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BrahmanicaI, Buddhist and Jain Cosmography
BY
'DR, N. N. BHATl'ACHARYYA, M.A., D.Phil.
It became, indeed, in the absence of a regular tradition of
cosmographical science, a usual thing for ancient writers to insert
cosm:ographical disquisitions into their works. But their know-
ledge was limited both in extent and in degree. Lack of objecti-
vity and inclination towards superficial imagination guided them
all through. This holds good not only in the case '0 India but
in that of 'Other countries also. The Homeric literature as well
as the Theogony of Hesiod afford examples of this. Because of
their visionary character, the B'rahmanical, Buddhist and Jain cos-
mography also became, as if, an article of faith. The general
belief in it was not shaken even by the introduction of scientific
cosmography. The detailed knowledge of the structure of
the universe was generally believed to have been reached by
contemplation.
Vedic Cosmogro,phy
The basis of the cosmographical speculations, in the Vedic
period was not a generally adopted theory. Widely differing ideas
about this problem seem to have been current. When the idea
,of 'Universe' was to be expressed, the phrase most commonly used
in the was 'heaven and earth'. These two parts were con-
ceived as circular like wheels at the two ends of the axle represent-
ing the Intervening space.
l
Later on, this intervening space also
became a constituent of the universe. Each of these constituents
was regarded as having three strata, so that there were either six
units of three earths and three heavens, according to the former
conception, or nine units of three earths, three atmospheres and
three heavens, according to the latter conception.
2
Also a fourth
constituent of the universe, namely, the world of light or the vault
1. RV, X. 89.4.
2. Macdonell, VM, 9.
44
JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
of the sky, is mentioned in the Yajurveda
3
and the Atharvaveda .
The heaven was regarded as lying beyond ,the visible space which
was the abode of the gods and of light.
s
The hemispherical vault
of the sky led to the' conception of the heaven and the earth as
two great bowls turned towards other.6 The earth was de-
noted by such terms as mahi' (the great), prthivi, prthvi, urvi
(the extended), apiirii (the boundless), etc.
7
The distance between
the earth and the sky is given in the AitCreya Briinma1J-a8 and the
Atharvaveda!! as 1000 days' journey for a horse, while the Panca-
vi1!lsa Briihma1J-a
IO
considers the altitude coverable by 1000 cows
standing one upon another.
But the aforesaid constituents were later incorporated into a
larger and more mythical scheme of the universe. In the
siikta of the which recurs, with variations in the Atharva-
veda,12 the Yajurvedap and the Taittiriya Ara1J-Yaka,14 we have
the universe conceived in the form of a human being
like the frost-giant Yimer of the Teutons whose head was the sky
and whose naval region and feet represented the air and the
earth respectively.IS In the Brahma:I}a literature the universe is
conceived in the form of an egg. In the $atapatha Briihma1J-a it
is stated that it was Prajapati who divided the cosmic egg. IS "He
uttered bhur, which this earth; bhuvalJ, which became this
firmament; and svar which became that sky.''17 .In the Chandogya
Upani{lad
lB
the following is "The egg broke open. The
3. VS, XVII, 67.
4. AV, IV, 14.3.
5. Macdonell. VM, 10.
6. RV, VI. 55.20.
7. Sircar, CGEIL, 9.
8. II, 17, 8.
9. X, 8, 18.
10. XVI, 8, 6; XXI, I, !I.
11. X, 90.
12. XIX,6.
13. VS .. XXXI.
14. ill,12.
15. Muir" OST, V, 368 f.
16. XI, I, 6.
17. Muir, OST, IV, 25.
18. ill, 19.
BRAHMANICAL
J
BUDDHIST & JAIN COSMOGRAPIiY 45
two halves were one of. silver, the other of gold. The silver one
this earth, the golden one the sky, the thick membrane
(of the white) the mountains, the thin membrane (of the yolk)
the mist with clouds, the small veins the rivers, the fluid the sea."l!!
It is not at alI difficult to understand why the egg was so
significant in ancient Cosmogonical and cosmographical specula-
tions. The Egyptians believed that Ra, the god of brightness first
appeared a shining egg which floated upon the water's breast.
He rose from the primordial waters as the sun-egg. The god
Ptah also came from the egg which, according to 'one myth, was
produced by the chaos goose, and to anather, issued from the
mouth of Khnumu.
19a
In the Rhapsodist Cosmogony 'Of ancient
Greece we also find thE! idea of the cosmic-egg, and Zeller points
out that the said idea is directly borrowed by the Greeks from
the Phoenicians.
20
But as we have already seen, exactly the same
. idea is found in Indian literature. The idea that life remains
latent in egg was quite in accordance with primitive empiriCism,
and hence '."e find similar legends in different parts 'Of the world.
The l.lgvedic conception of Golden-Germ or ema-
nating from the primeval waters afterwards developed into that
of the world egg. 21 In later literature, as for example, in the
we come across the idea of the cosmic egg, while
Manu holds that the seed of the Supreme Being became the cosmic
In the Puriil,las we also come across the conception of the
world egg.24
We have 'already seen that in the period of the Brahmanas
and the universe is frequently spoken of as tripartite:
earth, air and sky, symbolised in the three great utterances
(VYiihrtis) of Prajapati-tbhur', tbhuvalJ,', 'svar'. A different
account is found in the Aitareya Ara1J-yaka where it is stated that
self sent forth the worlds of Ambhas, 'Marichi, Mara and Ap.
That Ambhas (waters) is above the heaven, and it is heaven,
19. SBE, I, 54 f.
19.a Erman, HER. 26 if.
20. Zeller, PSP, I, 102 if.
21. X,121.
22. XII, 309.7 if.
23. I, 5 f.
24. Cf. Vis!'u, J, 2, 37 if.
46 JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
tne support. The Marichis (the lights) are the sky. The Mara
(ID'?rtal) is the earth, and the waters under the earth are the Ap
world."25 In course of time the three-fold conception of the uni-
verse became sevenfold, and the process of such newer develop-
ments is found, in the TaittiTiya Ara:7].yaka in which the following
.constituents of the universe are mentioned: bhur. bh'lJ,va'l}, mahar,
janas, tapas and satyam.
