LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

The Impact of Life Coaching on the Academic Performance and Completion Rate of Community College Students with Disabilities Miguel A. Llovera Da Corte Oklahoma State University

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

Abstract The following research proposal studies the impact of life coaching on the academic performance and completion rate of community college students with disabilities. Multiple researchers have attempted to investigate if there is a relationship among the three variables and have found that when students with disabilities participate in a coaching program their selfdetermination, autonomy, motivation, and competency levels increase. Therefore, those students that are self-determined and autonomous, for example, tend to perform better in academics and achieve a more stable completion rate. In analyzing the effects of life coaching on students academic performance and completion rate, the Learning and Strategies Studies Inventory (LASSI) will be administered to randomly selected students registered with the Education Access Center (EAC) at Tulsa Community College (TCC). When administering the LASSI, emphasis will be placed the on affective and goal strategies latent constructs of the instruments as they, based on previous studies, appear to be key predictors of academic performance and completion rate. The cumulative grade point average (GPA) of the students participating in the research will also be examined twice during a regular 16-week semester. One of the possible limitations of this study is that, given the changing nature of human beings, some of the students that may be selected to participate in the study may be affected by life crises and therefore be unable to complete the life coaching sessions scheduled throughout the semester. Another limitation of the study is that life coaching is a relatively new trend being used to model, mentor, and monitor the academic performance of students with disabilities. Consequently, more research is needed when it comes to selecting a reliable tool to measure academic success. Keywords: academic performance, completion rate, life coaching, self-determination

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

The Impact of Life Coaching on the Academic Performance and Completion Rate of Community College Students with Disabilities The topic of this research involves the impact of life coaching on the academic performance and completion rate of community college students with disabilities. Multiple researchers have attempted to investigate if there is a relationship between the two variables. Even though life coaching is seen as a new intervention to aide students with disabilities as they navigate the world of post-secondary education, investigators posit that positive outcomes derive from students participating in such programs. According to Swartz, Prevatt, and Proctor (2005), students with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder experience empowerment in their academic and personal life when they participate in life coaching sessions. This claim is supported by the fact that during multiple sessions with a life coach, individuals are taught how to organize, plan, and execute academic tasks. Along with this belief about the positive relationship among life coaching and academic performance and completion rate, Parker and Boutelle (2009) posit that first-time students tend to display severe anxiety, low self-determination, and poor goal-setting skills during their first semester. These deficiencies can be remediated by allowing students to form partnerships with mentors and life coaches, who in turn, will assist students in reducing the limitations that negatively affect the students executive function levels. When students display low executive functional levels, their academic performance and completion rates suffer dramatically. Although there are numerous resources available for students with disabilities at the community college level, one-on-one mentoring through life coaching can influence the scores students can achieve on a test. Bangert-Drowns, Kulik, and Kulik (1983) affirm that coaching effects on achievement tests were a clear function of the length of the coaching programs. In

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

other words, the longer the life coaching sessions are, the higher the likelihood of students successfully earning a passing grade. The sense of accomplishment increases the students selfefficacy and confidence; thus, motivating the student to complete a college degree. In a study conducted at Landmark College with 54 students with disabilities, results showed that, the majority of the students who voluntarily participated in a life coaching pilot program were able to perform better in their academics after learning to assume full responsibility for their own self-management, while responding to the greater self-regulatory demands inherent to postsecondary settings (Parker et al., 2009, p. 212). Though there is evidence to assert that life coaching has a positive effect on academic performance and completion rate of college students with functional needs, additional research needs to be conducted to determine if after students complete their college degree they are able to coach themselves. The main problem of interest that is being investigated in this research is that, based on statistics from the Institutional Research and Planning Department at TCC, students with disabilities, registered with the EAC at TCC are not meeting TCCs academic requirements in terms of academic performance and completion rate (G.P.A > 2.0, completion rate above 67%). Several factors are considered to be the main determinants of this problem: some of these students are the first generation in their families pursuing a degree, are low-income, and have had few opportunities to be in a diversified, structured learning environment. If students with disabilities are properly equipped with the resources that they need to become independent and employable citizens, there is a higher chance of them performing above the minimum academic standards and graduating from TCC with an associates degree within 2.5 years. Ensuring that students are motivated and engaged in educational programs can also lead to an increase in the colleges retention rates.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

