPU, this may be used to disable the system address and data bus by using the enable input of the bus drivers to inhibit the non-DMA devices from responding during DMA operations. If the 8257 is I/O mapped, this should be used to disable the other I/O devices, when the DMA controller addresses is on the address bus. TC: Terminal count output indicates to the currently selected peripherals that the present DMA cycle is the last for the previously programmed data block. If the TC STOP bit in the mode set register is set, the selected channel will be disabled at the end of the DMA cycle. The TC pin is activated when the 14-bit content of the terminal count register of the selected channel becomes equal to zero. The lower order 14 bits of the terminal count register are to be programmed with a 14-bit equivalent of (n-1), if n is the desired number of DMA cycles. MARK : The modulo 128 mark output indicates to the selected peripheral that the current DMA cycle is the 128th cycle since the previous MARK output. The mark will be activated after each 128 cycles or integral multiples of it from the beginning if the data block (the first DMA cycle), if the total number of the required DMA cycles (n) is completely divisible by 128. Vcc : This is a +5v supply pin required for operation of the circuit. GND : This is a return line for the supply (ground pin of the IC).

Interfacing 8257 with 8086 Once a DMA controller is initialised by a CPU property, it is ready to take control of the system bus on a DMA request, either from a peripheral or itself (in case of memory-tomemory transfer). The DMA controller sends a HOLD request to the CPU and waits for the CPU to assert the HLDA signal. The CPU relinquishes the control of the bus before asserting the HLDA signal. A conceptual implementation of the system is shown in Figure

Once the HLDA signal goes high, the DMA controller activates the DACK signal to the requesting peripheral and gains the control of the system bus. The DMA controller is the sole master of the bus, till the DMA operation is over. The CPU remains in the HOLD status (all of its signals are tristate except HOLD and HLDA), till the DMA controller is the master of the bus. In other words, the DMA controller interfacing circuit implements a switching arrangement for the address, data and control busses of the memory and peripheral subsystem from/to the CPU to/from the DMA controller.

8.2 SERIAL COMMUNICATION USING 8251 8251 is a Universal Synchronous and Asynchronous Receiver and Transmitter compatible with Intels processors. This chip converts the parallel data into a serial stream of bits suitable for serial transmission. It is also able to receive a serial stream of bits and convert it into parallel data bytes to be read by a microprocessor. 8.2.1 Basic Modes of data transmission a) Simplex b) Duplex c) Half Duplex a) Simplex mode Data is transmitted only in one direction over a single communication channel. For example, the processor may transmit data for a CRT display unit in this mode. b) Duplex Mode In duplex mode, data may be transferred between two transreceivers in both directions simultaneously.

c) Half Duplex mode In this mode, data transmission may take place in either direction, but at a time data may be transmitted only in one direction. A computer may communicate with a terminal in this mode. It is not possible to transmit data from the computer to the terminal and terminal to computer simultaneously.

8.2.2 Architecture of 8251A

Fig. 8.1 Internal architecture of 8251

The data buffer interfaces the internal bus of the circuit with the system bus. The read / write control logic controls the operation of the peripheral depending upon the operations initiated by the CPU. C /

D decides whether the address on internal data

bus is control address / data address. The modem control unit handles the modem handshake signals to coordinate the communication between modem and USART. The transmit control unit transmits the data byte received by the data buffer from the CPU for serial communication. The transmission rate is controlled by the input frequency. Transmit control unit also derives two transmitter status signals namely TXRDY and TXEMPTY which may be used by the CPU for handshaking. The transmit buffer is a parallel to serial converter that receives a parallel byte for conversion into a serial signal for further transmission.

The receive control unit decides the receiver frequency as controlled by the RXC input frequency. The receive control unit generates a receiver ready (RXRDY) signal that may be used by the CPU for handshaking. This unit also detects a break in the data string while the 8251 is in asynchronous mode. In synchronous mode, the 8251 detects SYNC characters using SYNDET/BD pin.