25
Now, as the three first symbolically
denoted the three worlds (earth, air, sky), so the four added be-
came names of still higher worlds. In the BrkadaTa7!-yaka Upa-
ni$ad the C"Onstituents of the universe were further increased and
we have the worlds of water, air, ganclharvas, sun, moon, stars,
gods, Indra, Prajapati and B'rahman; each of these worlds is
woven into the next higher one 'like warp and woof.'21
Cosmography in Post-vedic Literat'lJ,re
. The Mahiibharata adds little to the old stock of cosmographic
ldeas, except a detailed description of the earth and some parti-
culars about the hells.28 The Laws of Manu29 maintain the cos-
mic-egg theory of the BrahmalJ.a literature: "The diVine one re-
sided in that egg during the whole year, then he himself by his
thought (alone) divided it into two halves; and out of those two
halves he formed heaven and earth, between them the middle
sphere, the eight points of the horiz-on and the eternal abode of
waters.''30 '!'he same work mentions 21 hells: Tanusra, Andhata-
misra, Maharaurava, KaIasiitra, Mahanaraka, Safijivana, Maha-
vichi, Tapana, Sampratapana, Sru:p.ghata, Kakola, Ku(;lnala, Puti-
mrttik1l, LohaSaD.ku, Salmali, Panthano, VaitaranI, Asipatra-
vana and Lauhadaraka.
3l
The authors of the Purfu:\as succeeded better in delineating a
plan of the universe. The system is practically the same in all
Purfufas.
32
In the Vi$1Ju PUrii1Ja it is stated how, in the beginning
25. II, 4, 1.
'26. X, 27-28.
27. III, 6.
!l8. VI, 5 fi; XII, 309; etc
29. I, 12-13.
:10: SBE, XXV, 2 fi.
31. IV, 87-90.
32. For discrepancies in details in other PuraJ;las see Wilson's VP, II,
215 and Hall s note to that passage.
13RAHMANICAL, 13tJDD1IIST & JAm COSMOGRAPHY 41
of a Kalpa, NarayalJ.8, in the shape of a boar, raised the earth from
beneath the waters and created the four lower spheres--earth,
heaven and Maharloka.
33
The area lighted by the rays of the
sun and the moon is known as Prthivi or earth. The breadth and
circumference of BhurLoka. or the earth-region are same as those
of the second loka called bhuva'l}. The region (loka) of the sun
is situated 100,000 Yojanas above the earth, that of the mO'on
100,000 Yojanas above the sun, that of the stars 100,000 Yojanas
above the moon, that of the Budha (Mercury) 200,000 Y5j
a
nas
above the stars, that of the sukra (Venus) 20U,000 YOjanas above
the Budha, that of the Marigala (Mars) 200,000 YOjanas above
the Sukra, that of the Brhaspati (Jupiter) 200;000 Yojanas above
the Marigala. that of the Sani (Saturn) 200,000 Yojanas above the
Brhaspati, that of the (Great Bear) 100,000 YOjanas
above the Sani and that of the Dhruva (Pole Star) 100,000 Yojanas
above the Saptar.!?i.
34
The region called Janas is situated 20 million
Yojanas above the Polar region (Dhruvaloka), that called Tapas
80 million Yojanas above the Janas-region and that SatyaJ:!.l
or Brahma or BaikUI).tha 120 Yojanas above the Tapas region.
3s
The area between the earth and the sun, inhabited by the
m'lJ,nis and siddhas, is called Bhuvarloka or the second region.
The area between the Dhruva and the sun, which is 1,400,000 Yoja-
nas in extent, is known as Svar. The first three Zakas or regions,
Bhiir, Bhuval}. and Svar, are collectively known as Krtak, and the
last three, Janas, Tapas and Satyru:p., as akrtak, while fourth,
i.e., Maharloka, is called krtiikrtak.36 Like the seven upper worlds
we have also the conception of seven lower worlds called Atala,
Vitala,' NitaIa, Gavastimat, Patiila and Sutala.
37
Accord-
ing to their merits they are also known as Sukla, Arutta,
Pita, Sarkara, Saili and Kii.ficani. These underworlds are inhabited
by the Danavas, Daityas. Y and Nagas.
38
The whole universe
is like an egg enveloped by water, fire, air and sky.39
33. 1, 4.
34. n, 7, 3-10.
35. II, 7, 12-15.
36. II, 16-20.
g7. Elsewhere the nether worlds !I1'e called Atala, Piitala, Vitala, Sutala,
Rasiitala, Mahiitala and Taliitala.
38. II, 5, 2-4.
39. II, 7, 22-24.
1
'._. '
JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
The above account is found with some variations in all the
One thing which should be noted here is that, in the
the planetary system is brought in connection with the
cosmographic ideas. This is a significant departure from the pre-
vious Vedic line. It is difficult to say whether the Aryans
had any definite knowledge of the planets, although 'the seven
Adityas,' 'the five Advaryus' and 'the five are regarded
by some scholars as The Taittiriya Satp,hita
41
regards
Brhaspati as the regent of while the Taittiriya AraTJ-yaka
42
seems to use the expression sapta-siirya1].43 (Seven suns) for the
planets. Stars were of course well known to them but they could
not probably distinguish them with the planets. So naturally they
could not conceive of the planetary regions. In later works the
conception of numerous planetary regions formed an essential part
of the cosmographical speculations. As for example in the cosmo-
graphy of the Siirya Siddhanta
44
it is stated that "the Brahma-egg
is hollow; within it is the universe consisting of earth, sky, etc., it
has th.e form of a sphere, like a receptacle made of a pair of cald-
rons. A circle within the Brahma-egg is styled the. orbit of the
ether (Vyomiin); within that is the revolution of the asterisms
(boo); and likewise in order, one below the other revolve Saturn,
Jupiter, Mars, the sun, Venus, Mercury and the moon; helow in
succession, the Perforated' (siddha), the Possessors of Knowledge
(Vidyadhara) and the clouds."45
In a work of seventh century called the Y ogathiiJ}ya, ascribed
to Vyasa, it is stated that the entire universe contained in the
world-egg copsists of seven regions (bhfuni), one above the other.
The lowest is B!rGrloka which extends from the lowest hell to the
top of mount Meru. At its bottom are the seven hells, one above
the other, the llames being Avi.ci, Ghana, Salila, Anala, Anila,
Akas and TamaQ.pratistha. Above the hells are the seven Piitiilas
called Mahatala. Rasatala, Atala, Sutala, Vitala, TaIatala and
patala. Above the Piitiilas is Vasumati (the earth) with its seven
4(). VI, 1, 243.
41. IV, 4, 10, 1.
42. 1, 7.
43. 1lV, V, 59, 13; X, 64-8; X, 85; 7'aitt. S., tt, 3, 5, 1-3; Kath. S., XI, 3; etc!.
M. xn,29-36
45. Burgess's tr. in lAOS, VI, 245,
.. ,_ . ,; '0', ,- ," ......... ,', _.'" ,". ",. '.-1".'