The purpose of this research is to investigate how a life coaching program can assist community college students with disabilities in increasing their levels of self-determination, competence, and autonomy as they navigate the world of post-secondary education, thus allowing them to attain higher and more stable academic performance. According to Grant (2003), life coaching is defined as a collaborative solution-focused, result-orientated and systematic process in which the coach facilitates the enhancement of life experience and goal attainment in the personal and/or professional life of [] clients (p. 254). Biswas-Diener (2009) defines personal coaching as a relatively new and unlicensed profession aimed at helping functioning individuals set and achieve goals, overcome obstacles, and maintain motivation (p. 544). Biswas-Diener (2009) explains that through personal coaching, individuals identify learning opportunities and define goals that facilitate personal and professional growth. Many of the previous quantitative research studies done on this topic used the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI), the Self-Determination Student Scale (S-DSS) or similar Likerttype scales to gauge the impact of life coaching on the academic performance and completion rate of students with disabilities (Parker et al., 2009; Swatrz et al., 2005; DiPerna, 2006). Many statistical instruments can be used to measure students academic performance. However, Kendricks, Nedunuri, and Arment (2013), state that academic performance encompasses the students grade point average (GPA) as well as the number of credit hours in which students are enrolled during a particular semester. Literature Review Previous psychological studies have analyzed and evaluated the impact that life coaching has on individuals including those diagnosed with emotional or physical disabilities. Although different researchers highlight particular aspects of life coaching, this review will focus on three

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

major themes which emerge constantly throughout the literature reviewed. These themes are: autonomy, motivation, and self-determination as variables affected by life coaching, life coaching as a tool to enhance academic performance and retention rates of community college students with disabilities, and self-regulation and goal oriented behavior as projected outcomes from participation in a life coaching program. Autonomy, motivation, and self-determination as variables affected by life coaching Recently, Parker and Boutelle (2009) evaluated the impact of life coaching on the academic success of seven (7) students diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and/or learning disabilities (LD). Significant findings from the study reflected that students that work consistently with a life coach are more self-confident and independent after they successfully complete their college career. It is believed that life coaching adds more value to the students college experiences compared to the value generated by other student services offices (Parker et al., 2009). Spence and Grant (2007) suggest that life coaching can be used with individuals with different types of disabilities. In their study, 25% of the volunteers that benefited from their peer coaching program exhibited different types of psychopathologies. These findings allowed them to conclude that life coaching is being perceived as a socially acceptable form of therapy, less tainted by the stigma of therapy or counseling (Spence & Grant, p. 192, 2007). In analyzing some of the difficulties that students with disabilities experience when it comes to decision making and goal setting, Wehmeyer (2001) posits that if life coaching strategies are used when teaching students with disabilities, then these individuals are more prone to acquire independent living skills that will facilitate their future personal and professional life. Pursuing this further, Wehmeyer (2001) states that when self-determination is

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE effectively included in instructional practices, students self-regulatory, self-realization, and motivation tend to improve significantly. Therefore, it is possible to assert that students with a higher level of motivation will be more self-directed and inclined to actively engage in goaloriented tasks. To support this statement, Webberman (2011) discovered that life coaching is a strategy that allows students, especially those with disabilities, to develop a sense of direction while they navigate the college system. This sense of direction is developed when life coaches connect students with their resources at the college level after they transfer from the K-12 system. Consequently, connecting students with their resources allows them to make better decisions, set specific goals, and prioritize time efficiently. Life coaching as an enhancer of academic performance One idea that is of relevance in this research is the study of the relationship between life coaching and academic performance. Many educators and professionals in the Educational Psychology field see coaching and peer mentoring as intervention strategies to positively shape

students academic enablers (DiPerna, 2006, p. 11), such as motivation, social and study skills, when these are deficient, especially in students with disabilities. Coaching is seen as an intervention and prevention strategy that aids students experiencing academic difficulties in their academic career. Sullivan, Matropieri, and Scruggs (1995) allege that when students are immersed in a coaching program, they tend to remember information more easily and generate sound expectations that correlate with the ones established by instructional specialists. Remembering information facilitates recall in those students with mild disabilities when their skills are tested. Sullivan et al. (1995) conclude that students with learning disabilities who were coached to generate their own explanations during training produced more explanations than