8.2.3 Signal Description of 8251

Fig. 8.2 Pin Configuration of 8251

D0 D7 : This is an 8-bit data bus used to read or write status, command word or data from or to the 8251A. C / D : (Control Word/Data): This input pin, together with RD and WR inputs,
informs the 8251A that the word on the data bus is either a data or control word/status information. If this pin is 1, control / status is on the bus, otherwise data is on the bus. RD : This active-low input to 8251A is used to inform it that the CPU is reading either data or status information from its internal registers.

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This active-low input to 8251A is used to inform it that the CPU is writing data or control word to 8251A.

WR : This is an active-low chip select input of 825lA. If it is high, no read or write

operation can be carried out on 8251. The data bus is tristated if this pin is high. CLK : This input is used to generate internal device timings and is normally connected to clock generator output. This input frequency should be at least 30 times greater than the receiver or transmitter data bit transfer rate. RESET : A high on this input forces the 8251A into an idle state. The device will remain idle till this input signal again goes low and a new set of control word is written into it. The minimum required reset pulse width is 6 clock states, for the proper reset operation.

TXC (Transmitter Clock Input) : This transmitter clock input controls the rate at which
the character is to be transmitted. The serial data is shifted out on the successive negative edge of the TXC .

TXD (Transmitted Data Output) : This output pin carries serial stream of the transmitted data bits along with other information like start bit, stop bits and parity bit, etc.

RXC (Receiver Clock Input) : This receiver clock input pin controls the rate at which
the character is to be received. RXD (Receive Data Input) : This input pin of 8251A receives a composite stream of the data to be received by 8251 A. RXRDY (Receiver Ready Output) : This output indicates that the 8251A contains a character to be read by the CPU. TXRDY - Transmitter Ready : This output signal indicates to the CPU that the internal circuit of the transmitter is ready to accept a new character for transmission from the CPU.

DSR - Data Set Ready : This is normally used to check if data set is ready when
communicating with a modem. DTR - Data Terminal Ready : This is used to indicate that the device is ready to

accept data when the 8251 is communicating with a modem.

RTS - Request to Send Data : This signal is used to communicate with a modem.

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TXE- Transmitter Empty : The TXE signal can be used to indicate the end of a transmission mode.

8.2.4 Operating Modes of 8251 1. 2. Asynchronous mode Synchronous mode

Asynchronous Mode (Transmission) When a data character is sent to 8251A by the CPU, it adds start bits prior to the serial data bits, followed by optional parity bit and stop bits using the asynchronous mode instruction control word format. This sequence is then transmitted using TXD output pin on the falling edge of TXC. Asynchronous Mode (Receive) A falling edge on RXD input line marks a start bit. The receiver requires only one stop bit to mark end of the data bit string, regardless of the stop bit programmed at the transmitting end. The 8-bit character is then loaded into the into parallel I/O buffer of 8251. RXRDY pin is raised high to indicate to the CPU that a character is ready for it. If the previous character has not been read by the CPU, the new character replaces it, and the overrun flag is set indicating that the previous character is lost.

Mode instruction format for Asynchronous mode

Fig. 8.3 Mode Instruction Format Asynchronous Mode 12

Asynchronous Mode Transmit and Receive Formats

Fig. 8.4 Asynchronous Mode Transmit and Receive Formats

Synchronous mode Synchronous Mode Instruction Format

Fig. 8.5 Synchronous Mode Instruction Format

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Synchronous Mode (Transmission) The TXD output is high until the CPU sends a character to 8251 which usually is a SYNC character. When CTS line goes low, the first character is serially transmitted

out. Characters are shifted out on the falling edge of TXC .Data is shifted out at the same rate as TXC , over TXD output line. If the CPU buffer becomes empty, the SYNC character or characters are inserted in the data stream over TXD output. Synchronous Mode (Receiver) In this mode, the character synchronization can be achieved internally or externally. The data on RXD pin is sampled on rising edge of the RXC . The content of the receiver buffer is compared with the first SYNC character at every edge until it matches. If 8251 is programmed for two SYNC characters, the subsequent received character is also checked. When the characters match, the hunting stops. The SYNDET pin set high and is reset automatically by a status read operation. In the external SYNC mode, the synchronization is achieved by applying a high level on the SYNDET input pin that forces 8251 out of HUNT mode. The high level can be removed after one RXC cycle. The parity and overrun error both are checked in the same way as in asynchronous mode. Synchronous mode Transmit and Receive data format