13MHMANICAt, SUDD1iIST & JAIN COSMOGRAPHY 4f1
continents. The Bhfttloka, thus consisting of three strata, is in-
habited by Asuras, Gandharvas, Kinnaras,
Bhiitas, Pretas, Apasmarakas, Apsaras,
Vinayakas, men and gods. The second region, which
is Bh'Uvarloko. in the PurB:r;las, is called and it is the
abode of the celestial bodies. The third region which is inhabited
by six classes of gods (Tridas.as, Yfunyas,
AparinirmitavaSavartins and ParinirmitavaSavartins) is called
Svar - or Mahendraloka. The fourth region Galled Mahar - or
Prajiipatyaloka is inhabited by five classes of gods: Kumudas,
Rlbhus, Pratardanas, Aiijanabhas and Prachitabhas. The fifth
region which is called Janaloka is the abode of four classes of gods
known as Brahmapurohitas, Srahmakayikas, Brahmamahakayikas
and Amaras. In the sixth. region called Tapaloka reside three
classes of gods known as Abhiisvaras, Mahlibhasvaras and Satya-
mahabhlisvaras and in the seventh region called Satyaloka, four
classes known as Acyutas, suddhanivlisas, Satyabhas and Srupjiia-
smpjiiins.
46
It appears from the above description that the author
of the said text has mixed up some principles of the cosmography
of the BuddhistS with those of the Purfutas. The conception of the
seven lokas or regions is directly adopted from the but so
far as the classes of gods residing therein are concerned, they are
all borrowed from the Buddhist literature,
Bv.ddhist Cosmography
The Buddha did not encourage speculations on the universe,
which, according to him, were nothing but foolish questions.
41
But
it appears that he was acquainted with the existing Brahmanical
theories. When Ananda to know of him how the earth-
quakes were caused, Buddha replied as follows: "This great
earth, Ananda, is established on water, the water .on wind, and
the wind rests upon space. And at such a handa, as the
mighty winds blow, 'the' is shaken, and by the moving water
the earth is shaken."48 In another place the Buddha said that the
earth rests on the circle on water, the water on the wind, the wind
on the ether and the ether on nothing.
49
One should not fail to
46. m,26.
47. Dighu, 1, 215; Rhys-Davids, DB,!, 280; C. Milinda (SBE, XXXVI, 153).
48. Digoo, II, 1()7 (SBE, XI, 45), Anguttara, IV, 312; Beal, CBS; 47.
49. SBE, XXXV, 100. .
iT. 7
1
I
I
7 prwms r
50 JOURNAL OF iNDIAN 1tIS'1'ORY
recall in this connection the significant passage of the Brhadiirar],ya,
Vpani$ad
50
according to which the sky rests on the air, the air on
the earth, the earth on the' wate!"s, the waters on the reality, the
reality on the brahman and the on the tapas (creative
fervour).
But in course of time the Buddhists developed a systematic
cosmographical outlook. The most systematic work on Buddhist
cosmography is undoubtedly the second treatise of the Abkidharma
of the Sarvastiv1idin school, entitled Prajfiaptisiira, the first section
of which is called Lokaprajfiapti.
51
On this section is based the
AbhidharmakoSa of Vasubandhu in which we find!; a description of
two worlds (loka)-the Bh<ijanaloka52 and the Sattvalaka.
53
The
former is suggestive of a 'receptacle-world,' the abode of the gods,
while the 1atter, of a 'world of beings'. On the other hand, in the
Pali texts we find, instead of the said terms, Sankhiiraloka, 'the
material world' and Okiisalaka (Avakasaloka) 'the room world.'54
According to the Buddhist conception there are thousands _ of
small universes (lokadhiitus or cakraviilas},55 but it appears tliat
originally the Buddhists conceived of a small universe following
the Pre-Buddhistic Brahmanical geographical notions. In
of time their number was increased. In the Digha Nikiiya we have
reference to ten universes (dasiisu lokadhiitu}.56 Elsewhere in the
same text iooo Brahma-worlds are mentioned.
57
In the Ma;jhima
58
and the Sa7[tyukta
59
Nikayas we find references to 10,000 universes
(dasasahassi lokadhiitu). In the Visuddhimagga
60
we find three
(field, domain) 'of a Buddha-Janma1el}etra or birth-domain
consisting of 10,000 worlds, or authority domain con-
sisting of hundred thousand times ten millions of worlds and
50. III, 6; Cf. Ait. Br., XI, 6, 4.
51. See Takakusu in JPTS, 1905, 77, 117, 142.
52. m,1-44.
53. III, 45-102
54. Ohilders, DPL, 453.
55. AflguttaTII, 1, 227.
56. n, 139.
57. n, 261
58. Ill, 101.
59. I, 146.
BO. XIII.
3RAHMANICAL, BUDDHIST '& JAIN COSMOGRAPHY 51
or knowledge domain consisting of worlds infinite in
number.
u
These worlds are grouped into innumerable 'small
universes' and in this way a numl\er of 'great Cak-raviilas' are
formed.62 Three such 'great Cakraviilas' are connected with one
another like tangent circles and such groups are separated from
one another by a dark region.
63
The conception of such innumerable universes or sub-universes
or chiliocosmos is certainly superimposing. As we have stated
above, it appears that originally the Buddhists conceived of a single
universe which was, in fact, the universe aroun4 the world of
ours. According to the Abhidharmakooa of Yasubandhu, of which
we h,ave referred to in the beginning of this section, the heaven
of Brahma appeared first of all; then the heavens of the gods
Paranirmita-VaSavartins, Nirm[r1J.aratis, and Yamas; then
the wind-circles (Viiyuma1)4ala), resting on space and 1,600,000
Yojanas in thickness; then the water-circle (iipma7!4ala), 800,000
ojanas in thickness; then the golden earth (Kiincanamayi-bhilmi) ,
3:2C,000 Yojanas in thickness.
64
In the centre 'Of the earth is
ated Mount Meru which is surrounded by eight concentric chains
of mountains. The mountain ranges are separated by oceans, each
ocean containing a number of islands. Four such great islands or
island-continents are situated in the largest 'of oceans, i.e., the
'exterior' ocean hetween the seventh and eighth mountains, one
of them being Jnmbudvipa, the continent where the Buddhas are
bOl"n.