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

students who were in conditions either without explanations or with explanations that were provided on immediate measures (p. 320). Parker et al. (2009) give evidence that life coaching is a tool in assisting students, mostly those with disabilities, to develop personal and social strategies to succeed in college. Part of this success relies on the students abilities to construct short-term and long-term goals, balance personal skills, and apply critical thinking to solving academic and social problems. Coaching is highly effective in helping students with disabilities as it enhances their capacity to achieve goals and reduce the daily anxiety linked to the pursuit of academic success in a rigorous postsecondary setting (Parker et al., 2009, p. 10). Projected outcomes from participation in a life coaching program Another area of interest highlighted by researchers is that of self-regulation and goaloriented behavior as projected outcomes from participating in a life coaching program. Much of the research has been conducted at the community college level with participants that recently graduated from the K-12 system. Biswas-Diener (2009) compares life coaching to clinical psychotherapy. In the analysis, life coaching emerges as a better strategy in which coaches and clients can work together to assess and analyze the different obstacles that prevent individuals from achieving goals. Coaches can use positive self-talk techniques to encourage individuals to rise to their fullest potential when it comes to completing tasks and meeting deadlines. In analyzing some of the obstacles faced by students with disabilities while they navigate the world of post-secondary education, Swartz, Prevatt, and Proctor (2005) used the Learning and Study and Strategies Inventory (LASSI) to assess personal traits such as anxiety and motivation of students with attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder. Based on their findings, Swarts et al. (2005) categorized students with disabilities as an at-risk population with low self-

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

efficacy levels. As a means of assisting this at-risk population, life coaching is viewed as an alternative positive intervention for students to become more responsible when organizing their personal life and professional career. Grant (2003) posits that additional positive effects of life coaching are reflected in a better quality of life, less anxiety and depression episodes, and a more positive attitude. Both of these studies reflect that life coaching can facilitate goal attainment and personal and professional development for students with disabilities who struggle academically at the community college level. Field, Sarver, and Shaw (2003), in their qualitative research, explained how instructional practices, when delivered properly, can stimulate self-regulation and goal oriented behaviors in individuals with disabilities. Field et al. (2003) ponder that instructional specialists in higher education institutions are well-found to train faculty on how to be effective coaches when educating students with disabilities. This type of training can be enhanced if it involves different academic and personal strategies that assist students in becoming independent and employable citizens. Examples of strategies that promote self-determination and success for students with learning disabilities in post-secondary settings include using universal design principles when preparing and delivering instruction (Field et al., 2005, 347) and providing students with access to learning opportunities that facilitate the transference of skills. In this process, educators, whether classroom facilitators or life coaches, should learn that individuals with and without disabilities can attain self-determination when there is a match between individuals skills and the opportunities provided by their environments (Field, Martin, Miller, Ward, and Wehmeyer, p. 119, 1998). Based on the literature consulted throughout the development of this research proposal, one can assert that there is a positive correlation between life coaching and academic

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

10

performance and retention rates of community college students with disabilities. Webberman (2011) concludes from her study that life coaching is a strategy that allows students, especially those with disabilities, to develop a sense of direction while they navigate the college system. Life coaching connects students with their resources at the college level after they transfer from the K-12 system. Connecting students with their resources allows them to make better decisions, set specific goals, and prioritize their time efficiently. Furthermore, Field, Sarver, and Shaw (2003) analyzed the impact life coaching has on the levels of self-determination of students with disabilities and found a positive relationship between the levels of self-determination and grade point average. These researchers predicted that in order for students to be self-determined and self-efficacious, life coaches need to be resourceful role models who facilitate academic competence through the process of engaged learning. Statement of Hypothesis/Research Questions The current research attempts to answer the following questions, Is there a difference in academic performance and completion rate (as demonstrated by their GPA) between community college students with disabilities that participate in a life-coaching program versus those that do not participate, and if there is one, how large is the difference? Given that participants in this study will be completing the LASSI, is there a difference in the LASSI scores (pre-test and post-test) reported by students that participate in a life coaching program throughout a 16-week semester, and if so, how large is this difference? Based on the results from previous studies conducted in this field, I hypothesize that community college students with disabilities that participate in a life coaching program are far more likely to have a higher and more stable academic performance, in terms of GPA, than those students with disabilities that do not participate in this type of program.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