Fig. 8.6 Data Formats of Synchronous Mode

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Command Instruction Definition The command instruction controls the actual operations of the selected format like enable transmit/receive, error reset and modem control. A reset operation returns 8251 back to mode instruction format. Command Instruction format

Fig. 8.7 Command Instruction Format

Status Read Definition This definition is used by the CPU to read the status of the active 8251 to confirm if any error condition or other conditions like the requirement of processor service has been detected during the operation.

Fig. 8.8 Status Read Instruction Format

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8.2.5 Interfacing 8251 with 8086 Design the hardware interface circuit for interfacing 8251 with 8086. Set the 8251 in asynchronous mode as a transmitter and receiver with even parity enabled, 2 stop bits, 8bit character length, frequency 160 kHz and baud rate 10 K. (a) Write an ALP to transmit 100 bytes of data string starting at location 2000:5000H. (b) Write an ALP to receive 100 bytes of data string and store it at 3000:4000.

Solution : Asynchronous mode control word for transmitting 100 bytes of data : D7 1 D6 1 D5 1 D4 1 D3 1 D2 1 D1 1 D0 0 = FEH

2 Stop bits

Even Parity 8-bit Enabled format

CLK scaled

a) ALP to initialize 8251 and transmit 100 bytes of data ASSUME CS:CODE CODE SEGMENT START : MOV AX,2000H MOV DS,AX ; DS points to byte string segment MOV SI,5000H ; SI points to byte string MOV CL,64H ; Length of string in CL (hex) MOV AL,0FEH ; Mode control word to D0 D7 OUT 0FEH,AL MOV AX,11H ; Load command word

OUT 0FE,AL ; to transmit enable and error reset WAIT : IN AL,0FEH ; Read status AND AL,01H ; Check transmitter enable JZ WAIT ; bit, if zero wait for the transmitter to be ready

MOV AL,[SI] ; If ready, first byte of string data OUT 0FCH, AL ; is transmitted

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INC SI DEC CL JNZ WAIT MOV AH,4CH INT 21H CODE ENDS END START

; Point to next byte ; Decrement counter ; If CL is not zero, go for next byte

b) An ALP to initialize 8251 and receive 100 bytes of data ASSUME CS:CODE CODE SEGMENT START : MOV AX,3000H MOV DS,AX MOV SI,4000H MOV CL,64H MOV AL,7EH OUT OFEH,AL MOV AL,14H ; Data segment set to 3000H ; Pointer to destination offset ; Byte count in CL ; Only one stop bit for ; receiver is set ; Load command word to enable

OUT 0FEH,AL ; the receiver and disable transmitter NXTBT : IN AL,OFEH ; Read status AND AL,38H ; Check FE, OE and PE JZ READY MOV AL,14H OUT OFEH,AL READY: IN AL,0FEH ; Check RXRDY, if receiver is not ready AND AL,02H JZ READY ; wait ; If zero, jump to READY ; If not zero, clear them

IN AL,0FCH ; If it is ready, MOV [SI],AL ; receive the character INC SI DEC CL ; Increment pointer to next byte ; Decrement counter

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JNZ NXTBT ; Repeat, if CL is not zero MOV AH,4CH INT 21H CODE ENDS END START

Fig. 8.9 Interfacing of 8251 with 8086

8.3 NUMERIC DATA PROCESSOR 8087 The numeric data processor is a coprocessor which has been designed to work under the control of the 8086 processor. It offers additional numeric processing capabilities. It is available in 5 MHz, 8 MHz and 10 MHz versions 8086 will perform the opcode fetch cycles and identify the instructions for 8087. Once the instruction is identified by 8086, it is allotted to 8087 for further execution. 8086-8087 couplet implements instruction level master-slave configuration. After the completion of the 8087 execution cycle, the results may be referred back to the CPU. The 8087 instructions may lie interleaved in the 8086 program as if they belong to the 8086 instruction set. It is the task of 8086 to identify the 8087 instructions from the

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program, send it to the 8087 for execution and get back the results. The 8087 adds 68 new instructions to the instruction set of 8086.