65
Twenty thousand ojanas under Jambudvipa is the AVlchi
hell; above it there are seven hot hells: Pratapana, Tapana, Mah1i-
raurva, Raurava, Sanghata, Kiilasiitra and SafijIva. The hells are
Pyramidal in shape,66 each four utsadas (ussadas) ,
rmm,ely (I) Kuk:ii.la (fiercy pit), (II) Kl1!1!.a'lJ'a
Jm) (razor-way) and Siilmalivana and (IV) nadi
61. Hardy, MB, 2.
62. The name Cakraviila is also applied to a particular type of mountain
.'ange.
63. Hardy, LTB, 110; Beal, CBS, 64.
64. III, 1-102.
M. Detailed description of these will be furnished in a subsequent section,
66. Beal, CBS, 57.
52
JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
(rivel') .G6a There are also eight cold heIls; Ata1a, Hahava, Huhuva,
Utpala, Padma, Arbuda, Nirarbuda and Mahapadma. They are
placed in the 'dark region' m.entioned above.61 Of course there is
some ambiguity regarding the conception of the hells. Moreover;
there are s'Ome hells about which we know nothing but the names.
In course of time the names are multiplied. .
Acoording to the Buddhist conception there are six Kama-
dhatus or abodes of higher beings. On the fourth terrace of Meru
is the abode of Catur-mahariijakiiyikas, rulers of the cardinal
points and on its summit is that of the 160,00
Yojanas above Jamhudvipa is the abode of the Yamas' then come
one after another the' regions inhabited by the Nirmii1}lL-
ratis and ParanirmitavaSQvartins.
es
Heavens of the material
are called Rupadhiitu. They are seventeen in number divided
into four groups. The first group consisting of the abodes of the
the BTahmapurohitas and the MahabrahmiiTlaS
is situated 2.580,000 Y<ijanas above the Jambudvipa. The
group consists of heavens inhabited by the Parittiibhas the Apra-
miilJ.iibhas and the Abhasvaras. The third the
abodes of the Par'ittaSu.bhas, the Apram(1).a..ubhas and the Subha-
krtsnas while in the fourth we have the regions of the Anabhraka.s
the Punyaprasavas, the l$rhatphalas, the Avrhas, the Atapas,
Sudrsas, the Sudarsanas and the Akaninhas. Thus the total num-
ber of places or or heavens in the Rupa or the material
world is seventeen.
69
Lastly we have the conception of Ariipa-
dhiitu or immaterial spbere. It is not part of the receptacle world
because it contains 'only spiritual beings, free from matter. Instead
of 'places' or 'h(:avens' the Arupadhiitu or Ar'iipya presents four
'aspects' or 'states' (likaTa) which are Akiisiinantyiiyatana (state
of i.nfinite Vimananantyiiyatana (state of infinite intellect)
'Of nothingness) and
.<Jam1na1}ntan(l. (stRte neither of consciousness n'Or of unconscious-
ness) . The first three states are called Vijfianasthitis70 while the
Morris in JPTS, (1887) 144.
67. These names OCcur in the Pali texts with a few variants and additions.
See also Sam'!j'l!tta, I, 152; Anguttara. V. 172: Suttani1iita (SBE X 119)' etc
68. Cf. MaHhima, I!'. 194: m. 100; Digha, II, 256. ",.
69. Cf. Abhidharrrtakosa, III, 2.
70. Digha, n, 69; Angttara, IV, 40.
BRAHMANICAL, BUDDHIST & JAIN. COSMOGRAPHY 53
fourth, because it does not include attachment to any kind of
existence either of consciousness '01' of unconSCiousness, is
bUshed on an absolute indifference (upek?a).
In view of what we have stated above it appears that the
cosmography of the Buddhists was nothing but a production 'Of
artificial imagination. What appears to be certain is that origi-
nally they conceived of. three dhatus, Loka, Rupa, and Ariipa,
the first two representing the simple notion of the earth and the
conception of the earth and sky. The conception of the sky or
space as the heavenly region naturally led to the
tion of the hell below the earth. With the development of the
process of multiplication, heaven was multiplied, so also the earth
and hell, and thus we have the conception of the existence of
innumerable 'small universes,' in one of which is situated the w()rld
of ours.
'Jain t;osmography
:According to Jain conception the universe is situated in the
space which is nivided into two parts-Lokakiisa and AlokiikiiSa.
The'latter is not properly defined in the Jain texts but is described
as an absolute void impenetrable to anything, and spiri-
tU&1. The lokiikiiSa is composed of two entities or essences called
dharma and adharma, the substrata of motion and rest, conceived
as the conditions for the presence of all existing beings. It is in
this lokiikiiSa that the universe takes up only a part. According
to Vinayavijaya's LokaprakiiSa,71 the universe looks like a human
being standing with feet apart and the arms akimbo.72 In one
sllch conception the said form is figured as a 'rotating snindle which
rests on the half of another bigger spindle;73 01" as they describe
it, three cups, of which the lowest is inverted: and the uppermost
meets at its circumference the middle one.
74
In another such con-
ception. the said form is divided into three parts. the unper. mid-
dle and lower, the lower universe the shape of a VetTa-
sana '(trapezion pyramid)', the middle one that of the upper part
71. XII, 3, 4.
72. Cf. of the RV.
73. Kine!, KI, 210.
74. Colebrooke, ME, n, 198 .
. ; .. -
moor:
JOURNAL OF INDiAN HISTORY
of a standIng mrdanga (a kind of tabor) and the upper one that
of a mrdanga.
75
This has been explained as follows: "Three
Pyramids with rectangular base but with tops chopped off are put
one above another, the smaller faces of the lower and middle
ones and the bigger faces of the upper and middle ones touching
In the hip or according to another scheme at the
vibratory place of the spindle the disc of the earth is placed. Below
the earth are the hells and above it are the upper regions.
According to the Jain tradition the length of the universe varies
from point to point, but its height and breadth are respectively 14
and 7 rajjus. The rajju is a linear astrophysical measure which
denotes the expanse which the gods traverse in six months, their
speed being 2,057,152 Yojanas in one moment! The legs of the
human-shaped universe are 7 rajjus, the waist 1 rajju, the u.pper
portion 5 rajjus and the head 1 rajju, and all these measures
constitute 14 rajjus, the proposed measure of the height.71 The
entire area of the universe is 343 cubic rajjus.
78
. The world from
th,P ground level to the hells below, rests on a layer 'of hard water
rests on a layer of thick air and so on, 20,000 Yo;anas
thick. The Svetiimbara and Digambara traditions are not, how-
ever, same in regard to the description 'of the universe, but they
more or less similar.