11

Theoretical Perspective In this study, Banduras social learning theory is used as a foundational framework to guide this research regarding the differences in academic performance and completion rate between community college students with disabilities that participate in a life-coaching program versus those that do not participate. Banduras theory is mainly concerned with how social experiences shape individuals behaviors in terms of cognitive and social development. One of the basic assumptions derived from Banduras theory is that individuals learn from their direct interaction with the context in which they develop. Bembenutty (2010), revealed that based on the social cognitive learning theory, individuals can be seen as unique entities with a guided set of principles, behaviors, and goals that prompt them to attain self-determination, competence, and autonomy. From Banduras perspective, it is through the environment that individuals become self-regulated and learn how to model their behaviors to respond to present and future conditions (1986). To illustrate this statement, Bembenutty (2010) uses an example from Zimmerman regarding self-regulated individuals stating that a student who would like to obtain a satisfactory final course grade will engage in planning study time more effectively, selfevaluation, monitoring (whether self-controlled or by an external agent), strategyimplementation monitoring, and strategic-outcome monitoring (p. 6). Parker and Boutelle (2009) made a relevant proposition to Banduras theory by explaining that his tenets can be easily represented in life coaching as it is an effective tool in assisting students, mostly those with disabilities, to develop personal and social strategies to succeed in college. Part of this success relies on the students abilities to construct short-term and long-term goals, balance personal skills, and apply critical thinking to solving academic and social problems. Based on empirical data, both Parker and Boutelle (2009) conclude that coaching is

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE highly effective in helping students with disabilities as it enhances their capacity to achieve

12

goals and reduce the daily anxiety associated with the pursuit of academic success in a rigorous postsecondary setting (p. 10). Parker and Boutelle (2009) state that coaching enhances students self-awareness about the impact of their executive function challenges and helps them develop new skills for overcoming these functional limitations (p. 10). By overcoming functional limitations, individuals furthering their education in a community college setting should be able to successfully adapt to school standards in terms of academic performance and completion rate. My research proposal focuses on the differences in academic performance and completion rate between community college students with disabilities that participate in a life-coaching program versus those that do not participate. Using Banduras social cognitive theory in life coaching can be seen as a proactive approach to goal attainment and personal and professional development, especially at the community college level where too many students with disabilities are failing courses and dropping out of school (Office of Special Education Programs, 2001). According to Banduras self-efficacy theory, if a person genuinely believes that he or she can be successful when trying to complete a particular task, then it is more likely that this person will do whatever is required to achieve his or her ultimate goal. If a student is continuously motivated and reinforced every time a positive behavior is exhibited, then the student will be able to capitalize on strengths and develop balancing and behavioral skills while achieving a higher quality of education. In contrast, one can hypothesize that if a student is not motivated either intrinsically or extrinsically, he or she will start doubting his or her capability of learning. Schunk (2012) asserts that self-concept is formed through experiences with and interpretations

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

13

of the environment and which depends heavily on reinforcements and evaluations by signicant others (p. 146). Consequently, utilizing life coaching can assist students in becoming selfregulated individuals with more confidence in their learning abilities. These individuals will consider themselves as self-efficacious and exhibit a better attitude towards schools, which eventually will translate to a higher academic performance (Schunk, 2012). Methodology The population examined for this study is composed of all the 1,880 students with disabilities registered with the Education Access Center (EAC) at Tulsa Community College (TCC). The student population includes male and female students who are categorized as either freshmen or sophomores. For this research proposal, a sample of 376 students will be used. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2012), suggest that if the population size is approximately 1,500, a representative sample should be 20%. Although the sample appears to be slightly larger, it is recommended to have a sample that includes the majority, if not all, of the students that can benefit from the treatment (IV = life coaching). By doing so, it is more likely that the research will yield sound conclusions regarding the impact of the independent variable on the students academic performance and completion rate. Individuals involved in this research include male and female students who are categorized as either freshmen or sophomores, and who may not be meeting TCCs academic requirements in terms of academic performance and completion rate (G.P.A > 2.0, completion rate above 67%). The predominant ethnicity is White/Caucasian. However, the sample will also include African Americans, Asian, and Hispanic students. The students in this research study will range from ages 18 to 50. Although the students socioeconomic status is not a variable of interest in this study, it is pertinent to note that, based on empirical evidence, most of the