8.3.1 Architecture of 8087

Fig. 8.10 8087 Architecture

8087 is divided internally into two sections namely Control unit and Numeric Extension Unit. The numeric extension unit executes all the numeric processor instructions. The control unit receives, decodes instructions, reads and writes memory operands executes the 8087 control instructions. The control unit is responsible for establishing communication between the CPU and memory and also for coordinating the data bus to check for the 8087 instructions. The 8087 control unit internally maintains a parallel queue, identical to the status queue of the main CPU. The control unit automatically monitors the BHE / S7 line to

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detect the CPU type and accordingly adjusts the queue length. The 8087 uses the QS0 and QS1 pins to obtain and identify the instructions fetched by the host CPU (8086). 8086 identifies the coprocessor instructions using the ESCAPE code bits in them. Once the CPU recognizes the ESCAPE code, it triggers the execution of the numeric processor instruction in 8087. The Numeric Extension Unit (NEU) executes all the instructions including arithmetic, logical, transcendental, and data transfer instructions. The internal data bus is 84 bits wide including 68 bit fraction, 15 bit exponent and a sign bit. When the NEU begins the execution, it pulls up the BUSY signal. This BUSY signal is connected to the TEST input of 8086. 8086 waits till the BUSY pin of 8087 goes low. i.e. 8086 waits till the 8087 executes instruction completely. The microcode control unit generates the control signals required for execution of instructions. 8087 contains a programmable shifter which is responsible for shifting the operands during the execution of instructions like FMUL and FDIV. The data bus interface connects the internal data bus of 8087 with the CPU system data bus.

8.3.2 Signal Descriptions of 8087

Fig. 8.11 Pin Diagram of 8087

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AD0 AD15 : These are the time multiplexed address / data lines. These lines carry addresses during T1 and data during T2, T3, Tw and T4 states. A19 / S6 A16/S3 : These lines are the time multiplexed address / status lines. These function in a similar way to the corresponding pins of 8086. The S6, S4 and S3 are permanently high, while the S5 is permanently low. BHE / S7 : During T1, the BHE / S7 is used to enable data on to the higher byte of the 8086 data bus. During T2, T3, Tw and T4 this is a status line S7. QS1 , QS0 : The queue status input signals QS1 and QS0 enable 8087 to keep track of the instruction prefetch queue status of the CPU, to maintain synchronism with it. QS1 0 0 1 1 QS0 0 1 0 1 Queue Status No operation First byte of opcode from queue Empty queue Subsequent byte from queue

INT : The interrupt output is used by 8087 to indicate that an unmasked exception has been received during execution. This is usually handled by 8259. BUSY : This output signal, when high, indicates to the CPU that it is busy with the execution of allotted instruction. This is usually connected to the TEST pin of 8086. READY : This input signal may be used to inform the coprocessor that the addressed device with complete the data the transfer from inside and the bus is likely to be free for the next cycle. RESET : This input signal is used to abandon the internal activities of the coprocessor and prepare it for further execution whenever asked by the main CPU. CLK : The CLK input provides the basic timings for the processor operation. VCC : A +5 V supply line required for operation of the circuit. GND : A return line for the power supply.

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S 2 , S1 and S 0 : These can either be 8087 driven (output) or externally driven (input)
by the CPU. If below :

S 2 , S1 and S 0 are driven by 8087, they can be decode as shown

S2
0 1 1 1 1

S1
X 0 0 1 1

S0
X 0 1 0 1

Queue Status Unused Unused Memory read Memory write Passive

S 2 , S1 and

S 0 becomes active during T4 (of previous bus cycle) and becomes

suspended during T3 of the next bus cycle S 2 , S1 and S 0 acts as input signals if the CPU is executing a task.