Below the earth-disc are seven lower regions, containing mil-
lions of hells, one below the other. These are Ratnaprabha,
Sarkaraprabha. Valukaprabhii, Pailkaprabha, Dhumaprabha,
'famal,lprabha and Mahatamahprabhii. They are 'otherwise called
Dharma, 'VamSa, Saila, Afijana, Aristii, Madhavya and Miidhavi.
Above these seven regIons is the disc of the earth with its nume-
rous continents in concentric circles separated by rings of oceans.
Above the earth are situated the heavenly regions styled Vimanas
consis'ting of twelve kaZpas, viz., Saudharma, AiSana, Sanatkumara,
Mahendra. Brahmal.oka, Lantaka, MahaSukra, Sahasriira, Anata,
Prfu;tata, Arro,.a and Acyuta, the nine graiveyakas, i.e., the heavens
75. TiIoY4p41l1J4tti, I, 187-38.
76. Sircar, CGEIL, 46.
77. Kirfel, KI, 211
78. Dugar, ABS, ill, 221l fr.
-'.>.' 1-
13RAHMAiVICAL, BUDDHIST & JAIN COSMOGllAPHY OS
forming the neck of the hu.man-shaped universe, and five Anutta-
ras, viz., Vijaya, Vaijuyanta, Jayanta, Aparajita and Servartha-
siddha. Thus there are 26. heavens placed one above the other.
79
Above the highest. heaven called Sarvarthasidclha is situated
pragbhara, the place which is the final resort of aU the sottlS.
79a
The World
The conception of the earth was not quite intelligible everi
to the authors of the epico-puranic sections on cosmography. It
should ruso be pointed out that the cosmographical sections .espe-
cially in the Purfu},as often contain confused and conflicting state-
ments. Thus sometimes in the same work, e.g., in the Vayu
Purii1J.a, thl:! earth is described as consisting of four island-conti-
nentsas well as seven such continents.
so
It appears that origi-
nally the earth was conceived as consisting of four-island-conti-
nents and this conception was probably based upon the notion of
the cardinal points. In course of time the seven-continent theory
regarding the composition of the world became m());e popular. The
PuriiI].as conceived of the earth as having its centre on Mount
Meru or Sumeru as consisting of seven concentric island conti-
nents, each surrounded by a sea of equal area and .Being double
the size of thl:! precedi'ng name in the list, the first of them measur-
ing one hundred thousand YOjanas in extent. The names of the
said seven island-continents (dvipb:) are Jambu, SaImali,
Kusa, Krauiica, saka and while they are surrounded res-
pectively by seven seas of salt,. sugarcane juice, wine, clarified
butter, curds, milk and water. The second continent is double
the size of the first continent, the third of the second, the fGUrth
of the third, and so forth. But there is diversity in the Purfulic
tradition in respect of the order of the dvipas and their names,
their subdivisions and their extent, and other particulars. As for
example in the Matsya
S1
and Padma Purii:1].fls,82 the dvipas are
79. Jacobi in ZDMG, LX.
79a. Utt4riidhyiiY4'11.4, XXXVI, 57-62.
80. XXX1II, '\ 24, 31; XXXIV, 7, 46, 55-56; XLI, 83, 85, 86; XLII, 79-aO'
Cf. Brahmiil'l4a, LIII, 14Q. ._ '
81. Cbs. 122-23.
82. Svargakha1lija., IV.
['I
I
.' '. ' ..
JOtiRlVAL OF INDIAN MiSTOn'S!
mentioned in the following order: Jambu, Saka, KuSa,
Sahnali, Gomeda (for and Pul;kara. This divergence even
attracted the notice of Al-BirUni
83
and Abul Fazl.
84
According to the Puranic tradition Priyavrata, son of Vaivas-
vata Manu allotted the seven island continents to his seven sons.
Each of them in: his turn, subdivided the islands and handed them
over to his son and thus the subdivisions were all named after the
grandsons of Priyavrata to whom they were allotted.
85
The is double the size of the J ambu which is
one hundred thousand Yoja7UL8 in area. It has seven mountain
ranges-Gomeda, Candra, Narada, Dundubhi, Somaka, Sumanas
and seven rivers-Anutapta, Sikhl, Vipasa, Tri-
diva, Krumu, Amrta and Sulqtii. Its population is divided into
four classes, viz. Aryaka, Kuru, VivllpSa and Bhavin. The
Siilmali-dvipa has seven mountain ranges called Kumuda, Unnata,
Balabaka, Dro!}.a, Kanka, and Kakudmat and seven rivers,
viz., Yom, Toya, Candra, Sukla, Vimocani and Nivrf;ti.
Its population is also divided into four classes viz., Kapila, ArUJ;l.a,
Pita The KuSa-dvipa has seven mountain ranges,
(Vidurma, HemaSaila, Dyutimat, Pw;;pavat, Ku5ciaya, Hari and
Mandaracala), seven rivets (Dhiitapapa, Siva, Pavitra, Sammati,
Vidyut, Ambha and Mahi) and four types of peoples (Damin,
Sneha and Mandeha). The Kraunca-dvipa has seven
mountains (Kraunca, Vamana, Andhakaraka, Devavrf;, Pu:Q.<;larika-
vat, Dundubhi and Maha5aila) and seven rivers (Gauri, Kumud-
vati, Sandhya, Riitri, Manojava, and PuaQ:arika). The
Sakadvipa has seven mountains (Jaladhara, Raivataka, Syama,
Astagiri, Ai'icikeya, Rrullya and KeSarin) , seven rivers (Sukumari,
Kumar!, NalinI, Dhenuka, Venuka and Gabhasti) and four
classes of inhabitants (Mrga, Magadha, Manasa and Mandaka.
What we know of is that it has a mountain called
Manasottara and, strangely enough, no river. People here live for
10,000 years. Beyond the ocean encircling the Pw;;karadvipa is
a golden land surrounded by a mountain range called Lokaloka.
85a
83. AI, I, 236.
84. Jarret, AA, m, 32.
85. Vdyu, xxxm.
85a. Sircar, CGEIL, 49-50.
BRAHMANICAL, SUbDHtST & JAIN COSMOGRAPHY 57
Raychaudhuri "The of dvipas in
the extant Purl].as marks them out as'thIngs of falry-landd cTom
h
-
bI
e to the Isles of the Blessed or the S.panish El-Dora o. e
para f ch .
conception of the earth as the aggregate 0 su concentrIc
very . yth 1 "86 Th h
. lands surrounded by seas IS pure m OlOgy. oug appa-
:ently imaginary, still a vague knowledge of the territories of
Western Asia and Northern Africa is reflected by a few of the
names. It is interesting that a Puranic passage quoted by AI-
Birfmi locates the Pu'?karadvipa between Cina and Mangala
(China and Mongolia).87 The Magaa. of
dvlpa point to the identification of the saId island continent WIth
modern Seistan, the Easiern Iran, which was known as Sakastan
in the ancient and Sigistan in the Mediaeval times. The Magi
priests brought thence their Mithra or Mihira cult into India
where they came to be known as the Maga or sakadvipI Brah-
manas88 In the same way, the KuSadvipa may be identified with
the land of the K\lShiya peoples mentioned in the Achae-
menian inscriptiotls.