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

14

community college students that attend Tulsa Community College depend on financial aid assistance. A matched stratified sampling is a feasible sampling method for this research proposal. The sampling method that has been selected will facilitate dividing the population into subgroups and compare their behaviors. Randomly selecting participants to each group will facilitate the assessment and evaluation of the effects of the independent variable on the two dependent variables of interest in this study. Random selection of the students will also give every participant a chance to be part of the control group or the group receiving the treatment. Gay, Mills, and Airasian (2012), state that if well selected and sufficiently large, the sample should closely represent the population (139). In terms of variables, the students academic performance and completion rate will be measured once students complete the Learning and Study Strategies Inventory (LASSI). The LASSI is a standardized, 10-scale instrument that includes 80 questions to assess students learning strategies. Three major psychometric constructs are present in this inventory: affective strategies, goal strategies, and comprehension monitoring strategies. The affective strategies involve the students time management skills, motivation, concentration and attitude. On the other hand, the goal strategies construct looks at the anxiety levels that students exhibit towards school, test strategies, and selection of main ideas. In terms of comprehension monitoring strategies, particular attention is paid to information processing, self-testing, and study aids. According to Cano (2006), the internal consistency and reliability of the LASSI was measured using Cronbachs Alpha. The validity of the LASSI was measured by administering the test to 527 college students representing different faculties (divisions) from the University of Granada in Spain. The test was administered twice throughout the semester: at the beginning and

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

15

at the end of the academic year. For each question, students were prompted to give responses using a Likert-type scale, from 1 for not all like me to 5 very much like me (Cano, 2006). After scores were obtained, two-standard multiple regression analysis were conducted to establish a relationship among affective, goal, comprehension strategies and academic performance. The analysis revealed that the first two latent constructs assessed by LASSI, affective strategies and goal strategies, were statistically significant predictors of students academic performance in both samples (Cano, pp. 1035 & 1036, 2006). Weinstein, Schulte, and Palmer (1987), as cited in Cano (2006), revealed that coefficients for the internal reliability of the LASSI ranged from a low of .68 to a high of .86, and testretest correlations ranged from .72 to .85 (Swartz et al., 2005). These reliability and correlation scores are compatible with the ones presented in the LASSI Users Manual Handbook by Weinstein and Palmer (2002). The LASSI will be administered in the Education Access Center at Tulsa Community College, face-to-face, at the beginning of a regular 16-week semester. This test will be administered again under the same conditions one week before the semester is over (week 16) assuming that the students selected to participate in the study will start the coaching program at the same time. The cumulative GPA of the students participating in the research will also be examined before students start participating in the life coaching program and again during week 16 of the semester. Students GPA can be accessed through Tulsa Community Colleges portal (TED) or by simply asking students to bring a copy of their transcripts on the day the LASSI is administered for the first time. This data supports the research question established for this study and that is why it is important to collect twice throughout the semester to determine if there are any variations (increase) in the students performances and completion rates.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

16

Analysis of Data For this research proposal, I am studying the differences in academic performance between community college students with disabilities that participate in a life coaching program versus those that do not participate. A t-test for independent samples is a viable statistical method for addressing the research question: is there a difference in academic performance and completion rate (as demonstrated by their GPA) between community college students with disabilities that participate in a life-coaching program versus those that do not participate, and if there is one, how large is the difference? The literature suggests that in order to effectively use the LASSI, participating groups need to be formed by some type of matching: students that participate and those that do not participate in the life coaching program are registered with the EAC at TCC and have been diagnosed with a disability. A paired sample t-test will be used as a means of addressing the research question: is there a difference in the LASSI scores (pre-test and post-test) reported by students that participate in a life coaching program throughout a 16week semester, and if so, how large is this difference? For this particular study, I am interested in analyzing how the affective and goal strategies of students with disabilities are shaped by the coaching program, and how they impact academic performance. These two measures, along with the students GPAs, will be compared to the performance of those that did participate in the coaching program, and analyzed to explain the difference, if any, in the students academic performances.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