RQ / GT0 : The Request / Grant pin is used by the 8087 to gain control of the bus from
the host 8086 / 8088 for operand transfers. It must be connected to the one of the request / grant pin of the host.An active low pulse of one clock duration is generated by 8087 for the host to inform that it wants to gain control of the local bus for itself or for other coprocessor connected to RQ / GT1 pin of the 8087. When 8087 receives a grant pulse,

it either initiates a bus cycle if the request is for itself or else, it passes the grant pulse to RQ / GT1 , if the request is for the other coprocessor. RQ / GT1 : This bidirectional pin is used by the other bus masters to convey their need of the local bus access to 8087. This request is conveyed to the host CPU using RQ / GT 0 pin. The requesting bus master gains the control of the bus till it needs. At the end,

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the requesting bus master issues an active low pulse to 8087, to indicate that the task is over and 8087 may regain the control of the bus.

8.3.3 Register Set of 8087 The 8087 has a set of eight 80-bit registers that can be used be used as a stack or a set of general registers. When operating as a stack, it operates from the top on one or two registers. When operating as a register set, they may be used only with the instructions designed for them. Registers of 8087 are divided into three fields namely : sign (1-bit) , exponent (15-bits) and significand (64 bits). Corresponding to each of the 8 registers, there is a two bit TAG field to indicate the status of contents as shown below: 15 0

TAG (7) TAG (6) TAG (5) TAG (4) TAG (3) TAG (2) TAG (1) TAG (0)

Fig. 8.12 Tag Word of 8087

TAG VALUES : 00 = VALID , 10 = SPECIAL , 01 = ZERO , 11 = EMPTY

The TAG word register presents all the TAG fields to CPU. The instructions may address data registers either implicitly or explicitly. An internal status register field, TOP is used to address any one of the 8 registers implicitly. While explicitly addressing the registers, they may be addressed relative to TOP.

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Status word of 8087

Fig. 8.13 Status word of 8087 The bit definitions of status field are as follows : B0 B5 : These bits indicate that an exception has been detected. These 6 bits are used to indicate the 6 types of previously generated exceptions. B7 : This bit is set if any unmasked exception has been detected ; otherwise this is cleared. B8 B10 and B14 : These 4 condition code bits reflect the status of the results calculated by the 8087. B15 : The BUSY bit shows the status of NEU (Numeric Execution Unit). Instruction and Data Pointers The instruction and data pointers are used to enable the programmers to write their own exception handling subroutines. Before executing a mathematical instruction, the instruction pointer and the data pointer contain the current address of the instruction and the corresponding data.

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Control Word Register The control word register of 8087 allows the programmer to select the required processing options out of available ones. In other words, the 16-bit control word register is used to control the operation of the 8087. 15 12 IC RC PC 7 IEM PM UM OM ZM DM 0 IM

Fig. 8.14 Control Word Register and the bit definitions

IM = Invalid operation ZM = Zero Divide UM = Underflow,

, DM = Denormalized operand , OM = Overflow PM = Precision

IEM = Interrupt Enable Mask, PC = precision Control (2 bits) RC = Rounding Control (2 bits) , IC = Infinity Control The bits B0 B5 are used for masking the different exceptions. If the bit is 1, exception is masked. The infinity control bit IC provides control over the number size on both sides. i.e. either + or .

8.3.4 Exception Handling The 8087, while executing an instruction, may generate 6 different exceptions. Any of these exceptions, if generated, causes an interrupt to the CPU provided it is not masked. The CPU will respond if the interrupt flag of the CPU is set. Invalid Operation : These are the exceptions generated due to stack overflow, or stack underflow, indeterminate form as result, or, non-number as operand. Overflow : A too big result to fit in the format generates this exception. Underflow : If a small (in magnitude) result is generated, to fit in the specified format, 8087 generates this exception. Zero Divide : If any non-zero finite operand is divided by zero, this exception is generated. Denormalized Operand : This exception is generated, if at least one of the operands is denormalized. 25

Inexact Result : if it is impossible to fit the actual result in the specified format, this exception is generated.