89
We have already referred to the conflicting PuriiJ}.ic concep-
tions about the earth consisting of four or seven island continents.
Of the two ideas, the four-continent theory seems to be earlier.
The number four associating the continents with the four direc-
tions (N:SE.W.) is natural, while seven was a conventional num-
ber favoUl'ed by the people.
90
The conception of the earth con-
sisting of four islands is found in the Buddhist literature. These
j:sland-cmttiRe1rls are the abudes of mankind.91 As we have stated
atxwe, atteJorWng to the Buddhist cenceptien, in the middle Of
the Kii:n.canaWk1lmi .standsm,.etmt Meru, othenme called Burnet'll,
Hemameru, Mah5.merU and Sineru, encircled ..by eight .chaa,.s of
mountains.lIz The first seven are called Yugandhara, isadhara,
Karavika, Sudarsana, Nemindhara, Vinataka and ASvakar!}.a
lJ3
while the eight (of iron) are situated at the very edge of the system.
.ss. SiA, iiB.
87. Sac.1tau, AI, I, Z61.
SS. Bhandarkar, VSMRS, 153; Raychaudhuri, SIA, 68-69.
89. Sircar, GMAI, 163-64.
90. Cf. VI, IT 424.
91. See Hardy, MB, 4, 14; LTB, 85.
92. Each CakTaoola or Lokadh1itu or 'small universe' has its own MfJru.
9:1. Malalasekera, DPPN, il, 1136.
J. S
".' l'
JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
In the 'exterior' ocean are the four Mahadvipas or island-
equidistant from one another. The northern among
them 1S called Uttarakuru, the sou,them Jambudvlpa, the eastern
Videha and the western Apara-G>dana. Moreover, there
are eight Upa-dvipas Deha, Videha, Camara, Apacamara, Satas,
Uttaramantrin, Kuru and Kaurava. The Uttarakuru continent
which is the largest, is situated in the north. It is oblong in
and 8,000 Yojanas in perimeter. Men live here for 2,000 years
having a height of 32 cubits. It is the kingdom of Kuvera or
VaiSraval].a with his capital at Alakamanda and citadel at Visana.94
Piirva-Videha is 6350 Yojanas in perimeter. It looks like
mClon. Here the inhabitants live for 250 years; they are 8 cubits
in height.
95
means Western Pastuarage. It is
cular in shape the circumference being 7,500 Yojanas. Here men
live for 500 years and their height is 16 cuhits.
96
At sunrise in the
Jambu-dvJpa it is midnight in Apara-Godana and at sunset in the
latter is midnight in the former; while at sunrise in Apara-Godana
is noon in Jambu-dvipa, sunset in Piirva-Videha and mid-night
In Uttarakuru. The Buddhist conception of Jambudvipa will be
discussed in the next section.
Uttarakuru is common to both the Buddhist and Puranic
lists, and so is also Jambudvipa. We have seen that later Vedic
literature places Uttarakufu beyond the Himavat apparently in
the region of Central Asia. The name Ottorokorha is mentioned
in Ptolemy's Geography97 and thus it has a somewhat historical
basis. The name Piirva-Videha means Eastern Videha which was
situated in North Bihar. The Buddhists horrowed this name pro-
bably because the Buddha was born in that region.
According to the Jain tz:adition, above the lower re-
gions mUlions of hells' is the disc of earth consisting
of _seven continents: Jambudvipa, Dhataki, V-aruz;Uvara,
Ghrtavara and These are surrounded
respectively by seven oceans: Lavanoda K"10da PusH:
_ _ , Ql , aroaa,
Ghrtoda and It appears that
94. Ibid., S.v. Uttb:ra'kuru.
95. Ibid., s.v. Pubbavideha.
96. Ibid., s.v. Aparagoda1l4.
97. VI, 16, 3.
BRAHMANICAL, BUDDHIST & JAIN COSMOGRAPHY 59
originally the Jain authors thought of only seven island continents,
the number being gradually increased by later writers. The
Tiloyapa'T}7]atti98 speaks 'Of 16 inner and 16 'Outer islands forming
the earth and each of them has an ocean beyond it. the
seven isIand-continents mentioned above the following inner islands
are mention,;din the said NandiSvara, Arult-avara, AruI}a-
bhasa, KUl)..Q.alavara, Sailkhavara, Rucakavara, Bhujagavara, KuSa-
vera and Krauncavara. The last two names are borrowed from
the PuraI)ic lists. The 16 'Outer islands are Manal;tSila, HaritaIa,
Sindfua, Syfuna. Afijahavara. Hiligula, Riipya, Kaficanaka, Vajra-
vara, Vaidurya, Nii.gavara, Bhiitavara, Devavara, Ahin-
dravara, and Svayambhiiramal,la. In later Jain works more names
were added. ::.'Uch as Artll}.a, Artll}.avara, Artll}.avaravabhasa,
KUI).1;1alavara, saiJ.khavara,
sankhavaravabhii.sa, Rucaka, Rucakavara, Rucakavaravabhasa,
Hara, Haravara, Haravaravabhasa, Kanakavali, Kanakavalivara,
Kanakavalillaravabhasa, Ratnavali, Ratnavalivara, Ratnavalivara-
vabhiisa, Mukutavali, Mukutavalivara, Mukutavalivaravabhasa,
Ajina, A5inavara. Ajinavaravabhasa, Siirya, Siiryavara, Suryavara-
vabhasa, Deva .. Naga, Bhuta, Svayambhiirama:r;ta and so on.
99
Note how the number of the island continents is arbitrarily in-
creased by suffixing the expressions Vara and Varavabhiisa.
Jambudvipa
According to the Purro;uc c'onception Jambudvipa is one of
the seven island continents constituting the world. It is the con-
tinent in which India is situated.
loo
Jambudvipa, also called
SudarSanadvlpa, is described as 'low on the south and north and
highly elevated in the middle.'lOl Both the names are derived
from a Jambu tree the branches 'Of which are often said to have
extended over a space of 100 yojanas.