17

Conclusion One of the major limitations of this study is that, currently, it is uncertain how committed students will be to participate in a semester-long life coaching program. Additionally, given the changing nature of human beings, some of the students that may be selected for participation may be affected by life crises and therefore be unable to complete the program. Consequently, having students complete the LASSI just at the beginning of the semester and not at the end could deter the hypothesis testing. In the same way, if students are unable to complete a class or decide to drop out of school, the GPA calculation will not reflect the desired outcome on the students academic performance. Another limitation of the study is that life coaching is a relatively new trend being used to model, mentor, and monitor the academic performance of students with disabilities. Consequently, more research is needed when it comes to selecting a reliable tool to measure academic success. Future studies should also be conducted to examine how students who, after participating in a life coaching program, use the skills learned in a life coaching program while pursuing a baccalaureate degree. This research will aide administrators and faculty in obtaining a better understanding of the academic performance of students with disabilities and how important it is to provide this student population with accommodations. The provision of accommodations will aide students with disabilities in performing at the same level (or higher) as do students without disabilities. This study will also provide an avenue for TCC personnel to understand how the students levels of self-determination, autonomy and competence can be positively affected by a life-coaching program. This study should be of interest to higher education institutions, including TCC, as they are an avenue to promote excellence and student success. Developing and implementing a life coaching program at TCC will assist the students registered with the Education Access Center to

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

18

grow both personally and professionally while engaging in successful learning. Successful learning will be reflected in more students maintaining TCCs academic standards and completing an associates within 2.5 years.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

19

References Bandura, A. (1986). Social Foundation of Thought and Action. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall. Bangert-Drowns, R. L., Kulik, J. A., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1983). Effects of coaching programs on achievement test performance. Review of Educational Research, 53(4), 571-585. Bembenutty, H. (2010). Present and future goals: Perceived instrumentality of schoolwork. Psychology Journal, 7(1), 2-14. Biswas-Diener, R. (2009). Personal coaching as a positive intervention. Journal Of Clinical Psychology, 65(5), 544-553. Cano, F. (2006). An in-depth analysis of the learning and study strategies inventory (LASSI). Educational and Psychological Measurement, 66(6), 1023-1038. DiPerna, J. (2006). Academic enablers and student achievement: Implications for assessment and intervention services in the schools. Psychology In The Schools, 43(1), 7-17. doi:10.1002/pits.20125 Field, S., Martin, J., Miller, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer, M. (1998). Self-determination for persons with disabilities: A position statement of me division on career development and transition. Career Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21(2), 113-128. Field, S., Sarver, M. D., & Shaw, S. F. (2003). Self-determination. Remedial & Special Education, 24(6), 339-349. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. E., & Airasian, P. (2012). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications (10th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Grant, A. M. (2003). The impact of life coaching on goal attainment, metacognition and mental health. Social Behavior & Personality: An International Journal, 31(3), 253.

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

20

Kendricks, K. D., Nedunuri, K. V., & Arment, A. R. (2013). Minority student perceptions of the impact of mentoring to enhance academic performance in STEM disciplines. Journal Of STEM Education: Innovations & Research, 14(2), 38-46. Parker, D. R., & Boutelle, K. (2009). Executive function coaching for college students with learning disabilities and ADHD: A new approach for fostering self-determination. Learning Disabilities Research & Practice (Wiley-Blackwell), 24(4), 204-215. doi:10.1111/j.1540-5826.2009.00294.x Spence, G. B., & Grant, A. M. (2007). Professional and peer life coaching and the enhancement of goal striving and well-being: An exploratory study. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 2(3), 185-194. Sullivan, G. S., Mastropieri, M. A., & Scruggs, T. E. (1995). Reasoning and remembering: Coaching students with learning disabilities to think. The Journal of Special Education, 29(3), 310-322. Swartz, S. L., Prevatt, F., & Proctor, B. E. (2005). A coaching intervention for college students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Psychology In The Schools, 42(6), 647-656. doi:10.1002/pits.20101 Trainor, A. (2005). Self-determination perceptions and behaviors of diverse students with LD during the transition planning process. Journal Of Learning Disabilities, 38(3), 233-249. U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. (2013). The Condition of Education 2013 (NCES 2013-037). Retrieved from

http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=40

LIFE COACHING AND ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE

21

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs. (2001). The Comprehensive Planning Process for the IDEA Part D National Activities Program: Challenge and Opportunity [Data file]. Retrieved from

http://www.ed.gov/about/reports/annual/osep/2001/section-iv.doc Webberman, A. L. (2011). Academic coaching to promote student success: An interview with Carol Carter. Journal of Developmental Education, 35(2), 18-20. Wehmeyer, M. L. (2001). Assessment in self-determination: Guiding instruction and transition planning. Assessment for Effective Intervention, 26(4), 41-49.