8.3.5 Instruction Set of 8087 The 8087 adds 68 instructions to the instruction set of 8086, all of which may lie interleaved in an 8086 ALP. The 8087 instructions are fetched by 8086 but are executed by 8087. Whenever the 8086 comes across 8087 instruction, it executes the ESCAPE instruction code to pass over the instruction opcode and control of the local bus to 8087. The additional instructions supported by 8087 can categorized into the following types: 1. Data Transfer Instructions. 2. Arithmetic Instructions. 3. Comparison Instructions. 4. Transcendental Operations. 5. Constant Operations. 6. Coprocessor Control Operations. Data Transfer Instructions Depending upon the data types handled, these are further grouped into 3 types. Floating Point Data Transfer. Integer Data Transfer. BCD Data Transfer.

Floating Point Data Transfer Instructions FLD (Load Real to Top of Stack) : This instruction loads a real operand to the top of the stack of the 80-bit registers. FLD ST( 7 ) FLD MEM ; Stack Top ; Stack Top [ Reg 7 ] [ MEM ]

FST (Store Top of Stack to the operand) : This instruction stores current content of the top of the stack register to the specified operand. FST ST ( 7 ) ; Stack Top FST MEM ; Stack Top [ST ( 7 ) ] [ MEM ]

FSTP (Store Floating Point Number and Pop) : This instruction stores a copy of top of stack into memory or any coprocessor register and then pops the top of the stack.

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FXCH (Exchange with Top of Stack) : This instruction exchanges the contents of the top of stack with the specified operand register. Integer Data Transfer Instructions FILD (Load Integer to Stack Top : This instruction loads the specified integer data operand to the top of stack. FIST / FISTP : Both the instructions work in an exactly similar manner as FST / FSTP except the fact that the operands are integer operands.

BCD Data Transfer Instructions The 8087 instruction set has two instructions of this type, namely, FBLD and FBSTP. Both the instructions work in an exactly similar as FLD and FSTP except for the operand type BCD. Arithmetic Instructions The 8087 instruction set contains 11 instructions that can either be directly used to perform arithmetic operations or supporting operations like scaling, rounding, negation, absolute value, etc. FADD The instruction FADD performs real or integer addition of the specified operand with the stack top. The results are stored in destination operand controlled by the D-bit. The operand may be any of the stack registers or a memory location. FSQRT : This instruction finds out the square root of the content of the stack top and stores the result on stack top again. FSUB : The instruction FSUB performs real or integer subtraction of the specified operand from the stack top. FMUL : This instruction performs real or integer multiplication of the specified operand with stack top. FDIV : This instruction performs real or integer division. FSCAL : This instruction multiplies the content of the stack top by 2n, where n is the integer part of ST (1) and stores the result in ST. FPREM : This instruction divides the stack top by ST (1) and stores the remainder to stack top.

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FRNDINT : This instruction rounds the contents of ST (0) to its integer value. The rounding is controlled by the RC field of the control word. FXTRACT : This instruction extracts the exponent and fraction of the stack top and stores them in the stack registers. FABS : This instruction replaces the content of the stack top by its absolute value (magnitude). FCSH ; This instruction changes the sign of the content of the stack top. Transcendental Instructions The 8087 provides 5 instructions for transcendental calculations. The operands are usually ST (0) and ST (1) or only ST (0). FPTAN : This instruction calculates the partial tangent of an angle , where must be in the range from 0 < 900 . FPATAN : ST / ST (1). F2XMI : This instruction calculates the expression (2x-1). The value of x is stored at the top of the stack. The result is stored back at the top of the stack. FLY2X : This instruction calculates the expression ST(1)*log2 ST. A pop operation is carried out on the top of Stack. The ST must be in the range 0 to +, while the ST(1) must be in the range - to +. FLY2XPI : This instruction is used to calculate the expression ST(1) *log2 [(ST)+1]. The result is stored back on the stack top after a pop operation. The value of |ST| must lie between 0 and (1-21/2/2) and the value of ST(1) must be between - to +. Comparison Instructions : All the comparison instructions Compare the operands and modify condition code flags as shown below : Comparison Stack Top > Source Stack Top < Source Stack Top = Source Not Comparable C3 0 0 1 1 C0 0 1 0 1 This instruction calculates the arctangent (inverse tangent) of a ratio