102
Sometimes it is supposed
to be shaped like a lotus with mount Meru on its Karr].ika or
pericarp and the entitled BhadrliSva, Bharata, Ketumala
98. V. 11-26.
99. Cf. Kirfel, KI, 253-61.
100. JambudvIpa is sometimes identified with or India proper.
101. Miirka,1J4eya, LlV, 12 f.
1{12. Mat,ya, CXIV, 74-65; Brahmii7J4a, XXXVII, 28-34; L. 25-26; Mbh.,
VI, 5, 13-16.

I
I
I
''l- .c,'
6t! JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
and Uttarakuru as its four petals.
103
The elevated central region
oi the Jambudvipa is styled llavrtaval'{!a or There
are three (Ramyaka, HiraI}Ill8ya and Uttarakuru) to the
north and thrce (Bharata, and Hari) in the south .or
the division called lticru.
105
To these seven, two other 'Va-roJas,
Bhadrasva to the east and KetumaIa to the west, appear to have
been added.
lOO
Jambudvipa is circular in shape so that the nor-
thernmost and southernmost var{las, Uttarakuru and Bharata, are
each shaped like a bOW.
107
The Ramyaka-var'i'a is also called Ramar).aka
108
and Nila
1Q9
and
it is sometimes placed to the north-west of Meru.
110
Hira1,lIIlaya
which is occasionally located to the south-east of Meru
lll
is also
called H"U'aJ;lvat;1l.Z sveta. or Sukla.
113
Uttarakuru is also called
SrlJ:gavat1l4 and Airavata
1l5
while the names Hima,116 Haima-
vata
1l7
and Ajanabha often applied to Bharata. Again Kim-
is likewise called Hemakuta
1l8
and Haimavata1l9 and Han
is occasionally mentioned as and placed to the south
west of Meru.l2l Badrasva is sometimes called MaJ.yavat
l22
Piirva-
dvipa123 or SuparSvaUoi while KetumaIa is given the name Gandha-
103. XLIV, 41; Lv, 20 f; etc.
11)4. Brahm.ii"{lda, XXXV, 22; Miirka"!4eya, LX, 7.
105. Mataya. CXIII 7, BTahmii1J4a, XXXV, 24-28; Mbh., VI,. 6, 53; etc.
106. Matsya, cxrv, 85; Brahmii"!4a, XXXIV, 48; XXXV. 7.
107. Mbh., VI, 6, 38; Matsya, cxm, 32; Brahmii"!4a, XXXV, 33.
108. Mbh., VI, 2; Ma(sya, Cxm, 68.
109. Brahmii1J4a. XXXIV, 36.
110. Ga'MLda, LV, 3.
111. Ibid., LVI, I.
112. Mbh., VI, 8, 5; Maf.o.-ya, cxm, 64.
113. XXXIV, 46; Agni, CVII, 7.
114. Brahmii1J4a, XXXVJr, 47.
115. Mbh., VI, 6, 37.
116. Brahmii1J4a, LXXXiV, 44 fr.
117. Ibid., XXXV, 40.
118. Ibid., XXXIV, 44.
119. Mbh., VI, 6, 7.
120. Brahmii1J4a, XXXIV, 45.
121. Garut,ia, LV, 2.
122. Brahmii'l.'4a, XXXIV, 47.
123. Ibid., XLV, 24.
124. Agni, Cvm, 11.
BRAHMANICALj Bi,JDDmS{EI & JAIN COS.MOGRAPHY
. Jlladana.
lZ5
Mountain range$, ealled separate any
two of the VaT{las lying to the south and north of Meru. Thus the
Hima'Vat stands between Bharata and KimpUl'Ullla, the Hemakuta
between Kimpurl.l;;a and Hari
1
the between Had and 1Ia-
vrta, the Nila betweell na.vrta and Ramyaka, the 8'Veta between
Ramyaka al1.d Hiral}Inaya and the Srngin or Srnga'Vat between
and Uttarakuru.
l26
Accoramg to the Euddhist conception, Jambudvipa, also eall.
ed Jambusm;t9.ha.l
27
d&rives its name from the Jambu tree (also
called niiga) which grows there. Its trunk is 15 Yojcinas in girth,
its outstandii:tg brancheE 50 YOjanas in length and its height 100
yojanas. Jambudvipa looks like a chariot. The continent is
10,000 Yojanas in extent of which 4,000 are covered by the sea
and 3,000 each are occupied by the Himavat range and by human
habitation. Here men live for 100 years and their height is bet-
ween 3.50 and 4 cubits. The number of the cities in the Jambu-
dvipa during Asc5ka's reign was 84,000, and, in each one of them,
he built a monastery. The 13uddhas and Cakrava.rtins are only
born in this dvipaY!8
According to the Jain conception the central continent is
Jambudvipa which covers half of the continental ring. Its dIameter
is 100,000 Yojanas, and its total area, 316,227 YOjanas 3 gavyuta., 128
dhanus and nearly 14 a'1igulos. JamQudvipa is surrounded by some
sort of wall, 8 Y o;anas in height. At the base it is 12 Y ojanas wide
and' at the pinnacle it is four. It is built by stone slabs. each
lh Yo;ana in height and 500 dhanus in breadth, and decorated by
diamonds. In the middle of the wall there is a lotus-shaped pillar
(padmavara-Vedika), * YOjana in height, and 500 dnanus in
breadth. This pillar is made by precious articles. The base is
made of diamond, the supports of Ri{lta, the beams of gold bars,
and the bolts of 'rubies. Bey<?nd this pill1jl" is situated the paradise
garden, so large and beautiful that only Indra can think of it. The
wall has four gates, Vijaya, Vaijayanta, Jayanta and Apariijita, the
fitrst gate being. in the east. The gates are all square, S YOjanas in
125. Brahmii1J4a, XXXIv. 48.
126. Raychaudhuri, SM, 89.
127. A1igutta.1'a; IV,
128. Malalasekera, DPPN, s.v . Ja.mbutWipw.
62 JOURNAL OF INDIAN HISTORY
height, width and length respectively. The eastern gate Vijaya
is at the mouth of the river Sita, while Jayanta, the western, at the
mouth 'of the sitoda. Each gate is protected by a semi-divine being.