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FCOM : This instruction compares real or integer operands specified by stack registers or memory. This instruction has the top of stack as an implicit operand. The content of the top of stack is compared either with the contents of a memory location or with the contents of another stack register. The conditional code flags bits (C3 and C0) are accordingly modified. FCOMP and FCOMPP: These instructions also work in an exactly similar manner as FCOM does. But the FCOMP instruction carries out one pop operation after the execution of the FCOM instruction. FCOMPP carries out two pop operations after the execution of the FCOM instruction. The FCOMP and FCOMPP instructions have the top of the stack as an implicit operand. FIST : This instruction tests if the contents of the stack top is zero. Here, the contents of the stack top is compared with zero and the condition code flags are accordingly modified. The zero is considered as the source operand. FXAM : This instruction examines the contents of the stack top and modifies the contents of the condition flags. Constant Returning Instructions : These instructions load the specific constants to the top of the register stack. The stack top is an implicit operand in this type of instructions. FLDZ : Load +0.0 to stack top. FLDI : Load +1.0 to stack top. FLDPI : Load to stack top. FLD2T : Load the constant log2 10 to stack top. FLDL2E : Load the constant log2 e to stack top. FLDLG2 : Load the constant log10 2 to stack top. FLDLN2 : Load the constant loge 2 to stack top. Coprocessor Control Instructions The coprocessor control instructions are either used to program the numeric processor. These are also used to handle the functions like exception handling, flags manipulations, processor environment maintenance and preparation.

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FINIT : This instruction prepares the 8087 for further execution. It performs the same function as the hardware reset. All flags are cleared and stack top is initialized at ST(0). FENI : This instruction enables the interrupt structure and response mechanism of 8087. i.e. The interrupt mask flag is cleared. FDISI : This instruction sets the interrupt mask flag to disable the interrupt response mechanism of 8087. FLDCW : This instruction loads the control word of 8087 from the specified source operand. Any addressing mode allowed in 8086 may be used to refer the memory operand. FSTCW : This instruction may be used to store the contents of the 8087 control word register to a memory location, addressed using any of the 8086 addressing modes. FSTSW : This instruction stores the current contents of the status word register to a memory location, addressed using any of the 8086 addressing modes. FCLEX : This instruction clears all the previously set exception flags in the status register. This also clears the BUSY and IR flags of the status word. FINCSTP : This instruction modifies the TOP bits of the status register so as to point to the next stack register. FDECSTP : This instruction updates the TOP bits of the stack register so as to point to the previous register in stack. FFREE : This instruction marks the TAG field of the operand stack register to be empty. FNOP : This is a NOP instruction of the coprocessor. No internal status or control flag bits change. This requires up to 16 clock cycles for execution. FWAIT : This instruction is used by 8087 to make 8086 wait till it completes the current operation. The BUSY pin of 8087 is tied high by 8087 to inform the host CPU that the allotted task is still under execution. FSTENV : This instruction is used to store the environment of the coprocessor to a destination memory location specified in the instruction using any of the 8086 addressing modes. FLDENV : This instruction loads the environment (that may be previously stored in the memory using FSTENV instruction) of the coprocessor into it.

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FSAVE : This instruction saves the complete processor status into the memory, at the address specified by the destination operand. The complete status of the processor requires 94 bytes of memory. FRSTOR : Using this instruction it is possible to restore the previous status of the coprocessor from a source memory operand.

8.3.6 Interfacing 8087 with 8086 / 8088

Fig. 8.15 Interfacing 8087 with 8086 / 8088

8087 can be connected to 8086 / 8088 only in their maximum mode of operation. In the maximum mode, all the control signals are derived using a separate chip called as a bus controller. The 8288 is a bus controller compatible with 8086 / 8088. The BUSY pin of 8087 is connected to the TEST pin of the CPU. The QS0 and QS1 lines may be directly connected to the corresponding pins in the case of 8086 /8088 based systems. The clock pin of 8087 is connected to clock input of CPU. The interrupt output of 8087 is connected to the CPU through a Programmable Interrupt Controller 8259. The pins AD0 AD15, BHE / S7, RESET, A19 / S6 A16 / S3 of 8087 are connected to

corresponding pins of the CPU.

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Addressing Modes and Data Types 8087 supports all the addressing modes supported by 8086. The data types supported by 8087 are : Data Formats Word Integer Short Integer Long Integer Packed BCD Short Real Long Real Temporary Real Range 104 104 1018 1018 10 +38 10 +308 10 +4932 Precision 16 bits 32 bits 64 bits 18 bits 24 bits 53 bits 64 bits

Write a procedure to calculate the volume of a sphere. This procedure utilizes service of the register stack of 8087 to store the data temporarily .8087 DATA SEGMENT RADIUS DD 5.0233 CONS EQU 1.333 VOLUME DD 1 DUP (?) DATA ENDS ASSUME CS:CODE, DS:DATA VOL PROC NEAR CODE SEGMENT START : MOV AX,DATA MOV DS,AX FINIT FLD RADIUS FST ST(4) FMUL ST(4) FMUL ST(4) ; Initialize Data Segment ; Initialize 8087 ; Read radius into stack top ; Store stack top

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FLD CONST FMUL FLDPI FMUL FST VOLUME RETP RETP VOL ENDP CODE ENDS END START

; Get constant 1.333 ; Multiply with (r3) ; Get PI (p) ; Multiply with PI ; Store volume in VOLUME

8.4 RS 232 Serial Communication Standards In serial I/O, data can be transmitted as either current or voltage. When data is transmitted as voltage, the commonly used standard is known as RS-232C. This standard was developed by Electronic Industries Association (EIA), USA and adopted by IEEE. RS-232 standard proposes a maximum of 25 signals for the bus used for serial data transfer.

8.4.1 RS-232 Pin Names and Signal Descriptions Pin Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 Common Name TxD RxD RS-232 Name AA BA BB CA CB CC Description Protective Ground Transmitted Data Received Data Request to Send Clear to Send Data Set Ready

RTS CTS DSR

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7 8 9 10 12

GND

AB CF SCF

Signal Ground Received Line signal detector Reserved for Data set testing Reserved for Data set testing Secondary Receiver Line Signal Detector

CD
-

13 14 15

SCB SBA DB

Secondary Clear to Send Secondary Transmitted Data Transmission signal element timing

16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

DTR -

SBF DD SCA CD CG CE CH / CI DA

Secondary Received Data Receiver Signal element timing Unassigned Secondary request to send Data terminal ready Signal quality detector Ring indicator Data signal rate selector Transmitted Signal element timing

25

Unassigned

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In practice, the first 9-signals are sufficient for most of the serial data transmission scheme. Hence, the RS-232C bus signals are transmitted on a D-type 9-pin connector. When all the 25 signals are used, then RS-232C serial bus is terminated on a 25-pin connector.

Fig. 8.16 Connections used for terminating RS-232C bus

The voltage levels used for all RS-232C signals are : Logic Low = -3V to -15V under load (-25V on no load) Logic High = +3V to +15V under load (+25V on no load)

Commonly used voltage levels are, +12V (Logic high) and -12V (Logic low) The RS-232C signal levels are not compatible with TTL logic levels. For interfacing TTL devices, level converters or RS-232C line drivers are employed. The popularly used level converters are :

1. MC 1488 - TTL to RS-232C level converter. 2. MC 1489 RS-232C to TTL level converter.

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Fig1.9. 8259A in Cascaded Mode

Fig. 8.17 TTL to RS-232C and RS-232C to TTL signal conversion

Fig. 8.18 TTL to RS-232C and RS-232C to TTL signal conversion using RS-232C

MAX 232 is a bidirectional level converter. It is equivalent to a combination of MC 1488 and MC 1489 in single IC

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