,!: The entire Jambudvipa is divided by six mountains from which
are created seven unequal divisions or zones. The mountains ru:e
called Varfaparvata or Kulaparvata, the designating terms being
surely adopted from the Brahmanical Pur5J:},as. The land divisions,
thus created out of the mountains, are called Varfa or i4etra. The
names of the mountains, stretching from south to north,' are
Himavat, $ikharin, Mahahimavat, Rukmin, and Nlla. The
Himavat and the Siharin are made of gold, the Mahahimavat and
the Rukmin of silver, and and Nila of Beryle. The breadth
and height of these mountains are calculated having taken the
southernmost zone or Varsa as the measuring unit. The measure-
ments are given in in the Jambudvipaprajiiapti and in the
Trailokyadipika. The southernmost or zone being the first,
the second is its double, the third redouble and so on. The height
of the Himavat being 100 Yojanas, that of other mountains should
be calculated according to the same process.
. Each m01J.ntain range has a number of peaks. The Hlmavat
and the Sikharin contain eleven and the rest nine peaks each.
Every mountain has at itS first or eastern summit a temple known
as Siddhiiyatana or Siddhakuta, and that of the Himavat is
50 YOjanas long, 50,broad and 35 high, and taking this as the unit
of measurement the area of other Siddhayatanas can easily be
calculated according the process mentioned above. Every moun-
tain has in its middle a vast lake and that which lies in the middle
of the Hiinavat is know as Pauma or Padma. Its length is 100
Yojanas, breadth 500 and depth 10, the banks being made of silver,
the ,surrQunding wall, of diamond-decked stone, and the bottom of
gold. fu the middle of the lake rises up a big lotus,' one" Yojana
in diameter, which is the abode of the goddess sri. Around it
there are several lotus rings.
The JambudvIpa is watered by 14 big rivers. Of these the
Ganga, the Sindhu and the Rohita flow from the aforesaid, Padma
lake on the mount Himavat, the RohitfupSii and the Harikrantii
from the Mahiipadma lake on the Mahahimavat, the Harita and the
sitodii from the Tmgiccha lake on the the Slta and the
Nari from the Kesarin lake on the Nila, the Narakanta aria the
BRAHMANICAL, BUDDHIST & .tAIN COSMOGRApHY 63
Rupyakiila from the Mahilpu1J4arika lake on the Rukmin, and the
suvarnakiila, the Raktii and the Raktoda from the PuWaTika lake
on the Sikharin. The courses of all the rivers are similar.1
Z1l
The
Jain writers who apparently depended on the Puranic conception
of Jambudvipa held that it was divided into seven which
were Bharata (not Bharata), Airavata, Haimavata, Hari,
vata, Ramyaka and Videha, Airavata, the central town of which
is Vidyadhara and which is watered by the Raktii and Raktoda,
stands next to Bharata, if viewed from the southern corner of the
Jambudvipa. Haimavata, watered by the Rohita and
lies to the north of Himavat. Its central mountain is called Sabdii-
patio HairalJ.yavata, the central mountain of which is Malayavat
or MaIavanta and which is watered by the SuvanJ,akUla and Riipya-
kiila, lies to the south of the Sikharin. Harivan;a also contains a
mountain called Vikatapati and it is watered by the Harita and
Harikranta. Likewise in the centre of the Ramyaka is
situated the mountain called Gandhiipati and it is watered by the
Narakanta and Niiri,130 The middle most and the biggest
is Videha at the centre of which stands Mount Meru or Mandara,
which has 16 names. In the north of Meru, between the Gandha-
madana 1U1d Malayavat is the Uttarakuru country and in the south,
between the Saumanasa and Vidyutprabha is Devakuru. In the
east of Meru lies PUrva-videha and, in the west, Aparavideha.
These four divisions contain a number of provinces, each having
a town, a number of mountains and a few rivers.131 Bharatavar.jla
or India proper lies to the south of Himavat.
AA
ABS
AI
AV
CBS
CGEIT.,
ABBREVIATIONS
= A'in-i-Akbari.
= Aclirya Smrtigrantha,
= Al-Birtini'$ India,
Atharvaveda.
Catena of Buddhist Scriptures.
= Cosmography and Geography in Early Indian Literature.
129. Kirfel, XI, 214-21.
130. Four mountain ranges issue from Mountain Meru: Saumanasa (S,E.),
Gandhamadana (N.W.), Ma}ayavat (N.E.) and Vidyutprabha (S.W.).
131. Kirfel, Kl, 229-42.
6444= ;a
(14 JOURNAL OF iNDiAN HISTORY
1m = -Dialogu-es of Buddha.
DPt. = Dictionary of Pall Language.
DPFN
GAM!
HER
JAOS
JPTS
KI
L'l1B
'OST
PSP
SIA
VI
VS
VSMRS
VP
mMG
Dictionary of Pall Proper Names.
= Geography of Ancient and Medieval India.
=.: Handbook of Egyptian Religion.
=.: Journal of American Oriental Society.
=.: Journal of Pali Tripitaka Society. 0
= Kasmographic der Inder.
=.: Legends and Theories of the BuddhiBts.
= Original Sanskrit Texts.
= Pre-Socratic Philosophy.
= Studies in Indian Antiquities.
= Vedic Index.
=.: Vajasaneyi SaIphita.
= Vaishnavism and Minor Religious Systems.
=.:
= 0 Zeitschrift der Deutschesn Morgen.landischen Gesellschaft.
Agricultural Indebtedness and Alienation of Land
BY
V. C. BauTANI
I
In India a statement relating to rights and interests in land
has to be qualified by numerous exceptions and reservations untU
it resolves itself into a compendious description of a variety of
systems of land revenue and land tenure prevalent in the difIerent
provinces. In areas under Indian rulers there were two fonus of
rights in land, namely, first, where an individual collected revenues
due to the state in consideration of payment of a fixed sum to the
state, and, second, where an individual held land on payment of
land revenue direct to the state or to the person holding the first
form of right. Under the first form of right a farmer paid to the
state "something less than the average amount of his net collec-
tions". Originally this only amounted to an agency for collection
of revenue and was not opposed to the transfer of this right. Under
the second form of right the cultivator himself paid revenue and
cultivated land, but only so much was left to him aiter the pay-
ment of rent to the landlord or 0 of revenue to the state that it
barely sufficed tb "enable and encourage him to continue it". The
transfer of rights of the second form was infrequent. Where land
was held directly under the state it was to be had for the asking
and held against payment of revenue. Transfers outside the circle
of agnates were rare and both Hindu law and Muslim law were in
spirit opposed to them. In practice it was more so because culti-
vation as a profession only served to keep the cultivator alive.
Transfers were not uncommon in cases where land was cultivable
only after improvements 0 for which the state limited its demand
and which the cultivator had the right to transfer. The right to
transfer improvements governed also the rights in land which was
useless without the improvements. The creditor havIng acquired
the right to improvements did not, however, ipso facto acquire the
right to land: what passed into his hands was only the produce
J.9
o.